Anticoccidial effects of herbal extracts on Eimeria tenella infection in broiler chickens: in vitro and in vivo study

Efficacy and safety of diclazuril nanoemulsion in control of Eimeria tenella in broilers

BACKGROUND

Nanotechnology has the potential to reduce drug dosage while increasing efficacy; thus, the current work intends to synthesize diclazuril nanoemulsion and assess its performance against experimental coccidiosis in broilers.

METHODS

Diclazuril nanoemulsion (DZN) was formulated and characterized by zeta seizer and zeta potential. The formulated DZN was evaluated in vivo against Eimeria tenella infected chicks. DZN and DZ were used in 2 programs; therapeutic and prophylactic. A total of 210 one-day-old broiler chicks were distributed equally into six groups. The controls were negative uninfected untreated and positive infected untreated (G1 & G2). Therapeutic groups (G3 & G4) treated by DZ and DZN after appearance of the clinical signs of coccidiosis and continued for 5 days. Prophylaxis groups (G5 & G6) received DZ and DZN at 3 days before challenge and continued for 5 days after infection. The treatments dosages were 10 mg/mL for DZ of commercial origin and 2.5 mg/mL for the prepared DZN. All groups (except negative control) orally infected then followed up for clinical signs of coccidiosis, mortality rate, oocysts count, performance, hematological and biochemical parameters in addition to histopathological lesions.

RESULTS

The therapeutic groups showed that both treated groups (DZ and DZN) revealed similar results including good body weight gain, a low lesion caecal score, a low daily and total oocyst shedding count, and a low mortality rate. Regarding the biochemical parameters, all parameters were affected during infection then restored after the 12th day post infection. However, in the prophylactic groups, showed mild clinical signs and the blood pictures and biochemical parameters were nearly like the control negative without infection.

CONCLUSION

DZN at a quarter dose of standard DZ produced the same outcomes as DZ at 10 mg/mL. Furthermore, DZN does not impair the typical safety of diclazuril in treated chicks.

Effects of Artemisia absinthium on broiler chicken coccidiosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Coccidiosis is a recurring disease in broiler flocks that causes significant economic losses. This study aims to evaluate the effect of Artemisia absinthium on coccidiosis in broilers through a systematic review and meta-analysis. The article selection process included a search from the year 2000 to February 2021, with no restrictions on country or geographical region. Our objective was met by only six studies, which underwent systematic review. The meta-analysis was conducted using the metafor package in R via RStudio (version 1.1.383; RStudio, Inc.). The systematic review indicates that in vivo studies have shown the effectiveness of various plant extracts (essential oil and methanolic extract) when administered in food or drinking water on the considered parameters (oocyst shedding, bloody diarrhoea, mortality rate, weight gain, conversion index, lesion score). Furthermore, in vitro studies demonstrated a positive impact on oocyst count, LC50 (lethal concentration), sporulation rate (%), and sporulation inhibition rate (%). The meta-analysis of the four studies included in this analysis revealed that the inclusion of A. absinthium extract resulted in a significant reduction in oocyst shedding (SMD = -1.64, 95% CI: -2.72 to -0.55; P < 0.0001). However, the effectiveness of A. absinthium extract was not as significant as that of antibiotics (SMD = 0.57, 95% CI: -0.19 to 0.95; P = 0.0032). Various forms of administration and extracts of A. absinthium have demonstrated antiparasitic activity against Eimeria spp, making them suitable as natural anticoccidial agents.

Anticoccidial and Antioxidant Activities of an Ethanolic Extract of Teucrium polium Leaves on Eimeria papillate-Infected Mice

Eimeria spp. are responsible for the economic loss of both domestic and wild animals due to coccidiosis, the most common parasitic disease. The resistance to currently available drugs used to treat coccidiosis has been proven. Medicinal plants that contain physiologically active phytochemicals have been widely used in traditional medicine. Teucrium polium leaf extract (TPLE) has been shown to exhibit pharmacological, antioxidant, and anticoccidial properties in different experiments. Here, our investigation focused on how T. polium leaf extract affected the way that Eimeria papillate caused intestinal injury in mice. Thirty-five male Swiss albino mice were divided into seven groups, as follows: group I: untreated and uninfected (negative control); group II: uninfected, treated group with TPLE (150 mg/kg b.w); and group III: infected untreated (positive control). Groups III-VII were orally administered 103 sporulated E. papillata oocysts. A total of 60 min after infection, groups IV-VI were treated for five successive days with 50, 150, and 250 mg/kg b.w TPLE, respectively, while group VII was treated with amprolium (120 mg/kg b.w.). The mice had been euthanized on the fifth day post-infection, and the jejunum tissues were prepared for histology and oxidative stress studies. A total of 150 mg/kg of TPLE was the most effective dosage, significantly decreasing oocyst output by about 80.5%, accompanied by a significant reduction in the number of developmental parasitic phases in jejunal sections. In addition, the decrease in the number of goblet cells in the jejuna of mice raised after treatment. Also, TPLE greatly diminished the body weight loss of infected mice. Moreover, our research proved that TPLE reduced oxidative damage due to E. papillata infection via decreasing intestinal malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO) levels and increasing reduced superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) levels. These results demonstrated that TPLE had potent anticoccidial properties. TPE's efficacy as a natural antioxidant has also been demonstrated in reducing oxidative stress and enhancing antioxidant systems to mitigate biochemical and histological changes in the jejunum caused by E. papillata.

Bioefficacy of dietary inclusion of Nannochloropsis oculata on Eimeria spp. challenged chicks: clinical approaches, meat quality, and molecular docking

Although anticoccidial drugs have been used to treat avian coccidiosis for nearly a century, resistance, bird harm, and food residues have caused health concerns. Thus, Nannochloropsis oculata was investigated as a possible coccidiosis treatment for broilers. A total of 150 1-day-old male Cobb broiler chicks were treated as follows: G1-Ng: fed a basal diet; G2-Ps: challenged with Eimeria spp. oocysts and fed basal diet; G3-Clo: challenged and fed basal diet with clopidol; G4-NOa: challenged and fed 0.1% N. oculata in diet, and G5-NOb: challenged and fed 0.2% N. oculata. Compared to G2-Ps, N. oculata in the diet significantly (P < 0.05) decreased dropping scores, lesion scores, and oocyst shedding. Without affecting breast meat colour metrics, N. oculata improved meat quality characters. At 28 days of age, birds received 0.2% N. oculata had significantly (P < 0.05) higher serum levels of MDA, T-SOD, HDL, and LDL cholesterol compared to G2-Ps. Serum AST, ALT, and urea levels were all decreased when N. oculata (0.2%) was used as opposed to G2-Ps. Histopathological alterations and the number of developmental and degenerative stages of Eimeria spp. in the intestinal epithelium were dramatically reduced by 0.2% N. oculata compared to G2-Ps. Molecular docking revealed a higher binding affinity of N. oculata for E. tenella aldolase, EtAMA1, and EtMIC3, which hindered glucose metabolism, host cell adhesion, and invasion of Eimeria. Finally, N. oculata (0.2%) can be used in broiler diets to mitigate the deleterious effects of coccidiosis.

Curcumin Supplementation Improves Growth Performance and Anticoccidial Index by Improving the Antioxidant Capacity, Inhibiting Inflammatory Responses, and Maintaining Intestinal Barrier Function in Eimeria tenella-Infected Broilers

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary curcumin supplementation on growth performance, anticoccidial index, antioxidant capacity, intestinal inflammation, and cecum microbiota in broilers infected with Eimeria tenella. A total of 234 one-day-old broilers were categorized into three treatments, with six replicates per treatment containing 13 broilers each. The three treatments included the control group, Eimeria tenella group, and Eimeria tenella + curcumin (200 mg/kg) group. The feeding trial lasted for 42 days, during which the broilers were orally administered with 0.9% saline or 5 × 104Eimeria tenella oocysts on day 14 of the study. On day 17 and day 21, one bird per replicate was selected for slaughtering. Results indicated an increased survival rate and anticoccidial index and improved productive performance in coccidia-infected broilers with curcumin supplementation. Furthermore, curcumin enhanced the serum antioxidant capacity in Eimeria tenella-infected broilers, evidenced by increased serum catalase activity (3d, 7d), as well as decreased malondialdehyde level (3d, 7d) and nitric oxide synthase activity (7d) (p < 0.05). Curcumin also improved intestinal inflammation and barrier function, evidenced by the downregulation of interleukin (IL)-1β (3d, 7d), TNF-alpha (TNF-α) (3d, 7d), and IL-2 (7d) and the up-regulated mRNA levels of claudin-1 (7d), zonula occludens (ZO-1; 3d, 7d), and occludin (3d, 7d) in the ceca of infected broilers (p < 0.05). Eimeria tenella infection significantly disrupted cecum microbial balance, but curcumin did not alleviate cecum microbial disorder in broilers infected with Eimeria tenella. Collectively, curcumin supplementation enhanced growth performance and anticoccidial index in Eimeria tenella-infected broilers via improving antioxidant ability and cecum inflammation without affecting cecum microbiota.

Management and control of coccidiosis in poultry - A review

Poultry coccidiosis is an intestinal infection caused by an intracellular parasitic protozoan of the genus Eimeria. Coccidia-induced gastrointestinal inflammation results in large economic losses, hence finding methods to decrease its prevalence is critical for industry participants and academic researchers. It has been demonstrated that coccidiosis can be effectively controlled and managed by employing anticoccidial chemical compounds. However, as a result of their extensive use, anticoccidial drug resistance in Eimeria species has raised concerns. Phytochemical/herbal medicines (Artemisia annua, Bidens pilosa, and garlic) seem to be a promising strategy for preventing coccidiosis, in accordance with the "anticoccidial chemical-free" standards. The impact of herbal supplements on poultry coccidiosis is based on the reduction of oocyst output by preventing the proliferation and growth of Eimeria species in chicken gastrointestinal tissues and lowering intestinal permeability via increased epithelial turnover. This review provides a thorough up-to-date assessment of the state of the art and technologies in the prevention and treatment of coccidiosis in chickens, including the most used phytochemical medications, their mode of action, and the applicable legal framework in the European Union.

Supplementing broiler diets with bacterial selenium nanoparticles enhancing performance, carcass traits, blood indices, antioxidant status, and caecal microbiota of Eimeria tenella-infected broiler chickens

Nanomedicine is a critical therapeutic approach for treating most poultry illnesses, particularly parasitic infections. Coccidiosis is a severe protozoan infection affecting poultry; the emergence of drug-resistant Eimeria strains demands the development of new, safe therapies. Consequently, the objective of this work was to investigate the efficacy of the biosynthesized selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) by Paenibacillus polymyxa (P. polymyxa) against Eimeria tenella (E. tenella) experimental infection in broiler chickens. The prepared SeNPs absorbed the UV at 270 nm were spherical with a size of 26 nm, and had a surface negative charge of -25 mV. One hundred and fifty, 1-day-old male broiler chicks were randomly allocated into 5 groups (30 birds/group with triplicates each) as follows: T1: negative control (noninfected and nontreated with SeNPs); T2: delivered SeNPs (500 µg/kg diet) for 35 successive days, T3: E. tenella-infected (positive control birds), T4: E. tenella-infected and treated with SeNPs (500 µg/kg diet) and T5: E. tenella-infected chicks and treated with anticoccidial agent (sulfadimidine, 16% solution 8 mL/L of drinking water) for 5 successive days. At 14 d of age, each bird in infected groups was orally treated with 3 × 103 sporulated oocyst of E. tenella. SeNPs considerably decreased the number of oocysts in broiler feces compared to positive control and anticoccidial drug, followed by a substantial reduction of parasite phase count in the cecum (15, 10, and 8 for meronts, gamonts, and developing oocysts) when compared with positive control birds. The Eimeria experimental infection lowered the activity of antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and reduced glutathione (GSH) while increasing the stress parameters nitric oxide (NO) and malonaldehyde (MDA). Moreover, the production of proinflammatory (TNF-α and IL-6) and apoptotic genes (BcL2 and Cas-3) were significantly elevated. Administrating SeNPs to chicks significantly decreased oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptotic markers in the cecum tissue. Therefore, growth performance, carcass weights, antioxidant enzymes, and blood properties of infected chicks were enhanced. The findings compared the protecting role of Se-nanoparticles against cecum damages in E. tenella-infected broilers.

Persea americana extract protects intestinal tissue from Eimeria papillata-induced murine Infection

Coccidiosis is the most prevalent disease-causing widespread economic loss among farm and domestic animals. Currently, several drugs are available for the control of this disease but resistance has been confirmed for all of them. There is an urgent need, therefore, for the identification of new sources as alternative treatments to control coccidiosis. The present work aimed to study the effect of the Persea americana extract (PAE) as an anti-coccidial, anti-oxidant, and anti-apoptotic modulator during murine intestinal Eimeria papillata infection. A total of 25 male mice were divided into five groups, as follows: Group1: Non-infected-non-treated (negative control), Group2: Non-infected-treated group with PAE (500 mg/kg b.w). Group3: Infected-non-treated (positive control), Group4: Infected-treated group with PAE (500 mg/kg b.w.), and Group5: Infected-treated group with Amprolium (120 mg/kg b.w.). Groups (3-5) were orally inoculated with 1 × 103 sporulated E. papillata oocysts. After 60 min of infection, groups (4 and 5) were treated for 5 consecutive days with the recommended doses of PAE and amprolium. The fact that PAE has an anti-coccidial efficacy against intestinal E. papillata infection in mice has been clarified by the reduction of fecal oocyst output on the 5th day post-infection by about 85.41%. Moreover, there is a significant reduction in the size of each parasite stage in the jejunal tissues of the infected-treated group with PAE. PAE counteracted the E. papillata-induced loss of glutathione peroxidase (GPx), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and total antioxidant capacity (TCA). E. papillata infection also induced an increase in the apoptotic cells expressed by caspase-3 which modulated after PAE treatment. Moreover, the mRNA expression of the goblet cell response gene, mucin (MUC2), was upregulated from 0.50 to 1.20-fold after treatment with PAE. Based on our results, PAE is a promising medicinal plant with anti-coccidial, anti-oxidant, and anti-apoptotic activities and could be used as a food additive.

Administration of Ethanolic Extract of Spinacia oleracea Rich in Omega-3 Improves Oxidative Stress and Goblet Cells in Broiler Chickens Infected with Eimeria tenella

This study investigated the anticoccidial activity of spinach (Spinacia oleracea) whole-plant extract against Eimeria tenella, both in vitro and in vivo. For this purpose, one hundred 8-day-old broiler chicks of both sexes were divided into four groups (n = 25 in each group). Chicks in the first group served as the negative control (non-treated-non-infected). Chicks in the second group were challenged at 18 days old with 5 × 104E. tenella sporulated oocysts. The third group was challenged with 5 × 104 sporulated E. tenella oocysts at 18 days old after receiving spinach extract at a dose of 50 mg/kg at 8 days old. The fourth group received 0.2 mg/kg diclazuril (Coxiril® 0.2%) in their diet two days before being orally infected with 5 × 104 sporulated E. tenella oocysts and this continued till day 10 post-infection (PI). The growth performance, clinical symptoms, oocyst shedding, histological findings, and biochemical parameters were used to evaluate the efficacy on day 8 PI when the infection was at its peak. A gas chromatography examination revealed that omega-3 fatty acids were the main constituents of the spinach extract, followed by oleic acid, palmitic acid, and phytol, with amounts of 23.37%, 17.53%, 11.26%, and 7.97%, respectively. The in vitro investigation revealed that the spinach extract at concentrations of 10% and 5% inhibited the oocyst sporulation by 52.1% and 45.1%, respectively. The 5% concentration was selected for the in vivo trial based on the results of the in vitro study. The infected-untreated group showed high levels of OPG; lower body weight; a greater number of parasite stages; few goblet cells; decreased SOD, CAT, and GPX levels; and increased MDA and NO levels. The spinach-treated group, on the other hand, showed a significant decrease in oocyst output per gram of feces (OPG), increased body weight, decreased parasitic stages, and a nearly normal number of goblet cells. Additionally, it reduced malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO), while increasing superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPX). In conclusion, spinach produced significant antioxidant effects, increased body weight, reduced the number of oocysts and parasite stages in the caecum, and restored the number of goblet cells relative to those of an uninfected control. Furthermore, spinach extract inhibits the sporulation percentage of E. tenella oocysts. The ethanolic extract of S. oleracea (whole plant) contained high concentrations of fatty acids, palmitic acid, Phytol, betulin, and ursolic aldehyde, all of which are known to regulate the antioxidant pathway and modulate inflammatory processes and may be the main reason for its anticoccidial activity.

Characterization and bioactivities of M. arvensis, V. officinalis and P. glabrum: In-silico modeling of V. officinalis as a potential drug source

In current study the pharmaceutically active herbs was used against coccidiosis, caused by a protozoan: Eimeria, lead to $ 3 billion loss annually. The aqueous and methanolic extracts of whole plants were applied in-vitro to assess sporulation inhibition (spi) assay and calculated the inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀). For in-vivo study 9 groups of 14 day old broiler chicks were infected with Eimeria tenella and three groups were treated different concentrations of methanolic extracts of Verbena officinalis and Polygonum glabrum post infection. The mean weight gain, oocyst count, diarrhea, biochemical tests, hematology, and histopathology of all groups were analyzed. The herbs were characterized by antioxidant assay, phytochemical screening, Fourier transmission and infrared (FT-IR), Ultra Violet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy and Gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). The GC-MS identified phyto-compounds of V. officinalis were docked with S-Adenosyl methionine (SAM) synthetase. The in-vitro study revealed that V. officinalis and P. glabrum have minimum IC₅₀ of 0.14 and 12 mg/ml respectively. The in-vivo experiment showed that V. officinalis had significantly high anticoccidial potential with significant hematological profile like drug treated controls. The histology of treated chicks also showed recovery in the studied tissues. The antioxidant assay showed that V. officinalis have 4.19U/mg Superoxide dismutase (SOD) and 33.96 µM/mg Glutathione (GSH) quantities. The chemical characterization confirmed the presence of large number of organic compounds, however Flavonoids found only in V. officinalis, which suggests the anticoccidial potential of V. officinalis because flavonoids as antagonist of thiamine (Prinzo, 1999), because it promotes the carbohydrate synthesis required. Strychane, 1-acetyl-20a-hydroxy-16-methylene has best binding of with target protein with lowest binding score (-6.4 Kcal/mol), suggests its anticoccidial potential in poultry.

Modulation of the immune system of chickens a key factor in maintaining poultry production-a review

The awareness of poultry production safety is constantly increasing. The safety of poultry production is defined as biosecurity and the health status of birds. Hence the constant pursuit of developing new strategies in this area is necessary. Biosecurity is an element of good production practices that ensures adequate hygiene and maintaining the health status of poultry production. Poultry production is the world leader among all livestock species. Producers face many challenges during rearing, which depend on the utility type, the direction of use, and consumer requirements. For many years, the aim was to increase production results. Increasing attention is paid to the quality of the raw material and its safety. Therefore, it is crucial to ensure hygiene status during production. It can affect the immune system's functioning and birds' health status. Feed, water, and environmental conditions, including light, gases, dust, and temperature, play an essential role in poultry production. This review aims to look for stimulators and modulators of the poultry immune system while affecting the biosecurity of poultry production. Such challenges in current research by scientists aim to respond to the challenges posed as part of the One Health concept. The reviewed issues are a massive potential for an innovative approach to poultry production and related risks as part of the interaction of the animal-human ecosystem.

Molecular Investigation of Eimeria Species in Broiler Farms in the Province of Vojvodina, Serbia

Coccidiosis is a significant poultry disease caused by the Eimeria species. This study aims to determine the prevalence of Eimeria spp. on broiler farms in Vojvodina, along with the identification of parasite species, and assess the implemented biosecurity measures. The study was conducted on 100 broiler chicken farms (28 small-sized; 34 medium-sized; 38 large-sized farms) from June 2018 to December 2021. One pooled sample of faeces was collected from three to six-week-old chickens from each farm, and assessment of biosecurity measures was carried out using a questionnaire. Using the PCR method, DNA of Eimeria was found in 59 samples (59%), while 41 samples (41%) were negative. Four species of Eimeria were identified, and their prevalence was the following: E. acervulina (37%), E. maxima (17%), E. mitis (25%) and E. tenella (48%). A significant difference (p < 0.05) was established in the number of oocysts in flocks from small-sized farms compared to medium-sized farms. It was found that regular implementation of disinfection, disinsection and deratisation measures, as well as all the biosecurity measures, can significantly reduce the occurrence of coccidiosis. These results will help to develop better strategies for the control and prevention of coccidiosis on farms.

The anticoccidial effect of alcoholic extract of Citrullus colocynthis fruit and Juglans regia peel‌ in experimentally infected domestic chicken

One of the main illnesses within the poultry industry is coccidiosis. Anticoccidial medicines applied in the poultry industry show many shortcomings and new control measures are necessary. The current research aimed to study the effect of extract of Citrullus colocynthis and Juglans regia peel on growth performance, gut bacteria, Haematological, Anticoccidial Index (ACI), and Optimum Anticoccidial Activity (OAA) of coccidiosis-infected domestic chicken. The maximum weight gain was observed in the groups treated with 0.001% and 0.01% C. colocynthis extract. Moreover, 0.01% C. colocynthis extract treatment increased two factors of ACI and OAA by 121.42 and 109, respectively, which were higher than commercial anticoccidial (Sulfaclozine). The extract of C. colocynthis fruit and J. regia peel decreased monocytes and eosinophils haematological factors and increased basophils in birds infected with Eimeria. Both extracts modulated intestinal microbiome haematological factors in birds infected with Eimeria, while J. regia peel extract had better performance than C. colocynthis fruit extract. These results indicate that used C. colocynthis and J. regia extracts have an anti-coccidial effect and the potential to control Eimeria infection.

Comparative study between chemical anticoccidial medication and natural prepared products on experimentally infected broiler chickens

This study was conducted in order to compare well established used chemical anticoccidial medication (diclazuril) against natural prepared safe alternative products of garlic extract (GE), Moringa oleifera (MO) leaves extract, onion extract (OE), in order to control experimentally infected with Eimeria tenella species in chickens. Performance parameter in form of average body weight (ABW) and feed conversion rate (FCR) were studied together with biochemical parameters (malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), mortality rate, oocyst count in addition to total white blood cell (WBCs), lymphocytes and heterophils counts. Histopathological examination of intestinal tract in all test groups was studied. Results revealed that the lowest mortality rate was found in group treated with MO leaves extract. All challenged herbal extract treated groups revealed ABW and FCR lower than diclazuril treated infected group. All treated groups were lower in both average lesion score and average oocyst count two weeks post challenge when compared with control positive group indicate positive impact of all studied therapies either chemical or herbal products but with variable degrees as best effect was diclazuril followed by MO group, followed by GE group and finally group treated with OE. Experimental infection of chickens with E. tenella oocysts significantly increased MDA concentration when compared with control negative non-treated group (P < 0.01). However, infected birds fed with OE, GE, MO leaves extracts and diclazuril administration for a week pre-infection had significantly declined MDA concentrations compared with infected non-treated (P < 0.01). Control positive birds showed significant decrease in SOD and CAT activities vs. the healthy birds either at week pre-infection or at two days' post-infection (P < 0.01). However, SOD activities in birds fed with OE, MO leaves extract and diclazuril for a week pre-infection significantly higher (P < 0.01) than control positive. Histopathological finding revealed that best was group treated with diclazuril followed by group received MO, followed by group received GE and finally group received OE. It could be concluded that herbal extract may be representing a good alternative anticoccidial medications specially that the later may developed resistance for many Eimeria species in continuous use in veterinary field.

The In Vitro Anticoccidial Activity of Some Herbal Extracts against Eimeria spp. Oocysts Isolated from Piglets

Coccidiosis in pigs seldom results in important economic losses. However, it can influence growth rates in weaners and it is an important hygiene indicator in swine farms. Certain herbs, along with their extracts, have been used over the course of history in traditional medicine. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro anticoccidial effects of Allium sativum L. (garlic), Artemisia absinthium L. (wormwood), Coriandrum sativum L. (coriander), Cucurbita pepo L. (pumpkin), Satureja hortensis L. (summer savory), and Calendula officinalis L. (marigold) against Eimeria suis and Eimeria debliecki oocysts. The stock solution of oocysts (58% E. suis + 42% E. debliecki) was incubated for three days, before adding the tested solutions. The unsporulated Eimeria spp. oocysts were then placed in a 3 mL well plate and incubated for 96 h at 27 °C, in a suspension containing serial dilutions of alcoholic plant extracts (5%, 2.5%, 1.25%, 0.625%, and 0.312%). The percentage of sporulated and destroyed oocysts was recorded every 24 h for 96 h. All extracts had a good in vitro anticoccidial effect against oocysts of Eimeria spp. compared with the control groups. Oocyst sporulation was significantly (p = 0.05) inhibited by the 5% marigold extract (3.6% sporulated oocysts). The same extract had the highest lytic effect on oocysts (65.2% destroyed oocysts). Our results prove that the most effective alcoholic plant extract is the marigold extract, followed, in order of efficiency, by the wormwood, coriander, garlic, pumpkin, and summer savory extracts. This study represents a preliminary contribution for establishing a new generation of natural disinfectants aimed at destroying Eimeria oocysts in the context of swine contamination.

Biosynthesized selenium nanoparticles to rescue coccidiosis-mediated oxidative stress, apoptosis and inflammation in the jejunum of mice

One of the most crucial approaches for treating human diseases, particularly parasite infections, is nanomedicine. One of the most significant protozoan diseases that impact farm and domestic animals is coccidiosis. While, amprolium is one of the traditional anticoccidial medication, the advent of drug-resistant strains of Eimeria necessitates the development of novel treatments. The goal of the current investigation was to determine whether biosynthesized selenium nanoparticles (Bio-SeNPs) using Azadirachta indica leaves extract might treat mice with Eimeria papillata infection in the jejunal tissue. Five groups of seven mice each were used, as follows: Group 1: Non-infected-non-treated (negative control). Group 2: Non-infected treated group with Bio-SeNPs (0.5 mg/kg of body weight). Groups 3-5 were orally inoculated with 1×10³ sporulated oocysts of E. papillata. Group 3: Infected-non-treated (positive control). Group 4: Infected and treated group with Bio-SeNPs (0.5 mg/kg). Group 5: Infected and treated group with the Amprolium. Groups 4 and 5 daily received oral administration (for 5 days) of Bio-SeNPs and anticoccidial medication, respectively, after infection. Bio-SeNPs caused a considerable reduction in oocyst output in mice feces (97.21%). This was also accompanied by a significant reduction in the number of developmental parasitic stages in the jejunal tissues. Glutathione reduced (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels were dramatically reduced by the Eimeria parasite, whereas, nitric oxide (NO) and malonaldehyde (MDA) levels were markedly elevated. The amount of goblet cells and MUC2 gene expression were used as apoptotic indicators, and both were considerably downregulated by infection. However, infection markedly increased the expression of inflammatory cytokines (IL-6 and TNF-α) and the apoptotic genes (Caspase-3 and BCL2). Bio-SeNPs were administrated to mice to drastically lower body weight, oxidative stress, and inflammatory and apoptotic indicators in the jejunal tissue. Our research thus showed the involvement of Bio-SeNPs in protecting mice with E. papillata infections against jejunal damage.

A new insight in immunomodulatory impact of botanicals in treating avian coccidiosis

Avian coccidiosis is caused by genus Eimeria (E.) i.e. E. maxima, E. necatrix, E. tenella, E. acervulina, E. brunette and E. mitis and lead to three billion US dollar per year economic loss in poultry industry and reduces the growth performance of birds. To purge undesirable foreign agents, immune system produces a variety of molecules and cells that ultimately neutralize target particles in healthy organisms. However; when this particular system compromises, infection develops and the load of pathogens along with their virulence factors overcome both; innate and adaptive immune systems. Livestock and poultry sectors are important part of agriculture industry worldwide. Due to excessive use of chemotherapeutic agents, pathogens have developed resistance against these agents leading to the great economic losses. Numerous therapeutic approaches are in routine process for the treatment and prevention of various ailments but irrational use of antibiotics/chemicals has raised alarming concerns, like the development of drug resistant strains, residual effects in ultimate users and environmental pollution. These problems have led to the development of alternatives. In this regard, anticoccidial vaccine can be used as an alternative but due to high cost of production, plant derived biological response modifiers and antioxidants compounds are considered as a promising alternative. This review summarizes the immunotherapeutic effects of different compounds particularly with reference to avian coccidiosis.

In Vitro Study to Evaluate the Efficacy of Ultrasonicated Ethanolic Extract of Rosmarinus officinalis and its Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles Against Eimeria tenella Oocysts of Chickens

In this study, chitosan nanoparticles (CsNPs) were used as nanocarrier for ultrasonicated ethanolic extract of Rosmarinus officinalis (UEERO) as a new nanoformulation against Eimeria tenella. Herein, CsNPs have been synthesized by ionic gelation method at pH 3 (CsNPs3) and pH 5 (CsNPs5), followed by characterization of morphology, size, polydispersity index (PDI), surface charge, and loading efficiency of UEERO. An in vitro sporulation inhibition assay (10, 5, 2.5, 1.25, 0.62, 0.31, 0.15, 0.07, 0.04, 0.02, and 0.01 mg/ml normal saline solution) against E. tenella was conducted. Results showed that free CsNPs and UEERO-CsNPs3/5 were cubic- and spherical-shaped with positive charge and average size of ~ 150.8 nm (314.4 nm) and 151.7 nm (321.1 nm), respectively. The total loading efficiency using UV–vis spectrophotometer, was 80.05 at pH 5 and 64.39% at pH 3. The in vitro sporulation inhibition assay revealed that UEERO, CsNPs3/5, and UEERO-CsNPs3/5 showed a potential inhibitory effect on sporulation (%), distortion in wall (%), and sporocyst abnormality (%) in a dose-dependent manner. Accordingly, the concentration (10 mg/ml) showed the best efficacy after 24 h in UEERO, free CsNPs, and UEERO-CsNPs. Moreover, UEERO-CsNPs3 and UEERO-CsNPs5 had stopped the sporulation (%) after 72 h. Taken all together, UEERO-CsNPs3 and UEERO-CsNPs5 are best effective against E. tenella in a dose-dependent manner in terms of sporulation (%), distortion in wall (%), and sporocysts abnormality.

In vitro: Anti-coccidia activity of Calotropis procera leaf extract on Eimeria papillata oocysts sporulation and sporozoite

Natural products play an important role as environmentally friendly agents that can be used against parasitic diseases. Many Eimeria species cause eimeriosis in poultry. The negative effects of synthetic anti-coccidiosis medications necessitate the quest for alternative treatments derived from medicinal plants in the treatment of eimeriosis. The study was conducted to evaluate the effects of Calotropis procera leaf extract (CPLE) (Madar) on the sporulation of Eimeria oocysts and sporozoites that affect mammalian jejunum and to obtain the best concentration for sporulation inhibition and infection prevention. Extracts were tested in vitro to prevent oocyst sporulation, wall deformity, and anti-sporozoite activity with Eimeria papillata. The plant-chemical compounds analysis of CPLE some active compounds were shown as well as CPLE in vitro effects at various concentrations (200, 100, 50, 25,12.5, and 6.25 mg/mL), while potassium dichromate solution 2.5% and Toltrazuril 25 mg/mL were administered as the control groups. C. procera leaf extract showed the highest inhibitory percentage on E. papillata oocyst at 200 mg/mL of extract, approximately 91%. In addition, CPLE showed the sporozoite highest viability inhibitory percentage on E. papillata at 200 mg/mL of extract, approximately 88%, and the lowest efficacy was 5% at 6.25 mg/mL. Also, we noticed the deformation and destruction of the oocyst wall based on the concentration rate. Sporulation inhibition rate is significantly affected by incubation time and treatment concentration ratio. The results showed that Madar has an effective, inhibitory potential, and protective effect on coccidian oocyst sporulation and sporozoites of E. papillata.

In vitro anticoccidial activity of nanoencapsulated bromelain against Eimeria spp. oocysts isolated from goats in Kenya

Background and Aim:

The emergence of drug-resistant strains of Eimeria spp. calls for the development of novel anticoccidial drugs. Plant extracts provide a possible natural source for such drugs. This study aimed to investigate the in vitro anticoccidial activity of encapsulated bromelain (EB) in chitosan nanocarriers on Eimeria spp. oocysts isolated from goats kept by farmers in Kenya.

Materials and Methods:

Bromelain was extracted from the peel of ripe pineapples using standard methods. Eimeria spp. oocysts were isolated from the feces of goats using a flotation method. The inhibition of sporulation was assayed after exposing the oocysts to solutions of EB, non-EB (NEB), and diclazuril (positive control) at concentrations between 4 mg/mL and 0.125 mg/mL for 48 h. The oocysts were examined under a microscope (40x) to determine the effects of the drugs on the sporulation process. The percentage of sporulation inhibition was calculated after 48 h and the inhibition concentration 50% (IC₅₀) was determined by probit analysis.

Results:

Bromelain manifested anticoccidial activity through the inhibition of the sporulation of coccidia oocysts. EB achieved inhibition with a lower dose compared with NEB. The IC₅₀ values of diclazuril, EB, and NEB were 0.078 mg/mL, 0.225 mg/mL, and 0.575 mg/mL, respectively. There were significant differences (p<0.01) between the IC₅₀ of EB and NEB compared with the standard treatment drug.

Conclusion:

This preliminary study showed that EB has anticoccidial activity supporting further evaluation at an in vivo level to develop a novel drug for the management of coccidiosis in goats.

Phytochemical control of poultry coccidiosis: a review

Avian coccidiosis is a major parasitic disorder in chickens resulting from the intracellular apicomplexan protozoa Eimeria that target the intestinal tract leading to a devastating disease. Eimeria life cycle is complex and consists of intra- and extracellular stages inducing a potent inflammatory response that results in tissue damage associated with oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation, diarrheal hemorrhage, poor growth, increased susceptibility to other disease agents, and in severe cases, mortality. Various anticoccidial drugs and vaccines have been used to prevent and control this disorder; however, many drawbacks have been reported. Drug residues concerning the consumers have directed research toward natural, safe, and effective alternative compounds. Phytochemical/herbal medicine is one of these natural alternatives to anticoccidial drugs, which is considered an attractive way to combat coccidiosis in compliance with the "anticoccidial chemical-free" regulations. The anticoccidial properties of several natural herbal products (or their extracts) have been reported. The effect of herbal additives on avian coccidiosis is based on diminishing the oocyst output through inhibition or impairment of the invasion, replication, and development of Eimeria species in the gut tissues of chickens; lowering oocyst counts due to the presence of phenolic compounds in herbal extracts which reacts with cytoplasmic membranes causing coccidial cell death; ameliorating the degree of intestinal lipid peroxidation; facilitating the repair of epithelial injuries; and decreasing the intestinal permeability induced by Eimeria species through the upregulation of epithelial turnover. This current review highlights the anticoccidial activity of several herbal products, and their other beneficial effects.

Dietary use of Artemisia herba alba Asso as a potential coccidiostat against cæcal coccidiosis: haematological parameter variations

This study consists of the evaluation of the anticoccidial effect of Artemisia herba-alba Asso during experimental coccidial infection. Four groups of 30 broiler chickens were formed: the negative control (G1), the positive control (G2), the infected Monensin-treated group (G3), and the infected Artemisia-treated group (G4). Each infected bird received orally 10⁵ sporulated oocysts of Eimeria tenella. No mortality was recorded in both G1 and G4. Haematocrit levels showed great variations from the 7th day post-infection, especially in G2 (20.87% ± 5.77). By day 10 P-I, haematocrit recovery was rapid particularly in G4 (28.07% ± 1.50). Haemoglobin concentration also decreased significantly (p < 0.05) in all infected groups by the 7th day P-I. The reduction was very marked, but not statistically significant, in G2 (6.47 g/dL ± 1.67) against (10.53 g/dL ± 0.25) in G1. It was less marked in G4 (8.05 g/dL ± 1.56). Results show the protective effect of A. herba-alba Asso by improving the lesion score and the haematological parameters affected during coccidian infection.

Anticoccidial efficacy of Garcinia kola (Heckel H.) against experimental Eimeria tenella infection in chicks

There is a need to advance commercial poultry production to cater to the essential protein needs of an ever-increasing population, however, the rampant occurrence of coccidiosis infection poses a threat to this achievement. This study evaluated the in vivo anticoccidial activities of the extracts and fractions of Garcinia kola against experimental Eimeria tenella infection using broiler chickens as experimental subjects. A total of 40 broiler chicks were experimentally infected with E. tenella and assigned randomly into five groups consisting of eight chicks each. Three days post experimental infection groups I and II were administered orally with tween 80 (0.8%) and Amprolium (30 mg/kg) and served as untreated and treated control groups, respectively whereas Groups III, IV, and V were administered orally with crude methanol extract (CME) at doses of 200, 400 and 600 mg/kg, respectively, for five consecutive days. Daily weight gains were recorded and faecal oocysts per gram (OPG) counts were made by the McMaster Egg counting technique. Blood samples from each experimental group were collected on days 0, 3, 6, and 8 for haematological examination. In the acute toxicity studies, the CME of G. kola did not produce any toxic effect or mortality at doses between 10 and 5000 mg/kg. The CME G. kola was then considered safe and the LD50 was assumed to be > 5000 mg/kg. Graded doses of CME of G. kola considerably (P < 0.05) improved body weight gain and decreased OPG in a dose-depended manner. There was also significant improvement in the Packed Cell Volume (PCV), Red Blood Cell (RBC) and White Blood Cell (WBC) counts upon treatment with the graded doses of CME of G. kola. Besides, G. kola significantly decreased histopathological lesions in the caecum. The results of this study indicates that G. kola may provide beneficial effects against E. tenella-induced coccidiosis in broiler chickens.

Effect of Pistacia lentiscus L. Vegetable Oil on Growth Performance and Coccidiosis in Broiler Chickens: In vitro and In vivo Assessment

This study aims to assess the ability of vegetable oil of Pistacia lentiscus L. (lentiscus oil) in stimulating growth performance of broiler chickens and protecting them against coccidiosis. For this purpose, an in vitro test was first carried out to evaluate the destructive effect of this oil on Eimeria spp oocysts. On the other hand, an in vivo study was carried out to evaluate, once again, the capacity of the vegetable oil of Pistacia lentiscus L. in stimulating broilers growth performance and reducing the coccidiosis clinical signs. Thus, day old chicks were randomly divided into four equal groups: (1) uninfected and not-supplemented control (NI NS); (2) uninfected and supplemented (NI S); (3) infected and not supplemented (I NS); (4) infected and supplemented (IS). Each group was divided into three replicates containing each of them two subjects. The experimental groups (2 and 4) are supplemented with lentiscus oil by force-feeding at the rate of 1 mL per day from the 18th day until the end of the experiment. The chicks of the third and the fourth group are inoculated orally with sporulated oocysts (6.5 × 105 oocysts of Eimeria spp) on the day 20 of age. The results showed that lentiscus oil has an anticoccidial dose-dependent effect as shown by oocysts counting and released substances measurement at 273 nm. The growth performance of the (NI S) group was found better with an improvement percentage of 9.14% compared to the control (p < 0.05). Likewise, the weight gain of the (I S) group seems slightly higher than that of the control one (1316 g and 1235 g, respectively) (p < 0.05). In conclusion, the vegetable oil of Pistacia lentiscus L. has shown, not only, a promising growth effect in broiler chickens, but also, it seems to have a protective effect against coccidiosis sequels caused by Eimeria acervulina infection.

Review of herbal medicine works in the avian species

Poultry meat consumption is increasing worldwide but the overuse of antimicrobials for prevention and treatment of diseases has increased antimicrobial resistance (AMR), triggering a major public health issue. To restrict AMR emergence, the government supports the optimization of natural products that are safe and easy to obtain with minimal side effects on poultry, humans, and the environment. Various studies have explored the potential of herbs in animal health for their antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, and body weight gain properties. Therefore, this study reviewed plants with potential application in avian species by summarizing and discussing the mechanisms and prophylactic/therapeutic potential of these compounds and their plant origin extracts.

The in vitro and in vivo anti-virulent effect of organic acid mixtures against Eimeria tenella and Eimeria bovis

Eimeria tenella and Eimeria bovis are complex parasites responsible for the condition of coccidiosis, that invade the animal gastrointestinal intestinal mucosa causing severe diarrhoea, loss of appetite or abortions, with devastating impacts on the farming industry. The negative impacts of these parasitic infections are enhanced by their role in promoting the colonisation of the gut by common foodborne pathogens. The aim of this study was to test the anti-Eimeria efficacy of maltodextrin, sodium chloride, citric acid, sodium citrate, silica, malic acid, citrus extract, and olive extract individually, in vitro and in combination, in vivo. Firstly, in vitro infection models demonstrated that antimicrobials reduced (p < 0.05), both singly and in combination (AG), the ability of E. tenella and E. bovis to infect MDBK and CLEC-213 epithelial cells, and the virulence reduction was similar to that of the anti-coccidial drug Robenidine. Secondly, using an in vivo broiler infection model, we demonstrated that AG reduced (p = 0.001) E. tenella levels in the caeca and excreted faeces, reduced inflammatory oxidative stress, improved the immune response through reduced ROS, increased Mn-SOD and SCFA levels. Levels of IgA and IgM were significantly increased in caecal tissues of broilers that received 0.5% AG and were associated with improved (p < 0.0001) tissue lesion scores. A prophylactic approach increased the anti-parasitic effect in vivo, and results indicated that administration from day 0, 5 and 10 post-hatch reduced tissue lesion scores (p < 0.0001) and parasite excretion levels (p = 0.002). Conclusively, our in vitro and in vivo results demonstrate that the natural antimicrobial mixture (AG) reduced parasitic infections through mechanisms that reduced pathogen virulence and attenuated host inflammatory events.

In Vitro Assessment of Anticoccidials: Methods and Molecules

Simple Summary

Coccidiosis is a major problem in poultry production, leading to significant economic losses. Due to the outbreak of resistance to the available treatments, research is focusing on finding new molecules that work against the pathogen. Botanical compounds represent promising alternatives, but reliable in vitro tests are needed for their screening and to understand their mechanism of action. Research in vitro involves studies on the environmental phase of the parasite and studies on the endogenous development, which occurs inside the host cells and that requires cell cultures or in ovo models to be studied. This review aims to summarize the protocols that have been successfully applied so far, as well as to suggest potential cues to improve research on this field. Moreover, as the surge of botanicals as anticoccidial molecules is on the rise, the intent is to provide an overview of the methods to assess their effectiveness in vitro in comparison with conventional drugs.

Abstract

Avian coccidiosis is a disease causing considerable economic losses in the poultry industry. It is caused by Eimeria spp., protozoan parasites characterized by an exogenous–endogenous lifecycle. In vitro research on these pathogens is very complicated and lacks standardization. This review provides a description of the main in vitro protocols so far assessed focusing on the exogenous phase, with oocyst viability and sporulation assays, and on the endogenous phase, with invasion and developmental assays in cell cultures and in ovo. An overview of these in vitro applications to screen both old and new remedies and to understand the relative mode of action is also discussed.

Anticoccidial and Antioxidant Activities of Moringa oleifera Leaf Extract on Murine Intestinal Eimeriosis

BACKGROUND

Coccidiosis is an intestinal disease caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Eimeria and responsible for considerable economic loss in the livestock and poultry industries. Resistance to the current anticoccidial drugs is now a major challenge to efforts to control the disease, and this has stimulated the search for new compounds as alternative treatments. In this context, plant extracts have emerged as an alternative and complementary approach to control coccidiosis. In the present study, an ethanol extract of Moringa oleifera leaves was screened for its anticoccidial activity against Eimeria papillata infection in mice.

METHODS

To this end, albino mice were allocated into three groups: the first group was the non-infected control; the second and third groups were infected with 10³ E. papillata oocysts. Of these, the second group was kept as an infected control; while the third group was gavaged with 100 μl of moringa leaf extract (MLE) at a dose of 400 mg MLE/kg, once daily, for five days.

RESULTS

MLE significantly suppressed oocyst excretion in faeces, and histological study of the jejunum showed a significant decrease in the number of parasitic stages, with significant improvement in the numbers of goblet cells. Furthermore, the expression of MUC2 gene was upregulated in the treated mice compared with infected, which further supports the anticoccidial potential of MLE. Moreover, our study evidenced that MLE reduced oxidative damage by decreasing TBARS and iNOS expression, and increasing the GSH and GPX levels. Also, treatment with MLE promoted the expression of Bcl-2 and ultimately, inhibited the apoptosis of host cells in the treated mice.

CONCLUSION

Our data indicate that MLE has anticoccidial, anti-oxidant and anti-apoptotic activities in mice infected with Eimeria papillata.

Ethnomedicinal Uses, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Dorema Species (Apiaceae): A Review

The application of antique medical instructions, practices, skills and knowledge has been considered as the most affordable treatment in many developing countries. The use of these preparations and prescriptions over generations has made a useful and valuable guide for drug discovery in modern medicine. Medical herbs have been of a high importance for this purpose. The genus Dorema, of Apiaceae family (Umbelliferae) has a wide use in ethnobotany and traditional medicine around the world. It has been used as a treatment for CNS disease, convulsion, upper respiratory tract problems, gastrointestinal disorder and high blood sugar. Furthermore, phytochemical investigations have reported Dorema species to contain a wide range of constituents including terpenes, coumarins and phenolic compounds. The current review summarizes comprehensive information regarding botany, phytochemistry andpharmacological aspects of Dorema spp.

Bioactive Compounds, Pharmacological Actions, and Pharmacokinetics of Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium)

Plants have been used since ancient times to cure certain infectious diseases, and some of them are now standard treatments for several diseases. Due to the side effects and resistance of pathogenic microorganisms to antibiotics and most drugs on the market, a great deal of attention has been paid to extracts and biologically active compounds isolated from plant species used in herbal medicine. Artemisia absinthium is an important perennial shrubby plant that has been widely used for the treatment of several ailments. Traditionally, A. absinthium has always been of pharmaceutical and botanical importance and used to manage several disorders including hepatocyte enlargement, hepatitis, gastritis, jaundice, wound healing, splenomegaly, dyspepsia, indigestion, flatulence, gastric pain, anemia, and anorexia. It has also been documented to possess antioxidant, antifungal, antimicrobial, anthelmintic, anti-ulcer, anticarcinogenic, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, antidepressant, analgesic, immunomodulatory, and cytotoxic activity. Long-term use of A. absinthium essential oil may cause toxic and mental disorders in humans with clinical manifestations including convulsions, sleeplessness, and hallucinations. Combination chemotherapies of artemisia extract or its isolated active constituents with the currently available antibabesial or anti-malarial drugs are now documented to relieve malaria and piroplasmosis infections. The current review examines the phytoconstituents, toxic and biological activities of A. absinthium.

Effect of arginine supplementation on growth performance, lipid profile, and inflammatory responses of broiler chicks challenged with coccidiosis

Avian coccidiosis causes inflammation and decreases growth performance in poultry. Arginine alleviates inflammation and improves growth performance. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of different levels of arginine on growth performance, lipid profile, and inflammatory responses in broiler chicks challenged with Eimeria spp. A total of 384 one-d-old broiler chicks were assigned into eight groups and six replications per group. At 21 days of age, a mixture of Eimeria species was used for induction of challenge in the broiler chicks. Broiler chicks were divided into infected and uninfected groups and received arginine at 85, 100, 125, and 150 % of recommended level. Growth performance, serum nitric oxide (NO), pro-inflammatory cytokines, lipid profile, and faecal oocyst were further assessed. Broiler chicks challenged with coccidiosis showed lower growth performance compared to non-challenged broiler chicks in grower and finisher periods; however, those fed diets containing 125 and 150 % arginine showed better growth performance compared to broiler chicks fed with 85 and100 % levels. The challenged broiler chicks showed higher concentrations for serum NO, lipid profile, and pro-inflammatory cytokines in comparison to uninfected ones. Nevertheless, adding arginine into diet at 125 and 150 % levels increased the levels of serum NO and decreased the concentration of pro-inflammatory cytokines. In conclusion, higher levels of arginine caused anti-inflammatory effects in broiler chicks challenged with coccidiosis.

Transgenic Eimeria parasite: A potential control strategy for chicken coccidiosis

Poultry industry has been very instrumental in curtailing malnutrition and poverty and as such contributing to economic growth. However, production loss in poultry industry due to parasitic disease such as coccidiosis has become a global challenge. Chicken coccidiosis is an enteric disease that is associated with morbidity and mortality. The control of this parasite through anticoccidial live vaccines and drugs has been very successful though with some limitations such as the cost of production of live vaccines, and drugs resistance which is a public health concern. The discovery of Eimeria vaccine antigens such as Apical membrane antigens (AMA)-1 and Immune mapped protein (IMP)-1 have introduced the use of recombinant vaccines as alternative control measures against chicken coccidiosis. Although some protections have been reported among recombinant vaccines, improving their protective efficacy has triggered the search for a novel and efficient delivery vehicle. Transgenic Eimeria, which is constructed either through stable or transient transfection is currently being explored as novel delivery vehicle of Eimeria vaccine antigens. Due to partial protections reported in chickens vaccinated with transgenic Eimeria lines expressing different Eimeria antigens, improving protective efficacy becomes imperative. Recent trends in the design of transgenic Eimeria for potential application in the control of chicken coccidiosis are summarized in this review. We conclude that, with improved protective efficacy using multiple vaccine antigens, transgenic Eimeria parasite could fill the gap in the control of chicken coccidiosis as an efficient anticoccidial vaccine.

Anticoccidial effects of Khaya senegalensis aqueous stem bark extract on broiler chickens experimentally infected with Eimeria species

Graded concentrations (200, 400 and 800 mg/kg) of the aqueous stem bark extract of Khaya senegalensis was evaluated for its therapeutic efficacy against experimentally induced coccidiosis in broiler chicken. The phytochemical analysis shows the presence of tannins, saponins, cardiac glycosides and steroids. There was significant reduction in oocyst count across the groups in a graded dose manner with 800 mg/kg being the most efficacious dose. There was also weight gain across the treatment groups with immuno-modulatory and erythropoetic activities observed. Also, a significant (p < 0.05) graded dose-dependent reduction in the oocyst count in the treatment groups. A significant (p < 0.05) increase in mean weight gain was also recorded across the experimental groups except the negative control. The haematology also showed a dose-dependent increase in red blood cells, haemoglobin and packed cell volume of the treatment groups. The extract had no significant difference (p > 0.05) on the white blood cells, but a slight decrease in the white blood cells and heterophil counts was observed at 400 mg/kg. Furthermore, the aspartate amino transaminase level showed a significant difference (p < 0.05). Fluctuating levels of other serum biochemical parameters such as total protein, albumin and potassium were observed. No significant difference (p > 0.05) in the sodium concentration was observed. In addition, oxidative stress biomarkers such as catalase significantly increased (p < 0.05) in all the experimental groups in addition to the concomitant increase in reduced gluthathione (GSH) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels. Conclusively, the aqueous extract of K. senegalensis was effective in the management of coccidiosis thus supporting its folkloric use.

In Vitro Anticoccidial Activity of Olive Pulp (Olea europaea L. var. Chemlal) Extract Against Eimeria Oocysts in Broiler Chickens

AIM

The objective of the present study was to investigate in vitro anticoccidial effect of olive pulp (Olea europaea L var. Chemlal) extract on the destruction of Eimeria spp. oocysts isolated from infected chickens naturally.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The olive pulp (OP) powder was stirred manually in aqueous ethanol in preparation for extraction using the microwave-assisted extraction system. The identification of the phenolic compounds was obtained by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry with electrospray ionisation (HPLC-ESI-MS). The treatment of Eimeria oocyst with OP extract and standard compounds (quercetin and oleuropein) leads to their lysis as shown by the release of substances absorbing at 273 nm.

RESULTS

Our results showed that the maximum number of reduced oocysts was recorded after 8 h of incubation of optimum OP extract, quercetin and oleuropein for different periods of time. Also, the number of Eimeria oocysts decreased considerably with increase concentrations after adding the optimum of OP extract in concentration ranging from 0.023 to 0.371 mg/ml. Positive correlation between the optimum OP extract concentrations and the number of Eimeria oocysts reduced was R² = 0.959. From this in vitro experiment, it can be concluded that the OP extract possesses an anti-Eimeria spp activity.

CONCLUSION

To our knowledge, this is the first time that quercetin and oleuropein were tested to evaluate their anticoccidial activity. The findings of this study showed that phenolic compound of OP extract tested separately possesses anti-Eimeria spp. effect. Further studies should be carried out to test its in vivo efficacy of the OP bioactive compounds in broiler chickens.

Anthelmintic, anticoccidial and antioxidant activity of Salvadora persica root extracts

Human infection with parasites is still one of the big problems worldwide. Medicinal plants succeeded to overcome a variety of protozoan and helminthic parasites. In this study, Salvadora persica root extracts (SE) were used to treat helminthosis and coccideosis. Three doses were used (200, 100 and 50 mg/ml) to study the anthelmintic activity of S. persica. Allolobophora caliginosa was used as a model worm. Also, Albendazole was used as a reference drug. In order to study the anticoccideal activity of SE, a group of mice were infected with Eimeria papillata sporulated oocysts. Experimental mice were treated with SE (300 mg/Kg) for 5 days. The extract was able to decrease the number of meronts and gamonts of the parasite in jejunum. Also, it regulates the level of glutathione and malondialdehyde and the activity of catalase as well. We conclude that S. persica possesses a powerful Anthelmintic, anticoccidial and antioxidant activity.

Diagnosis and control of chicken coccidiosis: a recent update

Coccidiosis is a deadly disease that hampers chicken's productivity and welfare. Thus, the disease is a major menace to the global poultry industry. Coccidiosis which is caused by the apicomplexan parasite of the genus Eimeria has seven known species which affect the different parts of the intestinal tract of chickens. The disease which occurs by ingestion of sporulated oocyst has been associated with poor poultry management system. Mixed infection among the species of this parasite contributes to both pathogenicity and misdiagnosis of the disease. A progress in identification and diagnosis approach which cuts across pathological, morphological and molecular has been reported for this parasite. Control measures which include anticoccidial drugs, vaccines and natural products have dominated literature for this disease. However, the emergence of genetic and antigenic diversity with implication on resistance to anticoccidials among different strains of Eimeria parasite has generated concerns on the effectiveness of the current anticoccidial vaccines. A new look on the control strategy therefore becomes imperative. This study reviews the current trends on the identification and control of chicken coccidiosis with focus on (1) Avian coccidiosis (2) Epidemiology of chicken coccidiosis (3) Eimeria parasite and distribution in poultry (4) Diagnosis of Eimeria parasite (5) Control measures of coccidiosis (6) Threats posed by genetic and antigenic diversity of Eimeria parasite on coccidiosis control. Genomic study on diversity of Eimeria parasite becomes imperative for effective vaccine design against coccidiosis.

Effect of Calotropis procera (madar) and amprolium supplementation on parasitological parameters of broilers during mixed Eimeria species infection

AIM

An experiment was conducted on day old 168 broiler chicks to study the effect of 0.4% as well as 0.2% Calotropis procera (madar) leaf powder and 0.0125% amprolium supplementation on parasitological parameters of broilers during mixed Eimeria species infection.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Chicks were randomly divided into seven groups (I-VII) each with two replicates of 12 chicks. On 15^th day of experiment, broilers of Group II, IV, VI, and VII were infected with 50,000 sporulated oocysts of mixed Eimeria species. To evaluate the anticoccidial effect of different feed supplements percent fecal score, percent survival, percent weight gain, performance index (PI), average oocyst production, and percent reduction in oocyst production were calculated.

RESULTS

It was observed that amprolium supplementation had maximum anticoccidial effect as it gave the best efficacy in terms of all parameters, whereas supplementation of 0.4% madar leaf powder showed nonsignificant difference with amprolium for some parameters such as percent survival, percent weight gain, and PI.

CONCLUSION

It can be concluded that madar (C. procera) leaf powder and amprolium had comparable activity against coccidiosis. Hence, madar leaf powder may be used for the prevention and control of mixed Eimeria spp. infection prevalent in field conditions.