Warm-Up Strategies for Sport and Exercise: Mechanisms and Applications

Effect of warm-up protocols using lower and higher loads on multiple-set back squat volume-load

Background

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) after three warm-up protocols on back squat performance in trained men.

Methods

Fourteen resistance-trained men performed conditioning activity (CA) with high-load (HL-CA), low-load (LL-CA), or usual specific warm-up as a control (CON). HL-CA consisted of one set of three repetitions with 90% of one repetition maximum (RM); LL-CA consisted of one set of six repetitions with 45% of 1 RM performed at maximal velocity; CON involved eight repetitions with 45% of 1 RM at controlled velocity. The participant's performance was measured using the total number of repetitions and volume load (reps × load × sets).

Results

There were no significant differences between warm-up for the total number of repetitions (p = 0.17) or total volume load (p = 0.15). There was no difference between conditions for the number of repetitions (main condition effect; p = 0.17); however, participants achieved a significantly higher volume load after HL-PAPE than after CON for the first set (p = 0.04).

Conclusion

High or low equated-load CA used as warm-up strategies did not potentiate subsequent performance enhancement in multiple-set back squat exercise performed until muscle failure in comparison with usual warm-up.

Effects of Different Conditioning Activities on the Sprint Performance of Elite Sprinters: A Systematic Review With Meta-Analysis

PURPOSE

Postactivation performance enhancement (PAPE), which refers to the phenomena associated with the attainment of enhanced performance in sport-specific tasks after a conditioning activity, is an important objective of warming-up practices in many sports. This is even more relevant for sprinters, as potential increases in sprinting speed will directly influence their competitive results. This systematic review with meta-analysis evaluated the effects of different PAPE protocols (ie, using plyometrics, strength-power exercises, and resisted/assisted sprints) on the sprinting performance (ie, sprint time or sprint speed) of competitive sprinters.

METHODS

Initially, 1205 records published until last December 18 were identified, using the following databases: PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Clarivate Web of Science. After removing duplicates and screening titles and abstracts, 14 high-quality studies met the inclusion criteria for the meta-analysis.

RESULTS

Overall, there were no significant changes in sprint performance after implementing various types of conditioning activities (standardized mean difference [SMD] = 0.16 [95% CI, -0.02 to 0.33]; Z = 1.78; P = .08; I2 = 0%). In addition, when comparing prechanges and postchanges between experimental, control, and other conditions, no significant differences were found in sprint speed or time across all studies (SMD = 0.09 [95% CI, -0.10 to 0.28]; Z = 0.92; P = .36; I = 0%).

CONCLUSIONS

Results revealed that different types of conditioning activities may not be capable of acutely enhancing the sprint speed of competitive sprinters. This aligns with previous observations indicating that sprinting is a highly stable physical capacity, a phenomenon that is even more consistent among elite sprinters. Coaches and sport scientists should collaborate to develop more efficient PAPE protocols for these highly specialized athletes, with special attention to study design and individualization, while considering their effects on acceleration versus top speed.

Are Surface Electromyography Parameters Indicative of Post-Activation Potentiation/Post-Activation Performance Enhancement, in Terms of Twitch Potentiation and Voluntary Performance? A Systematic Review

The aim was to identify if surface electromyography (sEMG) parameters are indicative of post-activation potentiation (PAP)/post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE), in terms of twitch potentiation and voluntary performance. Three databases were used in April 2024, with the following inclusion criteria: (a) original research, assessed in healthy human adults, and (b) sEMG parameters were measured. The exclusion criteria were (a) studies with no PAP/PAPE protocol and (b) non-randomized control trials. The following data were extracted: study characteristics/demographics, PAP/PAPE protocols, sEMG parameters, twitch/performance outcomes, and study findings. A modified physiotherapy evidence database (PEDro) scale was used for quality assessment. Fifteen randomized controlled trials (RCTs), with a total of 199 subjects, were included. The M-wave amplitude (combined with a twitch torque outcome) was shown to generally be indicative of PAP. The sEMG amplitudes (in some muscles) were found to be indicative of PAPE during ballistic movements, while a small decrease in the MdF (in certain muscles) was shown to reflect PAPE. Changes in the Hmax/Mmax ratio were found to contribute (temporally) to PAP, while the H-reflex amplitude was shown to be neither indicative of PAP nor PAPE. This review provides preliminary findings suggesting that certain sEMG parameters could be indicative of PAP/PAPE. However, due to limited studies, future research is warranted.

Acute effects of eccentric overload training with different loading doses in male sprinters

Objective

The primary objective of this study was to investigate the immediate effects of two doses (Dose1 and Dose2,D1 and D2) of inertial Flywheel Eccentric Overload (FEOL), Eccentric Hook (EH), and High-intensity Half Squat (HHS) on muscle explosiveness in male sprinters.

Methods

Twenty-one sub-elite male sprinters were randomly assigned to three groups: the FEOL group (n=7), the EH group (n=7), and the HSS group (n=7),Measurements of athletes' explosive jumps (CMJ, SJ, SLJ) heights, relative peak power indices, and 30-m sprint times were collected before and 6 min after the intervention.

Results

At D1 loading dose, CMJ, SJ jump height, and relative peak power increased significantly (p < 0.05) after HHS training intervention, while there was no significant change in FEOL and EH training (p > 0.05). At D2 loading dose, CMJ, SJ jump height, and relative peak power increased significantly (p < 0.01) after FEOL and EH training intervention, but at D2HHS intervention, these indexes tended to decrease (p < 0.05). None of the three training protocols significantly improved SLJ performance (p > 0.05). CMJ vertical jump height and relative peak power were significantly higher after D2FEOL and D2EH interventions than after D1HHS (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

D1HHS, D2FEOL and D2EH3 intervention methods can all improve the performance of sub-elite athletes in the 30-m test, CMJ test and SJ test. in the CMJ test, FEOL training demonstrated a higher acute augmentation effect compared to EH training.

The Impact of Different Velocity Losses on Post-Activation Performance Enhancement (PAPE) Effects in Sprint Athletes: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Study

Post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) can significantly improve athletic performance. This study investigated the effects of two different velocity loss (10% VL and 20% VL) protocols on PAPE in 20 m sprint performance among sprint athletes. Twenty-four male sprint athletes (100 m sprint time: 10.96 ± 0.15 s) participated in the study. A randomized crossover experimental design was used to compare the traditional group (TG) and 10% VL and 20% VL interventions. Sprint tests were conducted at 4, 8, 12, and 16 min post-intervention. A two-way repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant interaction effect between group and time on 20 m sprint performance (F = 2.817, p = 0.037, partial η2 = 0.585). Simple main effects analysis revealed significant improvements at 4 min for the 20% VL group (p < 0.05). Cohen's d values indicated improvements in 10 m sprint times at 8 min for all groups (TG: effect size (ES) = -0.270, 10% VL: ES = -0.038, 20% VL: ES = -0.279). Improvements in 20 m sprint times were observed at 4 min for the 20% VL group (ES = -0.296) and at 16 min for the 10% VL group (ES = -0.276). In conclusion, the velocity loss-based PAPE protocol (20% VL) demonstrated a superior induction of PAPE effects in sprint athletes at 4 min compared to traditional 1RM-based PAPE protocols. However, no significant differences were observed between the two protocols at 8, 12, and 16 min.

Effect of High-Intensity With Short-Duration Re-Warm-Up on Subsequent Performance in a Cold Environment

ABSTRACT

Yamashita, Y and Umemura, Y. Effect of high-intensity with short-duration re-warm up on subsequent performance in a cold environment. J Strength Cond Res 38(6): e280-e287, 2024-The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of high-intensity, short-duration re-warm-up (RW) during half time (HT) on subsequent performance in a cold environment. Eleven male subjects (age, 21 ± 2 years; height, 172.4 ± 4.5 cm; body mass, 65.6 ± 7.1 kg; V̇ o2 max, 47.5 ± 4.8 ml·kg -1 ·min -1 ) performed 2 experimental trials comprising 40 minutes of intermittent cycling exercise, which consisted of 15-second rest, 25-second unloading cycling, 10-second high-intensity cycling, and 70-second moderate-intensity cycling as the first half. In the second half, a cycling intermittent-sprint protocol (CISP) was performed, separated by a 15-minute HT period in cold conditions (5 °C, 50% relative humidity). Two experimental trials were included in a random order: (a) approximately 1 minute of high-intensity, short-duration RW (3 sets of 3-second maximal pedaling [body weight × 0.075 kp]) trial high-intensity intermittent cycling trials (HII); (b) 15 minutes of seated rest trial (CON). Cycling intermittent-sprint protocol consisted of 10 sets of a 2-minute exercise protocol, and each set consisted of 10-second rest, 5-second maximal pedaling (body weight × 0.075 kp), and 105-second active recovery at 50% maximum oxygen uptake (V̇ o2 max). Peak power output of 5-second maximal pedaling during CISP was higher in HII trials than in CON trials (HII: 807 ± 81 W, CON: 791 ± 78 W, p < 0.05). There was no significant difference in rectal temperature between trial types ( p > 0.05). These results suggest that high-intensity, short-duration RW may be a useful HT strategy for improving subsequent performance in cold environments.

The application of a single session of capacitive resistive electric transfer 24 h before exercise modifies the accelerometric pattern in standardbred racing trotters

BACKGROUND

It has been reported that capacitive resistive electric transfer (CRET) increases blood circulation, hemoglobin oxygenation and temperature in muscles. The attributed benefits of these changes have been linked to improved athletic performance, enhanced muscle flexibility and fastening recovery from exercise-induced fatigue. For all of this, the present research aims to investigate whether the application of CRET 24 h before exercise affects the accelerometric pattern in horses during exercise. Six sound Standardbred trotters were subjected to a CRET session of 40 min of duration, applied on both sides of the neck, back and croup, 24 h before a training session. Training sessions consisted of a warming-up (WU) for 6400 m and a training bout (TB) at their maximal training speed for 1600 m. The same protocol was followed for the device off (sham protocol), also applied 24 h before the training session. CRET and sham experiments were separated by one week, the order of application of both was randomly defined for each individual and drivers were blinded for the duration of the experiment. During the training sessions, horses wore an accelerometer fixed at the sternal level. Speed, stride frequency (SF), length (SL), regularity and symmetry and accelerometric activities were measured during WU and TB.

RESULTS

CRET increased speed, mediolateral and total accelerometric activities during WU and speed, SL, dorsoventral, longitudinal and total accelerometric activities during TB, but stride regularity and symmetry decreased.

CONCLUSION

The application of CRET 24 h before exercise increased speed and accelerometric activities, results that highlight the need to evaluate the interaction between CRET and training in order to develop new methods to limit fatigue. However, the decrease in stride regularity and symmetry after CRET application could be negative effects, which could be attributed to the increased speed.

Recommendations for physical activity and exercise in persons living with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE): consensus by an international task force

OBJECTIVE

This international task force aimed to provide healthcare professionals and persons living with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) with consensus-based recommendations for physical activity and exercise in SLE.

METHODS

Based on evidence from a systematic literature review and expert opinion, 3 overarching principles and 15 recommendations were agreed on by Delphi consensus.

RESULTS

The overarching principles highlight the importance of shared decision-making and the need to explain the benefits of physical activity to persons living with SLE and other healthcare providers. The 15 specific recommendations state that physical activity is generally recommended for all people with SLE, but in some instances, a medical evaluation may be needed to rule out contraindications. Pertaining to outdoor activity, photoprotection is necessary. Both aerobic and resistance training programmes are recommended, with a gradual increase in frequency and intensity, which should be adapted for each individual, and ideally supervised by qualified professionals.

CONCLUSION

In summary, the consensus reached by the international task force provides a valuable framework for the integration of physical activity and exercise into the management of SLE, offering a tailored evidence-based and eminence-based approach to enhance the well-being of individuals living with this challenging autoimmune condition.

Current warm-up practices before maximal sprinting in track-and-field (athletics)

BACKGROUND

Warm-up is commonly performed by track-and-field athletes before performing maximal sprinting activities. Whilst some warm-up strategies may enhance athletes' physical and mental readiness, less is known about the current athletes' behaviors and warm-up practices in track and field. Therefore, this study aimed to identify the warm-up practices in a population of athletes performing in sprinting disciplines.

METHODS

A cross-sectional exploratory study was performed in which track-and-field athletes, performing in athletics at a competitive level in disciplines requiring maximal acceleration and sprinting were recruited. We collected, using an online survey, information about 1) "General and Anthropometric data;" 2) "Athletics training practices" questioning the level of practices and the training frequency; and 3) "Athletics warm-up practices before maximal sprinting" questioning warm-up structure, duration and specific content.

RESULTS

A total of 114 athletes replied to the survey. They reported a mean weekly training duration of 10.5 (±4.0) hours and a pre-maximal sprint warm-up duration of 40.5 (±13.5) minutes. During warm-up, they were engaged in five principal activities: predominantly moderate jogging (95% participation, 8±3.3 minutes), succeeded by dynamic and/or ballistic stretching (78% participation, 9±4.3 minutes), followed by athletic drills (96% participation, 15±5.4 minutes), culminating in accelerations (100% participation) along with high-speed running (77% participation). Warm-up duration and composition differed across athletes' levels of practice and disciplines.

CONCLUSIONS

Most of the participants' warm-up practices were typically structured in a three-phase manner, comprising jogging, stretching, and specific training (athletic drills and accelerations). Most athletes followed scientific-based warm-up recommendations there are some areas where the evidence is limited, and more research is needed to determine the optimal warm-up routine for athletes.

Effects of Multicomponent Exercise on Community-Dwelling Older Adults With Mild Cognitive Impairment

PURPOSE

To explore the effects of a group-based multicomponent exercise program on general cognitive functioning, depression, and social functioning in community-dwelling older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and whether the effects can be maintained.

METHOD

Fifty older adults with MCI were conveniently recruited from two communities in the study area and randomly assigned to the intervention group or control group. The intervention group received three sessions of 60-minute, multicomponent exercise per week for 3 months, plus MCI-related health education. The control group only received MCI-related health education. Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and Montreal Cognitive Assessment Beijing Version (MoCA-BJ) were used to assess general cognitive function. The Functional Activities Questionnaire (FAQ) and Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS-30) were used to evaluate participants' social function and depression, respectively. Participants' exercise intensity was assessed using the Category Ratio Scale.

RESULTS

After the 3-month intervention, there were significant improvements in general cognitive function (p = 0.046), attention (p = 0.009), delayed recall (p = 0.015), and social function (p = 0.011) in the intervention group compared with the control group. However, after 3-month postintervention follow up, no significant differences in MMSE, MoCA-BJ, GDS-30, and FAQ scores were noted between groups.

CONCLUSION

The 3-month multicomponent exercise program improved general cognitive function and social functioning in community-dwelling older adults with MCI. However, there was no evidence that these benefits lasted for another 3 months after stopping the exercise program. [Research in Gerontological Nursing, 17(2), 65-79.].

Acute Effects of a Warm-Up Intervention on Pain, Productivity, Physical Capacities and Psychological Perceptions Among Vineyard Workers: a Cluster Randomized Trial

PURPOSE

Agriculture is one of the sectors that are the most concerned by musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). Workplace physical activity programs are one of the most promising solutions to prevent adverse consequences of MSDs such as pain or impairment in physical capacities. The aims of this study were twofold: (1) to investigate the acute effect of a warm-up session on pain, work performance, physical capacities and psychosocial perceptions among vineyard workers; (2) to determine the most beneficial warm-up modality for vineyard workers.

METHODS

A cluster randomized study was implemented among 92 French vineyard workers. A 15 min single session of warm-up was implemented among four groups corresponding to four different conditions: (1) hybrid warm-up intervention (HWU); (2) dynamic warm-up intervention (DWU); (3) stretching warm-up intervention (SWU); (4) no warm-up intervention (CONTROL).

RESULTS

DWU showed significant increased performance (p < 0.05), increased heart rate (p < 0.001), better readiness to work (p < 0.05) and lower workload (p < 0.05) than the CONTROL. HWU showed a better readiness to work (p < 0.01). SWU showed better work quality (p < 0.05). However, the three different warm-up protocols did significantly not differ from the CONTROL group in terms of perceived pain intensity, and physical capacities.

CONCLUSION

The present findings confirm some beneficial acute effects on performance, heart rate and psychological perceptions of a single warm-up session performed before pruning. The DWU seems to be the most beneficial warm-up modality.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT05425693. Registered 06/16/2022 in www.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov .

Acute effects of static and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching on hamstrings muscle stiffness and range of motion: a randomized cross-over study

This study aimed to compare the acute effects of static stretching (SS) and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching on hamstrings flexibility and shear modulus. Sixteen recreationally active young volunteers participated in a randomized cross-over study. Participants underwent an aerobic warm-up (WU), followed by either SS or PNF stretching. Range of motion (RoM) during passive straight leg raise and active knee extension, as well as shear modulus of the biceps femoris (BF) and semitendinosus (ST) muscles, were measured at baseline, post-WU, and post-stretching. Both stretching techniques significantly increased RoM, with no differences observed between SS and PNF (p < 0.001; η2 = 0.59-0.68). However, only PNF stretching resulted in a significant decrease in BF shear modulus (time×stretching type interaction: p = 0.045; η2 = 0.19), indicating reduced muscle stiffness. No changes in ST shear modulus were observed after either stretching technique. There was no significant correlation between changes in RoM and shear modulus, suggesting that the increase in RoM was predominantly due to changes in stretch tolerance rather than mechanical properties of the muscles. These findings suggest that both SS and PNF stretching can effectively improve hamstring flexibility, but PNF stretching may additionally reduce BF muscle stiffness. The study highlights the importance of considering individual muscle-specific responses to stretching techniques and provides insights into the mechanisms underpinning acute increases in RoM.

Attenuation of the increase of heart rate and oxygen consumption during progressive exercise in professional rugby players

BACKGROUND

The response of oxygen uptake (VO2) and heart rate (HR) to continuous progressive large muscle mass exercise is not always linear. This study aimed to compare the patterns of the Speed/VO2 (S/VO2) and speed/HR (S/HR) relationships during an incremental treadmill-running test in professional rugby players.

METHODS

Fourteen professional rugby athletes performed a maximal incremental treadmill-running test, following the Conconi test protocol. Speed, heart rate, and gas exchange parameters were recorded. The slope of the S/VO2 and S/HR relationships were mathematically determined.

RESULTS

The S/VO2 and S/HR relationships were linear up to a submaximal speed and curvilinear thereafter. The speed of locomotion at which the slope of the S/VO2 and S/HR relationships start to attenuate (VO2att and HRatt) were coincident (12.3±1.0 and 12.4±0.9 km/h), strongly correlated and in good agreement. VO2 values at VO2att (44.9±8.7 mL/kg/min) were significantly correlated with VO2 values at the ventilatory threshold (43.3±6.0 mL/kg/min) (R2=0.83, P=0.001) and in good agreement. The running speed/VO2 ratio (ΔS/ΔVO2) up to VO2att was significantly lower than that beyond VO2att (2.98±1.1 vs. 5.16±2.31); P<0,001).

CONCLUSIONS

The speed/oxygen uptake and S/HR relationships during progressive exercise start to attenuate at a coincident exercise intensity, and at oxygen uptake values strongly correlated with the ventilatory threshold. These findings further support the usefulness of the attenuation of the S/HR relationship as a practical tool for exercise testing and training purposes in professional rugby players.

Impact of warm-up methods on strength-speed for sprinters in athletics: a mini review

In athletics, achieving peak performance during competitions is crucial. Warm-up strategies play a crucial role in optimizing the strength-speed performance of sprinters in athletics, especially tailored to the physiological demands of speed events. The need to balance flexibility, prevent injuries, and enhance power output makes the selection of an effective warm-up protocol essential. This narrative review examines different warm-up methods used by athletes and their effects on strength-speed in sprinters in athletics. The main findings indicate that Foam Rolling (FR), Isometric Exercises and Pre-Competitive Massages have no significant effects on sprint performance. Static stretching and prolonged Pre-Competitive Massages have negative impacts on strength and power. The Vibration Platform enhances step length, step rate and running velocity, jump height and total number of jumps performed in a 30-s period in non-experienced sprinters. Eccentric Exercise increases vertical force, Post-Activation Potentiation (PAP) demonstrates a reduction in 100-meter time and short-term improvement in vertical and horizontal jumps. Blood Flow Restriction (BFR) significantly improving jump height and flight time. Various warm-up methods have been identified, some focusing on flexibility, others potentially detrimental, and some enhancing strength and power. Implementing effective warm-ups, particularly those promoting strength and power, poses a challenge for coaches seeking reliable alternatives to boost performance.

Effects of Upper-Body and Lower-Body Conditioning Activities on Postactivation Performance Enhancement During Sprinting and Jumping Tasks in Female Soccer Players

ABSTRACT

Santos da Silva, V, Nakamura, FY, Gantois, P, Nogueira Gouveia, JN, Peña, J, Beato, M, and Abade, E. Effects of upper-body and lower-body conditioning activities on postactivation performance enhancement during sprinting and jumping tasks in female soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 38(2): 342-349, 2024-This study aimed to investigate the postactivation performance enhancement (PAPE) effects of "specific" (half-back squat) and "nonspecific" (bench press) conditioning activities on sprinting and jumping performances in female soccer players. Fourteen players (mean ± SD : age = 22.3 ± 4.0 years; body mass = 60.2 ± 7.8 kg; height = 164.1 ± 4.2 cm) competing at national level (first League) participated in this within-subject crossover study. The players performed a warm-up protocol including 3 sets of 3 repetitions of half-back-squat or bench press exercises at 90% 1RM or a warm-up protocol without lifting weights (i.e., control condition). Forty-meter shuttle sprints (20 + 20 m with change of direction [COD-180°]), countermovement jump (CMJ), and horizontal jump (HJ) performances were recorded 6 minutes after the conditioning activities protocols or the control condition. Nonsignificant large positive effects were found for the HJ after the half-back-squat (ES = 1.68; p > 0.05) and bench press (ES = 1.68; p > 0.05) protocols. Although nonsignificant, HJ changes ( Δ = 0.07 m) were greater than the smallest worthwhile change (0.02 m) and standard error of measurement (0.03 m) after both conditioning activities. Moreover, no significant changes were found for sprint and CMJ performance after neither half-back-squat nor bench press protocols ( p > 0.05). In conclusion, both specific and nonspecific conditioning activities using heavy loads (i.e., 90% 1RM) may be suitable to enhance individual HJ. Finally, both conditioning activities are potentially ineffective for increasing sprint and CMJ performance in the context of this study.

Changes in the Sprint, Vertical Jump and Quadriceps Strength after a Capacitive Resistive Electric Transfer Therapy Intervention-A Randomized Clinical Trial

Generating large mechanical power during actions such as sprinting or jumping is a crucial factor in many sports. These types of actions require a good warm-up activation. Capacitive-Resistive Electric Transfer (CRET) is a non-invasive therapy based on the application of radio frequency electric currents within the range of 300 kHz-1.2 MHz to accelerate tissue metabolic activity. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of adding CRET to an active warm-up protocol in young adult athletes. For the double-blind randomized clinical trial, 60 healthy athletes were recruited and divided into an Experimental group (EG) and a Sham group (SG). EG received a CRET protocol in addition to an active warm-up. SG carried out the same warm-up but with a placebo CRET. The main outcome measures were isometric extension force, countermovement-jump (CMJ), 30 m-sprint test, and surface electromyography (sEMG). There is no statistically significant interaction (group-time) for any of the variables studied. Significant main effects for time were found in isometric extension force (p = 0.008); 30 m sprint (p = 0.017); rectus femoris sEMG during CMJ (p = 0.002); vastus lateralis sEMG during CMJ (p = 0.012); vastus medialis during CMJ (p = 0.010) and rectus femoris sEMG during the 30 m sprint test (p = 0.012). Non-significant differences between means are observed in the isometric extension force (48.91 EG; 10.87 SG) and 30 m sprint (-0.13 EG; -0.04 SG) variables. To conclude, a non-significant tendency was observed in sprint and quadriceps strength following CRET therapy, compared to the individuals' pre-treatment state. Future research should use more treatment sessions to observe this tendency.

Innovative integration: optimizing performance through warm-up and photobiomodulation in high-intensity test

We investigated whether the application of photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) immediately after a standardized warm-up (WU + PBMT) or traditional PBMT (no pre-warming) would influence performance in intermittent testing and intensity variables. In a counterbalanced randomized crossover design, twelve female futsal players (mean age: 23.9 ± 3.8 years) attended four sessions. Each session involved either a standardized warm-up or maintaining seated rest for five minutes. Subsequently, PBMT or placebo (with the PBMT device turned off) was applied, followed by the YoYo Intermittent Recovery Level 1 test (YYIR1) during which we assessed heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, and blood lactate levels. The performance in YYIIR1 was superior (p = 0.02) in the WU + PBMT condition (440.0 ± 59.0 m) compared to the WU + Placebo (353.3 ± 94.7 m), and placebo alone (no warm-up) (325.0 ± 67.2 m). We conclude that a combination of a specific warm-up before PBMT application improves high-intensity intermittent performance in amateur female futsal players without affecting intensity variables.

A warm-up strategy with or without voluntary contraction on athletic performance, lower-leg temperature, and blood lactate concentration

It is unclear whether temperature-related warm-up effects can be accomplished by passive warm-up (e.g., by external heat). Therefore, this study compared the effects of two different warm-up protocols with and without voluntary contraction on subsequent sprinting and jumping performance. Eighteen healthy male collegiate students (23.3 ± 2.4 years, 173.8 ± 7.2 cm, 70.5 ± 9.3 kg) randomly experienced 10 min of active (jogging on a treadmill; belt speed: 9.0 km/h at a 1% incline) and passive warm-up (lying down in the warm-up chamber; inner ambient temperature set at 35°C) protocols, followed by ten sets of intermittent exercises in two separate sessions. Athletic performance, lower-leg muscle temperature, and blood lactate concentration were statistically compared using analysis of variance with Tukey-Kramer post-hoc comparisons. Cohen's d effect sizes (ES) were also calculated. There was no warm-up protocol effect over time on 20 m sprint times (condition × time: F9,323 = 1.26, p = 0.25). Maximal vertical jump heights were different (condition × time: F9,323 = 2.0, p = 0.04) such that subjects who performed the active warm-up protocol jumped higher (51.4 cm) than those who did the passive warm-up (49.2 cm, p = 0.04). There was a warm-up protocol effect over time on lower-leg muscle temperature (condition × time: F12,425 = 13.99, p<0.0001) in that there was a 5.5% and 5.8% increase after active (32.8 to 34.6°C, ES = 2.91) and passive (32.9 to 34.9°C, ES = 3.28) warm-up protocols, respectively. Blood lactate concentration was different (condition × time: F2,85 = 3.61, p = 0.03) since the values at the post-warm-up measurements were different between warm-up conditions (active: 4.1 mmol/L; passive: 1.5 mmol/L, p = 0.004, ES = 1.69). Subsequent sprint and jump performance did not differ between the duration- and muscle temperature-matched active and passive warm-up protocols. Non-thermal effects from the warm-up activity may be minimal for sprinting and jumping performance in recreationally active males.

Effects of Swedish Massage at Different Times of the Day on Dynamic and Static Balance in Taekwondo Athletes

The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of different durations of Swedish massage on the static and dynamic balance at different times of the day in taekwondo athletes. Twelve taekwondo athletes who had been practicing on a regular basis for more than 5 years participated in this study. Taekwondo athletes completed static and dynamic balance tests either after a no-massage protocol (NMP), a five-minute massage protocol (5MMP), a ten-minute massage protocol (10MMP), or a fifteen-minute massage protocol (15MMP) two times a day in the morning (08:00-12:00) and in the evening (16:00-20:00), on non-consecutive days. The findings of this study suggest that the duration of the massage has a discernible impact on dynamic balance, particularly with regard to the right foot. Taekwondo athletes who received a 10MMP or 15MMP displayed significantly improved dynamic balance compared to those in the NMP. Importantly, these improvements were independent of the time of day when the massages were administered. It underscores the potential benefits of incorporating short-duration Swedish massages into taekwondo athletes' pre-competition routines to enhance dynamic balance. These findings highlight the potential benefits of incorporating short-duration Swedish massages into taekwondo athletes' pre-competition routines to enhance dynamic balance, a critical component of their performance, regardless of the time of day.

Before hitting the slopes: athlete and staff perspectives on warm-up and activation in high-performance snowsports

To explore warm-up and activation (W&A) practices in high-performance snowsports to describe their importance, application and potential improvements based on the perspectives of elite-level athletes and staff members. Qualitative study consisting of semistructured interviews with 13 international elite-level athletes, on-snow coaches, strength and conditioning coaches, sports physiotherapists and sports psychologists from different snowsports and subdisciplines: alpine skiing, freestyle skiing (park and pipe, aerials, moguls) and snowboarding (park and pipe, snowboard cross). The interviews were transcribed verbatim and analysed based on the principles of grounded theory. The main themes raised by the participants were (1) the importance of readiness for sports participation as the motive for W&A, (2) how readiness is reached with a structured W&A routine and (3) the different athlete-specific, task-specific and environmental-specific factors for optimal W&A. Athletes and staff members considered W&A an essential measure to get physically and mentally ready for sports participation. Being ready was described as a key factor for performance and injury prevention. For these athletes, adherence to W&A was the result of a process of experiencing the beneficial effects of W&A and learning from sustaining one or more injuries. Broad implementation of basic physical and mental W&A at the youth level was considered an important measure to increase the overall adoption of W&A as an inherent part of training and competition. At the elite level, W&A is performed to reach athletes' mental and physical readiness for performance enhancement and injury prevention. W&A is acknowledged as a complex and dynamic programme and is typically adapted to sport-specific demands, injury risks, environmental circumstances and individual needs and preferences. Overall, this study provides valuable contextual insights into the complexity of W&A and the factors that need to be considered to make sport-specific recommendations.

Changes in passive and active hamstrings shear modulus are not related after a warmup protocol

This study aimed to determine whether changes in hamstrings passive and active shear modulus after a warmup protocol are correlated. Twenty males without a history of hamstring strain injury participated. Muscle shear modulus was assessed using ultrasound-based shear wave elastography at rest and during isometric contractions at 20% of maximal voluntary isometric effort before and immediately after a warmup protocol. Changes in passive shear modulus did not seem to be associated with changes in active shear modulus. The results of this study suggest that changes in passive and active hamstring shear modulus are not associated after a standardized warmup intervention.

Revisiting the 'Whys' and 'Hows' of the Warm-Up: Are We Asking the Right Questions?

The warm-up is considered beneficial for increasing body temperature, stimulating the neuromuscular system and overall preparing the athletes for the demands of training sessions and competitions. Even when warm-up-derived benefits are slight and transient, they may still benefit preparedness for subsequent efforts. However, sports training and competition performance are highly affected by contextual factors (e.g., how is the opponent acting?), and it is not always clear what should be the preferred warm-up modalities, structure and load for each athlete and context. Further, we propose that the warm-up can also be used as a pedagogical and training moment. The warm-up may serve several different (albeit complementary) goals (e.g., rising body temperature, neuromuscular activation, attentional focus) and be performed under a plethora of different structures, modalities, and loads. The current commentary highlights the warm-up period as an opportunity to teach or improve certain skills or physical capacities, and not only as a preparation for the subsequent efforts. Moreover, the (justified) call for individualized warm-ups would benefit from educating athletes about exploring different warm-up tasks and loads, providing a broad foundation for future individualization of the warm-up and for more active, engaged, and well-informed participation of the athletes in deciding their own warm-up practices.

A century of exercise physiology: concepts that ignited the study of human thermoregulation. Part 3: Heat and cold tolerance during exercise

In this third installment of our four-part historical series, we evaluate contributions that shaped our understanding of heat and cold stress during occupational and athletic pursuits. Our first topic concerns how we tolerate, and sometimes fail to tolerate, exercise-heat stress. By 1900, physical activity with clothing- and climate-induced evaporative impediments led to an extraordinarily high incidence of heat stroke within the military. Fortunately, deep-body temperatures > 40 °C were not always fatal. Thirty years later, water immersion and patient treatments mimicking sweat evaporation were found to be effective, with the adage of cool first, transport later being adopted. We gradually acquired an understanding of thermoeffector function during heat storage, and learned about challenges to other regulatory mechanisms. In our second topic, we explore cold tolerance and intolerance. By the 1930s, hypothermia was known to reduce cutaneous circulation, particularly at the extremities, conserving body heat. Cold-induced vasodilatation hindered heat conservation, but it was protective. Increased metabolic heat production followed, driven by shivering and non-shivering thermogenesis, even during exercise and work. Physical endurance and shivering could both be compromised by hypoglycaemia. Later, treatments for hypothermia and cold injuries were refined, and the thermal after-drop was explained. In our final topic, we critique the numerous indices developed in attempts to numerically rate hot and cold stresses. The criteria for an effective thermal stress index were established by the 1930s. However, few indices satisfied those requirements, either then or now, and the surviving indices, including the unvalidated Wet-Bulb Globe-Thermometer index, do not fully predict thermal strain.

Prepare to fail or failing to prepare? Acute performance after the 11+ with and without strength exercises

Objectives

The 11+ is an effective injury prevention warm-up programme but is often poorly adopted in practice. One reason for low compliance is the claim that the strength training part of the programme acutely impairs muscle performance before the football activity. This study aims to compare the acute effects of the 11+ with (WU+S) or without (WU-S) the strength training part on performance.

Methods

Fifteen female junior football players completed WU+S and WU-S on two separate days in randomised order. Maximal voluntary torque in knee extension and flexion (60°/s and 180°/s) and countermovement jump (CMJ) were tested before and after performing the warm-up protocol. Sprint performance and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were assessed post-warm-up.

Results

Warm-up with strength training reduced peak torque in knee flexion at 180°/s more than WU-S, while no differences were found at 60°/s. Knee extension work was reduced more with WU+S than WU-S at 180°/s, but no differences at 60°/s. Peak torque angle and CMJ were unaffected. Players were slower on 20 and 30 m sprints after WU+S than WU-S. The RPE was higher after WU+S than WU-S, but there were no differences in readiness to train between the two protocols.

Conclusion

Performing the 11+ programme as a warm-up routine with the strength training part can impair subsequent knee flexion torque at high velocity and sprint performance in female junior football players compared with performing the 11+ warm-up without the strength part.

Ischemic Preconditioning, But Not Priming Exercise, Improves Exercise Performance in Trained Rock Climbers

ABSTRACT

MacDougall, KB, McClean, ZJ, MacIntosh, BR, Fletcher, JR, and Aboodarda, SJ. Ischemic preconditioning, but not priming exercise, improves exercise performance in trained rock climbers. J Strength Cond Res 37(11): 2149-2157, 2023-To assess the effects of ischemic preconditioning (IPC) and priming exercise on exercise tolerance and performance fatigability in a rock climbing-specific task, 12 rock climbers completed familiarization and baseline tests, and constant-load hangboarding tests (including 7 seconds on and 3 seconds off at an intensity estimated to be sustained for approximately 5 minutes) under 3 conditions: (a) standardized warm-up (CON), (b) IPC, or (c) a priming warm-up (PRIME). Neuromuscular responses were assessed using the interpolated twitch technique, including maximum isometric voluntary contraction (MVC) of the finger flexors and median nerve stimulation, at baseline and after the performance trial. Muscle oxygenation was measured continuously using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) across exercise. Time to task failure (T lim ) for IPC (316.4 ± 83.1 seconds) was significantly greater than CON (263.6 ± 69.2 seconds) ( p = 0.028), whereas there was no difference between CON and PRIME (258.9 ± 101.8 seconds). At task failure, there were no differences in MVC, single twitch force, or voluntary activation across conditions; however, recovery of MVC and single twitch force after the performance trial was delayed for IPC and PRIME compared with CON ( p < 0.05). Despite differences in T lim , there were no differences in any of the NIRS variables assessed. Overall, despite exercise tolerance being improved by an average of 20.0% after IPC, there were no differences in neuromuscular responses at task failure, which is in line with the notion of a critical threshold of peripheral fatigue. These results indicate that IPC may be a promising precompetition strategy for rock climbers, although further research is warranted to elucidate its mechanism of action.

Comparing the effect of intermittent blood flow restriction training and high-load resistance training in patients with patellofemoral pain: study protocol for a randomised trial

BACKGROUND

Patellofemoral pain (PFP) syndrome is a common knee joint functional disorder. Blood flow restriction (BFR) training has shown promise in improving PFP; however, the effectiveness of intermittent BFR (iBFR) training remains uncertain. This study aims to compare the rehabilitative effects of iBFR combined with low-load resistance training and high-load resistance training in PFP patients and to assess the effectiveness of iBFR combined with low-load resistance training for improving PFP.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

This randomised, patient-assessor blinded, controlled trial will include 42 eligible PFP patients randomly allocated to an intervention group (iBFR combined with low-load resistance training) or a control group (high-load resistance training) in a 1:1 ratio. Participants will receive interventions three times per week for 8 weeks and will be followed up for 24 weeks. The primary outcome measure is pain, and the secondary outcomes include self-reported function, quality of life, muscle strength and muscle thickness. Assessments will be conducted at baseline, 8 weeks and 24 weeks during follow-up. Intention-to-treat analysis will be performed.Collectively, we expect that the findings of this randomised clinical trial will contribute to understanding the potential benefits of iBFR training and provide insightful guidance for developing more effective treatment strategies for patients with PFP.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

This study was approved by the Sports Science Experiment Ethics Committee of Beijing Sport University (2022274H). Written informed consent will be obtained from all participants. Trial results will be disseminated through peer-reviewed publications.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (ChiCTR2300068281).

Post-activation performance enhancement effect of drop jump on long jump performance during competition

Drop jump is widely used in training sessions, aiming for chronic effects on long jump performance. However, the acute effect of drop jump on long jump performance through its use as a Conditioning Activity (CA) has not been explored. The objective of this study was to verify the Post-activation Performance Enhancement (PAPE) responses induced by successive Drop Jumps (DJ) on competitive long jump performance. Eleven male jumpers (19.0 ± 2.0 years; 178.0 ± 9.0 cm; 73.1 ± 8.9 kg; and personal record 5.78 ± 0.44 m) volunteered for participation. The athletes performed 5 drop jumps 2 min (1'45-2'15 min) before the second, and fourth attempt during official competition of state level, the attempts without the use of CA were considered controls. The performance of the second (5.63 ± 0.43 m), third (5.65 ± 0.46, g = 0.24) and fourth (5.71 ± 0.34 m) jumps performed after activation were higher than the first (5.54 ± 0.45 m) in the control condition, p = 0.02, and p = 0.01 respectively. Differences were also found in the take-off vertical velocity of the jump between the fourth (1.55 ± 0.21) and the first jump (1.30 ± 0.40), p = 0.006. Jump performance showed positive correlation with approach velocity, r = 0.731, vertical take-off velocity, r = 0.412, and take-off duration, r = 0.508. The mean performance in jumping post-activation (5.67 ± 0.38 m) was higher than that without the use of previous CA (5.59 ± 0.44 m), p = 0.02, g = 0.19. The use of DJs as a CA prior to the long jump promotes improvements in the performance of the jump, which can be explained by the increase in the take-off vertical velocity in the athletes.

Four minutes of capacitive and resistive electric transfer therapy increased jump performance

Capacitive and resistive electric transfer (CRET) therapy can improve flexibility and increase muscle activity and may be useful as a warm-up technique. This study examined the effects of short-time CRET on jump performance. Thirty healthy men (age range, 20-40 years) were randomly divided into passive (n = 15) and active (n = 15) warm-up groups. The participants and statisticians were blinded to the participant allocation. The passive warm-up group underwent 4 min of CRET therapy on their posterior lower legs. The active warm-up group performed stretching and jogging for 4 min. Calf muscle temperature and rebound jump (RJ) index were measured before and after the intervention. The mean (± standard deviation) muscle temperature increased by 2.0 ± 0.5°C and 1.4 ± 0.6°C in the passive and active warm-up groups, respectively (p < 0.05). RJ index increased significantly in both groups (p < 0.05). Therefore, passive warm-up using CRET may help avoid energy loss while increasing the muscle temperature in a short time when compared with traditional active warm-up techniques.

The Effects of Different Re-Warm-Up Strategies on Power, Changing of Direction and Ball Shooting Velocity in Well-Trained Soccer Players

The purpose of the study was to investigate whether a re-warm-up training session either with tuck jumps and linear sprints or with changing of directions may enhance power, agility or ball shooting velocity in well-trained soccer players. Ten soccer players (age: 18.2 ± 1.7 years; body mass: 64.4 ± 8.0 kg; body height: 1.71 ± 0.04 m) participated in the study. Players performed three different re-warm-up interventions including no re-warm-up (C), change of direction (COD) and jump-sprint condition (JS). Before each re-warm-up intervention, players performed the same warm-up condition followed by 8 min of passive rest. Following the re-warm-up interventions, countermovement jump (CMJ), T-Test agility time-trial and ball shooting velocity were measured. Performance in CMJ height, power and power per body mass remained unchanged following all three conditions (p > 0.05). However, the agility time-trial was significantly reduced following COD re-warm-up compared to C (-1.7 ± 1.6%, p = 0.03). Ball shooting velocity was increased following COD compared to C (4.7 ± 3.8%, p = 0.014), while a statistical trend was found between JS and C interventions (4.8 ± 5.4%, p = 0.060). These results suggest that a re-warm-up intervention including changing of directions may significantly enhance T-Test agility time-trial and ball shooting velocity in well-trained soccer players.

Electric Muscle Stimulation (EMS) Does Not Improve Anaerobic Performance Measures During a Repeated Wingate Test

Introduction: The aim of this study was to examine differences between a control warm-up and an Electric Muscle Stimulation (EMS)-induced warm-up in off-road cyclists when examining anaerobic performance measures from a repeated Wingate test (WAnT). Methods: Twelve trained off-road cyclists completed a randomized crossover study (age: 31 ± 10 years, height: 176.79 ± 6.09 cm, body mass: 74.57 ± 4.77 kg). Participants completed two randomized, separate testing sessions involving a control warm-up and an EMS warm-up before undergoing the repeated WAnT, which was used to collect anaerobic performance and physiolo- gical measures during both sessions. High-frequency EMS was applied to the knee extensor muscles for 4 min after a standardized warm-up during the EMS session. Results: Analysis revealed that there were no significant differences between mean power output, peak power output, and percentage decrement between the two sessions. The EMS session resulted in significantly lower average HR values and significantly lower differences in pre-to-post-test blood lactate values when compared to the control session. Discussion: According to the results of this study, an acute application of EMS is not a useful tool for off-road cyclists to improve power output or maintain anaerobic capacity. Hence, its use before competition is questionable.

Using Deadlifts as a Postactivation Performance Enhancement Strategy in Warm-ups in Football

ABSTRACT

Abade, E, Brito, J, Gonçalves, B, Saura, L, Coutinho, D, and Sampaio, J. Using deadlifts as a postactivation performance enhancement strategy in warm-ups in football. J Strength Cond Res 37(9): 1821-1827, 2023-Postactivation performance enhancement activities may be relevant warm-up strategies aiming to improve subsequent physical performance. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the effects of adding barbell deadlift or hex-bar deadlift exercises to current warm-up routines on running and jumping performances in football players. Ten highly trained male football players participated in the study during the competitive phase of the season. All players performed 3 protocols in the same week: a standard warm-up that included players' regular routines and 2 other protocols with the addition of barbell or hex-bar deadlift, after the end of the warm-up (3 sets of 3 reps, progressing set by set from 60% to 85% repetition maximum). All protocols had the same time interval between pretest (immediately after the warm-up) and posttest (15 minutes after the warm-up). Vertical jumping (countermovement jump [CMJ]; Abalakov jump [AJ]) and running performances (505 test) were impaired 15 minutes after the standard warm-up (CMJ: -6.7 ± 4.2%; AJ: -8.1 ± 8.4%; and 505 time: 1.4 ± 2.5%). For warm-up with the addition of barbell deadlift, vertical jump increased by 4.3 ± 5.6% (Cohen's dunb : 0.23 [0.02-0.47]) and 505 time decreased by -5.9 ± 3.6% (Cohen's dunb : 0.97 [-1.68 to -0.43]). The warm-up with hex-bar deadlift led to trivial changes for CMJ and AJ, but 505 time decrease by -2.7 ± 2.6% (Cohen's dunb : -0.53 [-1.01 to -0.13]). The deadlift exercise can be added to warm-up routines to maintain or even enhance acute physical performance. However, coaches and practitioners should be aware that performance enhancements resultant from deadlift may vary according to individual physical profiles.

The effect of three different pre-match warm-up structures on male professional soccer players' physical fitness

BACKGROUND

Optimizing the soccer players' match preparation is one of the most relevant concerns of coaches for strength and conditioning training. Thus, the aim of this study was to analyze the effects of three pre-match warm-up structures on the physical condition of male professional soccer players.

MATERIALS & METHODS

Seventeen male professional soccer players (age: 20.9 ± 2.4 years) of one Tunisian Professional Soccer League team participated in this study. Players performed three times a typical pre-match warm-up (WU) [aerobic phase (AE); neuromuscular phase (NM); velocity phase (VL); and ball-specific phase (BS) variating the order of the included phases/exercises: WU1 (AE + BS + NM + VL); WU2 (AE + NM + VL + BS); and WU3 (AE + VL + BS + NM). After each warm-up phase, players completed the following physical fitness tests: linear sprint test, countermovement jump test, 15-m ball dribbling agility test and ball shooting test. Additionally, the rate of perceived exertion (RPE) was registered after each warm-up.

RESULTS

The results indicated significant differences between WU1 and WU3, with better results in the ball shooting test and RPE in WU3. In addition, there were no significant differences in the other variables and between other warm-up structures. These findings could be of great interest for coaches to the strength and conditioning coaches for professional soccer teams in order to improve the players physical performance and perceived exertion.

Moderate intensity active recovery improves performance in a second wingate test in cyclists

Background

The aim of the present study was to compare the effects of active (AR) vs. passive recovery (PR) between two Wingate Anaerobic Tests (WAnT) on power output, blood lactate (BLa) and oxygen consumption (VO₂) in a second WAnT.

Methods

Twelve well-trained cyclists underwent three experimental sessions. In the first session, they completed an incremental test for maximum oxygen consumption (V O₂max) and lactate threshold determination. In the second and third sessions, cyclists completed, in random order, two WAnT tests separated by 30-min recovery intervals, during which they performed an AR at 70% of the V O₂ at lactate threshold (V O₂LT) or a PR. The cardiorespiratory, metabolic, and mechanical responses in the two recovery conditions were compared.

Results

No differences were found in the VO₂-on kinetics between WAnT tests (p > 0.05). As expected, blood lactate kinetics showed a greater clearance (from the 7th to the 31st min, p < 0.001) during AR; however, no differences were found in peak BLa between conditions (p > 0.05). Mean and peak power, and total work were significantly higher in the second WAnT after AR (p < 0.001), while the power decline was also lower in this condition (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

The submaximal active recovery strategy used in the present study can induce an improvement in mechanical power and total work during a second WAnT. This suggests that AR of submaximal intensity can induce a post-activation performance enhancement when used during the recovery phase between maximal anaerobic efforts.

Post-Activation Performance Enhancement as a Strategy to Improve Bench Press Performance to Volitional Failure

Post-Activation Performance Enhancement (PAPE) has been commonly used as a strategy to improve acute force production, although its effects on performance to volitional failure are still unknown. The aim of this study was to analyse the influence of a PAPE protocol on bench press performance in a training set to volitional failure in trained individuals. Fourteen participants with at least two years of resistance training experience (age 24.57 ± 2.7 years; body mass 77.47 ± 12.2 kg; body height 174.21 ± 7.4 cm; medium grip bench press 1 repetition maximum (1RM): 101.6 ± 25.8 kg), of which 14 completed the control protocol and 12 completed the experimental protocol, took part in the study. After a standardised warm-up, participants completed three sessions: 1) a 1RM test for the medium grip bench press, 2) a control condition consisting of a set of the bench press to volitional failure with 80% 1RM (CON), and 3) an experimental condition consisting of a set of the bench press to volitional failure with 80% 1RM after a PAPE protocol (PAPE). The PAPE protocol consisted of a heavy set of one repetition with their 93% 1RM as the conditioning activity. Under the PAPE condition, participants performed significantly more repetitions than under the CON condition (p = 0.008, ES = 0.5, small effect), their last repetition was slower (p = 0.02, ES = 0.52, small effect) and presented a higher velocity loss (p = 0.004, ES = 0.75, moderate effect). These results suggest that a traditional PAPE protocol improves the number of repetitions performed to volitional failure.

The plausible effects of wearing face masks on sports performance - A scoping review

Objectives

The objectives of this scoping review are to discuss, firstly, the positive aspects of wearing face masks during training (such as a barrier to COVID-19 transmission, air pollutant exposure, and adding load on respiratory resistance flow); secondly, the negative aspects (adverse effects on body temperature and hypoxia risks); and thirdly, the training responses of wearing face masks on aerobic and anaerobic performance.

News

Besides social distancing and hand hygiene, wearing a face mask is proposed to be the prime advocacy for virus containment. During the period of high risk of contamination, the return to sport guidelines proposed by international and national sport federations included wearing face masks during training sessions. However, it is necessary to discuss the pros and cons of wearing face masks during exercise.

Prospects

Although it was essential to wear a face mask during exercise or sport-specific training, there is conflicting evidence on the implications of the use of face masks on physical, physiological as well as psychological well-being or performance. Based on the conflicting empirical findings and anecdotal evidence, certain recommendations have been made for adequate use of face masks during exercise; both to break the chain of transmission and prevent the physiological compromise expected from wearing face masks during exercise. The present review can help stakeholders balance sport guidelines in the event of a respiratory virus pandemic with athlete safety.

Conclusion

Conflicting evidence of mechanistic links between the dose of exercise and the possible adverse effects associated with exercising with face masks is available. Adequately powered studies with strong methodological quality on appropriate selection of masks and usage based on the intensity, duration, and type of sport, age, and gender is needed now for the stakeholders to make informed decisions with respect to exercising with face masks.

Effects of rest interval and training intensity on jumping performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis investigating post-activation performance enhancement

Background: There is no clear agreement regarding the ideal rest interval and training intensity to optimize post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) after barbell squat (BS). Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of rest interval and training intensity on jumping performance due to PAPE. Methods: Searches were performed in PubMed, Web of Science, and EBSCO databases. We included studies that satisfied the following criteria: (1) eligible studies should be randomized controlled trials; (2) eligible studies should investigate the acute effect of barbell squat-induced PAPE on jump performance; (3) eligible studies should use countermovement jump, squat jump, or vertical jump as the outcome measure. Results: From 2518 search records initially identified, 19 studies were eligible for meta-analysis. Our meta-analysis results showed that BS had no significant effect on improving jumping performance due to PAPE (Cohen's d = 0.09, p = 0.08). Subgroup analysis showed that rest interval between 0-1 min was detrimental to jumping performance (Cohen's d = -0.33, p < 0.01), while rest intervals between 4-7 min (Cohen's d = 0.31, p < 0.01) and 8-9 min (Cohen's d = 0.26, p = 0.02) provided favorable jumping performance outcomes. In addition, low-intensity and moderate-intensity BS had no significant effect on jump performance, while high-intensity BS showed results consistent with rest interval. Conclusion: Our study indicated that both low-intensity and moderate-intensity BS failed to induce PAPE, and it is recommended that future studies use high-intensity BS to induce PAPE. A rest interval of 4-9 min had a beneficial impact on jump height, and an interval range of 4-7 min seems to be the best rest interval between conditioning activity and jumping performance.

Does Smartphone Use Affect a Subsequent Swimming Training Session? Preliminary Results in Amateur Triathletes

To date, the literature has failed to individuate a clear motivation for the performance decrement after a mental fatigue-inducing task. This study aimed to evaluate biomechanical and perceptual variables during a swimming training session in different mental fatigue states. Seven amateur triathletes watched a documentary, utilized a smartphone, or performed an AX-CPT for 45 min randomly on three different days. After, they performed a 15-min warm-up followed by 6 × 200 m at constant pre-set speed plus one 200 m at maximal effort. The mental fatigue status was assessed by the visual analog scale (VAS) and short-Stroop task results before, post-mental task, and post-swimming session. The biomechanical and motor coordination variables during swimming were assessed using five IMU sensors and video analysis. The heart rate and rate of perceived exertion were monitored during the task. No differences in biomechanical and perceptual variables were found between and within conditions. Higher mental fatigue was found only in the AX-CPT condition at post task by VAS. In this preliminary study, no changes in swimming biomechanics were highlighted by mental fatigue, but the warm-up performed may have counteracted its negative effects. Further studies are recommended.

Effects of High-Intensity Warm-Up on 5000-Meter Performance Time in Trained Long-Distance Runners

Warm-up protocols with high intensities before continuous running provide potential benefits for middle-distance runners. Nevertheless, the effect of high-intensity warm-ups on long-distance runners remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to verify the effect of a high-intensity warm-up protocol on 5000 m performance in trained runners. Thirteen male runners (34 ± 10 years, 62 ± 6 kg, 62.7 ± 5.5 ml/kg/min) performed two 5000 m time trials, preceded by two different warm-ups. One high-intensity warm up (HIWU: 1x 500 m (70% of the running intensity) + 3x 250 m (100% of the running intensity) and one low-intensity warm up (LIWU: 1x 500 m (70% of the running intensity) + 3x 250 m (70% of the running intensity)), where the running intensities were calculated using the results obtained in the Cooper test. Physiological and metabolic responses, and endurance running performance parameters, were evaluated by the Counter Movement Jump (CMJ), running rating of perceived exertion (RPE), blood lactate concentration (BLa), and performance running. Total time for the 5000 m was lower using HIWU when compared to LIWU (1141.4 ± 110.4 s vs. 1147.8 ± 111.0 s; p = 0.03; Hedges' g = 0.66). The HIWU warm-up led to an improvement in pacing strategy during the time trial. After warm-up protocols, the performance on the CMJ was improved only when applying HIWU (p = 0.008). Post warm-up BLa was significantly higher for HIWU vs. LIWU (3.5 ± 1.0 mmol·L-1 vs. 2.3 ± 1.0 mmol·L-1; p = 0.02), with similar behavior for the RPE (p = 0.002), internal load of the session (p = 0.03). The study showed that a high-intensity warm-up protocol can improve performance in the 5000 m in trained endurance runners.

Are Acute Effects of Foam-Rolling Attributed to Dynamic Warm Up Effects? A Comparative Study

Over the last decade, acute increases in range of motion (ROM) in response to foam rolling (FR) have been frequently reported. Compared to stretching, FR-induced ROM increases were not typically accompanied by a performance (e.g., force, power, endurance) deficit. Consequently, the inclusion of FR in warm-up routines was frequently recommended, especially since literature pointed out non-local ROM increases after FR. However, to attribute ROM increases to FR it must be ensured that such adaptations do not occur as a result of simple warm-up effects, as significant increases in ROM can also be assumed as a result of active warm-up routines. To answer this research question, 20 participants were recruited using a cross-over design. They performed 4x45 seconds hamstrings rolling under two conditions; FR, and sham rolling (SR) using a roller board to imitate the foam rolling movement without the pressure of the foam rolling. They were also tested in a control condition. Effects on ROM were tested under passive, active dynamic as well as ballistic conditions. Moreover, to examine non-local effects the knee to wall test (KtW) was used. Results showed that both interventions provided significant, moderate to large magnitude increases in passive hamstrings ROM and KtW respectively, compared to the control condition (p = 0.007-0.041, d = 0.62-0.77 and p = 0.002-0.006, d = 0.79-0.88, respectively). However, the ROM increases were not significantly different between the FR and the SR condition (p = 0.801, d = 0.156 and p = 0.933, d = 0.09, respectively). No significant changes could be obtained under the active dynamic (p = 0.65) while there was a significant decrease in the ballistic testing condition with a time effect (p < 0.001). Thus, it can be assumed that potential acute increases in ROM cannot be exclusively attributed to FR. It is therefore speculated that warm up effects could be responsible independent of FR or imitating the rolling movement, which indicates there is no additive effect of FR or SR to the dynamic or ballistic range of motion.

The interplay between bicarbonate kinetics and gastrointestinal upset on ergogenic potential after sodium bicarbonate intake: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial

This double-blind placebo-controlled cross-over study utilized comprehensive monitoring of blood bicarbonate (HCO₃^¯) kinetics and evaluation of gastrointestinal (GI) upset to determine their impact on an ergogenic potential of sodium bicarbonate (SB) co-ingested with carbohydrate (CHO). Nineteen CrossFit athletes performed 6 bouts of 15 s Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT) 90 min post-ingestion of 0.4 g·kg^-1 body mass (BM) of SB (SB + CHO treatment) or PLA (PLA + CHO treatment) with 15 g CHO. Blood HCO₃^¯ concentration was evaluated at baseline, 30-, 60-, 75- and 90 min post-ingestion, in between WAnT bouts, and 3 and 45 min post-exercise, while GI upset at 120 min after protocol started. Control (no supplementation; CTRL) procedures were also performed. An effective elevation of extra-cellular buffering capacity was observed 60-90 min post-ingestion of SB + CHO. At mean peak blood HCO₃^¯, or at start of exercise an increase > 6 mmol·L^-1 in HCO₃^¯ was noted in 84% and 52.6% participants, respectively. SB + CHO did not prevent performance decrements in WAnT bouts. There were no significant relationships between changes in blood HCO₃^¯ and WAnTs' performance. Total GI was significantly higher in SB + CHO compared to CTRL, and stomach problems in SB + CHO compared to CTRL and PLA + CHO. There were inverse associations between peak- (p = 0.031; r = - 0.495), average- (p = 0.002; r = - 0.674) and minimum power (p = 0.008; r = - 0.585) and total GI upset, as well as average power and severe GI distress (p = 0.042; r = - 0.471) at SB + CHO. The implemented dose of SB + CHO was effective in improving buffering capacity, but did not prevent decrements in WAnTs' performance. GI side effects were crucial in affecting the ergogenic potential of SB and thus must be insightfully monitored in future studies.

Effects of half-time re-warm-up implemented during a simulated match in U14 female basketball players

Re-warm-up activities are recommended in team sports due to loss of muscle temperature during half-time. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of a half-time re-warm-up strategy on female basketball players. Ten players U14, separated into two teams of five players, performed either a passive rest condition or repeated sprints (5×14 m) plus 2 min of a shooting wheel (re-warm-up condition), during the half-time break (10 min) of a simulated basketball match, where only the first three quarters were played. The re-warm-up did not elicit significant effects on jump performance and locomotory responses during the match, except for the distance covered at a very light speed, which was significantly higher than in the passive rest condition (1767 ± 206 vs 1529 ± 142 m; p < 0.05). Mean heart rate (74 ± 4 vs 70 ± 5%) and rate of perceived exertion (4.5 ± 1.5 vs 3.1 ± 1.44 a.u.) were higher in the re-warm-up condition during half-time (p < 0.05). In conclusion, performing re-warm-up activities based on sprints could be a valuable strategy to avoid the reduction of sport performance during prolonged breaks, but given the limitations of the study, these relationships need to be further explored in official competitions.

Effects of High-Intensity Exercise Repetition Number During Warm-up on Physiological Responses, Perceptions, Readiness, and Performance

Purpose: We investigated whether varying the number of repetitions of high-intensity exercise during work-matched warm-ups modulates physiological responses (heart rate, metabolic responses, and core temperature), perceptions (ratings of perceived exertion, effort of breathing), readiness for exercise, and short-term exercise performance. Methods: Ten physically active young males performed a 30-s Wingate anaerobic test (WAnT) following a warm-up consisting of submaximal constant-workload cycling at 60% maximal oxygen uptake with no high-intensity cycling (constant-workload warm-up) or with 1, 4, or 7 repetitions of 10 s of high-intensity cycling at 110% maximal oxygen uptake. All warm-ups were matched for duration (10 min) and total work. Results: Warm-ups with seven repetitions of high-intensity cycling resulted in higher ratings of perceived whole-body exertion and effort of breathing than the constant-workload warm-up. Warm-up with four repetitions of high-intensity cycling produced greater readiness for a 30-s WAnT (7.33 ± 0.73 AU) than the constant-workload warm-up (6.33 ± 0.98 AU) (P = .022). Physiological responses did not differ among the four warm-up conditions, though peak heart rate was slightly higher (~5 beats/min) during warm-up with four or seven repetitions of high-intensity cycling than during the constant-workload warm-up. Peak, mean, and minimum power output during the 30-s WAnT did not differ among the four warm-up conditions. Conclusions: These results suggest that the effects of warm-ups with intermittent high-intensity exercise on physiological responses and short-term high-intensity exercise performance do not greatly differ from a warm-up with a work-matched submaximal constant-workload. However, they appear to modulate perceptions and readiness as a function of the number of repetitions of the high-intensity exercise.

Effects of a warm-up intervention at the workplace on pain, heart rate, work performance and psychological perception among vineyard workers

OBJECTIVES

Warm-up sessions before physical activity are widely used in sports to help prevent injury and improve performance. Nowadays, companies assume that the effects observed in a sport context can be transferred to the workplace, particularly among workers exposed to biomechanical strain. Yet research on the use of warm-up interventions at the workplace is rather scarce and, when available, leads to conflicting results due to the low quality of the studies. To the best of our knowledge, there are no published studies to date assessing the effects of warm-up sessions among vineyard workers. The present study was designed to investigate if and how a single supervised warm-up session could be effective on perceived pain intensity, heart rate, work performance, and psychological perceptions among vineyard workers.

METHODS

A total of 31 vineyard workers completed a randomized crossover study at the workplace. They were observed in real work settings, i.e. during the pruning activity. Each participant performed the activity under two conditions: 1) with a warm-up session beforehand (WU) and 2) without any warm-up (NWU). Heart rate (HR) was assessed continuously before and during the warm-up, and during the first hour of pruning. Perceived pain intensity over fifteen anatomical locations was assessed before (T0) and immediately after (T1) warm-up, and after the first hour of work (T2). Readiness to work was assessed at T1. Work performance was assessed in terms of the number of completed tasks (number of pruned vines). Perceived work quality and perceived work ability were assessed at T2.

RESULTS

Perceived pain intensity over the lumbopelvic region was significantly higher at T2 than at T0, and at T2 than at T1, in both WU and NWU. Perceived pain intensity was not significantly different at T2 in WU and NWU. HR at T1 was significantly higher in WU than in NWU. Work performance, readiness to work, and perceived work ability were significantly higher in WU than in NWU.

CONCLUSION

This study showed that offering vineyard workers a supervised warm-up session at the workplace can lead to promising results where work performance and psychological perception are concerned.

Altered Core Temperature and Salivary Melatonin in Athletes with a Cervical Spinal Cord Injury

Sleep disturbances are common in athletes with a cervical spinal cord injury (cSCI) and may be associated with circadian alterations. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare physiological circadian outputs between athletes with a cSCI and non-disabled controls (CON). Eight male wheelchair athletes with a cSCI and eight male CON (30±4 and 30±6 yrs, respectively) had their core body temperature (T_core), skin temperature (T_skin), and salivary melatonin measured during a 24 h period. In the cSCI group, daytime T_core was significantly lower (36.5 (0.2) vs 36.9 (0.3)°C; p=0.02) and time of the T_core sleep minimum was significantly earlier (23:56±00:46 vs 02:39 ± 02:57; p=0.04). The athletes with a cSCI had significantly lower T_core values during the beginning of the night compared with the CON group, but their T_core increased at a greater rate, thereafter, indicated by a significant time/group interaction (p=0.04). Moreover, the cSCI group did not display a salivary melatonin response and exhibited significantly lower concentrations at 22:00 (p=0.01) and 07:00 (p=0.01) compared with the CON group. Under natural living conditions, athletes with a cSCI displayed circadian changes in the T_core rhythm and nocturnal melatonin production.

The Effectiveness of Whole-Body Vibration and Heat Therapy on the Muscle Strength, Flexibility, and Balance Abilities of Elderly Groups

Whole-body vibration (WBV) is a novel exercise training measure that promotes the muscle strength, flexibility, and balance abilities of elderly groups. The feasibility and applicability of 20-30 min (lowering a heat pack at 73 °C by wrapping it in multiple layers of towels to 40-43 °C before it touched the skin) thermotherapy are increasingly being demonstrated by applications and clinical trials. Studies show that it increases the flexibility of macules and ligament. However, no studies have examined the interactions between the pre-exercise and post-exercise application of heat therapy (duration a training course). Therefore, this study investigates the effects of WBV and heat therapy on the muscle strength, flexibility, and balance abilities of elderly groups. Eighty middle-age and elderly participants with no regular exercise habits were enrolled in this study. They were randomly assigned to a WBV group, a WBV plus heat therapy group, a heat therapy alone group, and a control group. The WBV groups underwent 5-min, fixed-amplitude (4 mm), thrice-weekly WBV training sessions for 3 consecutive months on a WBV training machine. Participants' balance was measured using the limits of stability (LOS) test on a balance system. The pretest and posttest knee extensor and flexor strength were tested using an isokinetic lower extremity dynamometer. Pretest and posttest flexibility changes were measured using the sit-and-reach test. Significantly larger pretest and posttest differences in flexibility and muscle strength were observed in the WBV and WBV plus heat therapy groups. The addition of heat therapy to WBV resulted in the largest flexibility improvements.

Warm up with music and visual feedback can effect Wingate performance in futsal players

PURPOSE

Visual feedback and music while warm up may help elicit peak performance, but its effect during the Wingate anaerobic test (WAnT) in futsal players is unexplored. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the effects of music and visual stimulus on WAnT performance in futsal players.

METHODS

The study included 17 young male futsal players (age, 21.53 ± 1.32 years; height, 177.59 ± 5.75 cm; 73.71 ± 9.31 kg; BMI 23.342 ± .47). The WAnT was administered using three distinct protocols: with music (M), without music (NM), and with music and visual feedback (MV) following a 10-min warm-up at 72-h intervals. After WAnT, the following parameters were evaluated: (a) peak power output: PPO (W), (b) relative peak power output: RPPO (W/kg), (c) mean power output: MPO (W), (d) relative mean power output: RMPO (W/kg), (e) fatigue index: FI (%), and (f) minimum power output MIPO (W).

RESULTS

MV indicated that futsal players' WAnT values, including PPO, RPPO, MPO, RMPO, and MIPO improved more than with other protocols (p < 0.05). However, there was no significant difference between protocols for FI (%) WAnT values (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Listening to music and watching visual feedback while warm up before performing WAnT performance suggest to coaches and futsal players.

Swimming Warm-Up and Beyond: Dryland Protocols and Their Related Mechanisms—A Scoping Review

In swimming, the beneficial effects of the in-water warm-up are often undermined by the long transition periods before competition (≥ 20 min). For that reason, studies comparing the effects of in-water warm-ups followed by dryland activities have been conducted in the swimming literature. This has brought conflicting evidence due to large combinations of supervised and unsupervised warm-up procedures used. Therefore, a scoping review was performed to discuss (1) why warm-up strategies are important for competitive swimming; to identify (2) what are the different warm-up approaches available in the literature, and; to establish (3) what are the main conclusions, considerations and gaps that should be addressed in further research to provide clearer guidance for interventions. The search was conducted on PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus databases. To be considered eligible, studies must have assessed acute short-term responses of warm-up procedures in swimmers by using randomized controlled trials or pre-post study designs. A total of 42 articles were included in this review. The effectiveness of warm-up responses was evaluated based on the inclusion or not of warm-up, the type of conditioning activity (in-water exercise, in-water exercise combined with dryland or dryland exercise only), its duration, and intensity. (1) Warm-up mechanisms have been mainly related to temperature changes associated to cardiovascular adaptations and short-term specific neuromuscular adaptations. Thus, maintaining muscle activity and body temperature during the transition phase immediately prior to competition could help swimmers' performance; (2) the most common approach before a race usually included a moderate mileage of in-water warm-up (~ 1000 m) performed at an intensity of ≤ 60% of the maximal oxygen consumption, followed by dryland protocols to keep the muscle activity and body temperature raised during the transition phase. Dryland activities could only optimize performance in sprint swimming if performed after the in-water warm-up, especially if heated clothing elements are worn. Using tethered swimming and hand-paddles during warm-ups does not provide superior muscular responses to those achieved by traditional in-water warm-ups, possibly because of acute alterations in swimming technique. In contrast, semi-tethered resisted swimming may be considered as an appropriate stimulus to generate post-activation performance enhancements; (3) nothing has yet been investigated in backstroke, butterfly or individual medley, and there is a paucity of research on the effects of experimental warm-ups over distances greater than 100 m. Women are very under-represented in warm-up research, which prevents conclusions about possible sex-regulated effects on specific responses to the warm-up procedures.

Exploring acute effects of workplace warm-up intervention on pain, physical capacities, and productivity in agriculture:- A study protocol

BACKGROUND: Physical activity programs at the workplace have shown positive results on physical capacities and pain for several years. Due to the duration of the training session or the need for an instructor, these supervised programs are rather difficult to implement. For this reason, numerous companies, especially companies in manual sectors, are turning to another solution, i.e. warm-up intervention before the work shift. These interventions present various advantages such as short duration and the possibility to perform exercises in working clothes. Surprisingly, while the positive effects of warm-up interventions on pain, performance, and physical and psychological capacities are expansively reported in the sport context, effects of workplace warm-up intervention are lacking. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to assess the acute effects of three different warm-up interventions on physical (pain, strength, flexibility) and psychological (workload) functions and also on work-related outcomes (work performance, readiness to work) among vineyard workers. METHODS: A cluster randomized study will be implemented among French vineyard workers. Four groups of 30 participants will be constituted; corresponding to four different conditions: (1) hybrid warm-up intervention (HWU); (2) dynamic warm-up intervention (DWU); (3) stretching warm-up intervention (SWU); (4) no warm-up intervention (NWU). A total of 120 vineyard workers will be recruited to participate in the study. CONCLUSION: The results will provide more evidence about the short-term effects of warm-up interventions at the workplace and will provide more evidence on which warm-up modality is the most effective on pain, performance, and physical and psychological capacities among vineyard workers.