Effect of fatty acids on energy coupling processes in mitochondria

Liver sinusoidal endothelial cells rely on oxidative phosphorylation but avoid processing long-chain fatty acids in their mitochondria

BACKGROUND

It is generally accepted that endothelial cells (ECs), primarily rely on glycolysis for ATP production, despite having functional mitochondria. However, it is also known that ECs are heterogeneous, and their phenotypic features depend on the vascular bed. Emerging evidence suggests that liver sinusoidal ECs (LSECs), located in the metabolically rich environment of the liver, show high metabolic plasticity. However, the substrate preference for energy metabolism in LSECs remains unclear.

METHODS

Investigations were conducted in primary murine LSECs in vitro using the Seahorse XF technique for functional bioenergetic assays, untargeted mass spectrometry-based proteomics to analyse the LSEC proteome involved in energy metabolism pathways, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry-based analysis of acyl-carnitine species and Raman spectroscopy imaging to track intracellular palmitic acid.

RESULTS

This study comprehensively characterized the energy metabolism of LSECs, which were found to depend on oxidative phosphorylation, efficiently fuelled by glucose-derived pyruvate, short- and medium-chain fatty acids and glutamine. Furthermore, despite its high availability, palmitic acid was not directly oxidized in LSEC mitochondria, as evidenced by the acylcarnitine profile and etomoxir's lack of effect on oxygen consumption. However, together with L-carnitine, palmitic acid supported mitochondrial respiration, which is compatible with the chain-shortening role of peroxisomal β-oxidation of long-chain fatty acids before further degradation and energy generation in mitochondria.

CONCLUSIONS

LSECs show a unique bioenergetic profile of highly metabolically plastic ECs adapted to the liver environment. The functional reliance of LSECs on oxidative phosphorylation, which is not a typical feature of ECs, remains to be determined.

A model naphthenic acid decouples oxidative phosphorylation through selective inhibition of mitochondrial complex activity

The naphthenic acid fraction compound (NAFC), 3,5-dimethyladamantane-1-acetic acid, was tested for its ability to uncouple mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. Mitochondria isolated from rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) liver were exposed to 3,5-dimethyladamantane-1-acetic acid in state 3 and 4 respiration, and mitochondrial membrane potential were quantified. Electron transport chain (ETC) protein complexes were isolated using pharmacological agents and inhibitors, and their activities measured. The NAFC compound completely inhibited states 3 and 4 respiration with an IC50 of 0.77 and 1.01 mM, respectively. The NAFC compound partially uncoupled mitochondrial membrane potential in state 3 and 4 respiration with an IC50 of 2.19 and 1.73 mM, respectively. The NAFC impaired the activities of ETC protein complexes with a 9.5-fold range in sensitivity. The relative inhibitory effect of the ETC protein complexes to NAFC was CIV≥CI>CIII>CII. The impairment of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation by adamantane 3,5-dimethyladamantane-1-acetic acid is mediated via its inhibition of ETC protein complexes.

6PPD-quinone exposure induces neuronal mitochondrial dysfunction to exacerbate Lewy neurites formation induced by α-synuclein preformed fibrils seeding

The emerging toxicant N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N'-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine quinone (6PPD-Q) is of wide concern due to its ubiquitous occurrence and high toxicity. Despite regular human exposure, limited evidence exists about its presence in the body and potential health risks. Herein, we analyzed cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples from Parkinson's disease (PD) patients and controls. The CSF levels of 6PPD-Q were twice as high in PD patients compared to controls. Immunostaining assays performed with primary dopaminergic neurons confirm that 6PPD-Q at environmentally relevant concentrations can exacerbate the formation of Lewy neurites induced by α-synuclein preformed fibrils (α-syn PFF). Assessment of cellular respiration reveals a considerable decrease in neuronal spare respiratory and ATP-linked respiration, potentially due to changes in mitochondrial membrane potential. Moreover, 6PPD-Q-induced mitochondrial impairment correlates with an upsurge in mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mROS), and Mito-TEMPO-driven scavenging of mROS can lessen the amount of pathologic phospho-serine 129 α-synuclein. Untargeted metabolomics provides supporting evidence for the connection between 6PPD-Q exposure and changes in neuronal metabolite profiles. In-depth targeted metabolomics further unveils an overall reduction in glycolysis metabolite pool and fluctuations in the quantity of TCA cycle intermediates. Given its potentially harmful attributes, the presence of 6PPD-Q in human brain could potentially be a risk factor for PD.

The Role of Obesity in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus-An Overview

Obesity or excessive weight gain is identified as the most important and significant risk factor in the development and progression of type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) in all age groups. It has reached pandemic dimensions, making the treatment of obesity crucial in the prevention and management of type 2 DM worldwide. Multiple clinical studies have demonstrated that moderate and sustained weight loss can improve blood glucose levels, insulin action and reduce the need for diabetic medications. A combined approach of diet, exercise and lifestyle modifications can successfully reduce obesity and subsequently ameliorate the ill effects and deadly complications of DM. This approach also helps largely in the prevention, control and remission of DM. Obesity and DM are chronic diseases that are increasing globally, requiring new approaches to manage and prevent diabetes in obese individuals. Therefore, it is essential to understand the mechanistic link between the two and design a comprehensive approach to increase life expectancy and improve the quality of life in patients with type 2 DM and obesity. This literature review provides explicit information on the clinical definitions of obesity and type 2 DM, the incidence and prevalence of type 2 DM in obese individuals, the indispensable role of obesity in the pathophysiology of type 2 DM and their mechanistic link. It also discusses clinical studies and outlines the recent management approaches for the treatment of these associated conditions. Additionally, in vivo studies on obesity and type 2 DM are discussed here as they pave the way for more rigorous development of therapeutic approaches.

High-Fat Diet Alters Acylcarnitine Metabolism of the Retina and Retinal Pigment Epithelium/Choroidal Tissues in Laser-Induced Choroidal Neovascularization Rat Models

SCOPE

Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) is age-related macular degeneration's (AMD) main pathological change. High-fat diet (HFD) is associated with a form of CNV; however, the specific mechanism is unclear. Mitochondrial dysfunction, characterized by abnormal acylcarnitine, occurs during metabolic screening of serum or other body tissues in AMD. This study investigates HFD's role in retinal and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE)/choroidal acylcarnitine metabolism in CNV formation.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Chow diet and HFD-BN rats are laser-treated to induce CNV. Acylcarnitine species are quantitatively characterized by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Optical coherence tomography and fundus fluorescein angiography evaluate CNV severity. HFD promotes weight gain, dyslipidemia, and CNV formation. In CNV rats, few medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) acylcarnitine in the RPE/choroid are initially affected. When an HFD is administered to these, even MCFA acylcarnitine in the RPE/choroid is found to decline. However, in the retina, odd acylcarnitines are increased, revealing "an opposite" change within the RPE/choroid, accompanied by influencing glycolytic key enzymes. The HFD+CNV group incorporated fewer long-chain acylcarnitines, like C18:2, into the retina than controls.

CONCLUSIONS

HFD hastens choroidal neovascularization. The study comprehensively documented acylcarnitine profiles in a CNV rat model. Acylcarnitine's odd-even and carbon-chain length properties may guide future therapeutics.

The transient character of mitochondrial uncoupling by the popular fungicide fluazinam is specific for liver

The popular fungicide fluazinam is known to exhibit an unusual cyclic pattern of the protonophoric uncoupling activity in isolated rat liver mitochondria (RLM), with membrane deenergization followed by spontaneous recoupling in the minute scale, which is associated with glutathione conjugation of fluazinam catalyzed by glutathione-S-transferase (GST). Here, we compare the fluazinam effect on RLM with that on rat kidney (RKM) and heart (RHM) mitochondria by monitoring three bioenergetic parameters: oxygen consumption rate, mitochondrial membrane potential and reduction of nucleotides. Only in RLM, the uncoupling activity of fluazinam was transient, i.e. disappeared in a few minutes, whereas in RKM and RHM it was stable in this time scale. We attribute this difference to the increased activity of mitochondrial GST in liver. We report data on the detection of glutathione-fluazinam conjugates by mass-spectrometry, thin layer chromatography and capillary electrophoresis after incubation of fluazinam with RLM but not with RKM, which supports the assumption of the tissue specificity of the conjugation.

Energetic Stress-Induced Metabolic Regulation by Extracellular Vesicles

Recent studies have demonstrated that extracellular vesicles (EVs) serve powerful and complex functions in metabolic regulation and metabolic-associated disease, although this field of research is still in its infancy. EVs are released into the extracellular space from all cells and carry a wide range of cargo including miRNAs, mRNA, DNA, proteins, and metabolites that have robust signaling effects in receiving cells. EV production is stimulated by all major stress pathways and, as such, has a role in both restoring homeostasis during stress and perpetuating disease. In metabolic regulation, the dominant stress signal is a lack of energy due to either nutrient deficits or damaged mitochondria from nutrient excess. This stress signal is termed "energetic stress," which triggers a robust and evolutionarily conserved response that engages major cellular stress pathways, the ER unfolded protein response, the hypoxia response, the antioxidant response, and autophagy. This article proposes the model that energetic stress is the dominant stimulator of EV release with a focus on metabolically important cells such as hepatocytes, adipocytes, myocytes, and pancreatic β-cells. Furthermore, this article will discuss how the cargo in stress-stimulated EVs regulates metabolism in receiving cells in both beneficial and detrimental ways. © 2023 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 13:5051-5068, 2023.

Early feeding leads to molecular maturation of the gut mucosal immune system in suckling piglets

Introduction

Diet-microbiota-host interactions are increasingly studied to comprehend their implications in host metabolism and overall health. Keeping in mind the importance of early life programming in shaping intestinal mucosal development, the pre-weaning period can be utilised to understand these interactions in suckling piglets. The objective of this study was to investigate the consequences of early life feeding on the time-resolved mucosal transcriptional program as well as mucosal morphology.

Methods

A customised fibrous feed was provided to piglets (early-fed or EF group; 7 litters) from five days of age until weaning (29 days of age) in addition to sow's milk, whereas control piglets (CON; 6 litters) suckled mother's milk only. Rectal swabs, intestinal content, and mucosal tissues (jejunum, colon) were obtained pre- and post-weaning for microbiota analysis (16S amplicon sequencing) and host transcriptome analysis (RNA sequencing).

Results

Early feeding accelerated both microbiota colonisation as well as host transcriptome, towards a more "mature state", with a more pronounced response in colon compared to jejunum. Early feeding elicited the largest impact on the colon transcriptome just before weaning (compared to post-weaning time-points), exemplified by the modulation of genes involved in cholesterol and energy metabolism and immune response. The transcriptional impact of early feeding persisted during the first days post-weaning and was highlighted by a stronger mucosal response to the weaning stress, via pronounced activation of barrier repair reactions, which is a combination of immune activation, epithelial migration and "wound-repair" like processes, compared to the CON piglets.

Discussion

Our study demonstrates the potential of early life nutrition in neonatal piglets as a means to support their intestinal development during the suckling period, and to improve adaptation during the weaning transition.

Obesogenic diet leads to luminal overproduction of the complex IV inhibitor H2 S and mitochondrial dysfunction in mouse colonocytes

Obesity is characterized by systemic low-grade inflammation associated with disturbances of intestinal homeostasis and microbiota dysbiosis. Mitochondrial metabolism sustains epithelial homeostasis by providing energy to colonic epithelial cells (CEC) but can be altered by dietary modulations of the luminal environment. Our study aimed at evaluating whether the consumption of an obesogenic diet alters the mitochondrial function of CEC in mice. Mice were fed for 22 weeks with a 58% kcal fat diet (diet-induced obesity [DIO] group) or a 10% kcal fat diet (control diet, CTRL). Colonic crypts were isolated to assess mitochondrial function while colonic content was collected to characterize microbiota and metabolites. DIO mice developed obesity, intestinal hyperpermeability, and increased endotoxemia. Analysis of isolated colonic crypt bioenergetics revealed a mitochondrial dysfunction marked by decreased basal and maximal respirations and lower respiration linked to ATP production in DIO mice. Yet, CEC gene expression of mitochondrial respiration chain complexes and mitochondrial dynamics were not altered in DIO mice. In parallel, DIO mice displayed increased colonic bile acid concentrations, associated with higher abundance of Desulfovibrionaceae. Sulfide concentration was markedly increased in the colon content of DIO mice. Hence, chronic treatment of CTRL mouse colon organoids with sodium sulfide provoked mitochondrial dysfunction similar to that observed in vivo in DIO mice while acute exposure of isolated mitochondria from CEC of CTRL mice to sodium sulfide diminished complex IV activity. Our study provides new insights into colon mitochondrial dysfunction in obesity by revealing that increased sulfide production by DIO-induced dysbiosis impairs complex IV activity in mouse CEC.

Phenolic glycolipid-1 of Mycobacterium leprae is involved in human Schwann cell line ST8814 neurotoxic phenotype

Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae infection in Schwann cells. Axonopathy is considered a hallmark of leprosy neuropathy and is associated with the irreversible motor and sensory loss seen in infected patients. Although M. leprae is recognized to provoke Schwann cell dedifferentiation, the mechanisms involved in the contribution of this phenomenon to neural damage remain unclear. In the present work, we used live M. leprae to infect the immortalized human Schwann cell line ST8814. The neurotoxicity of infected Schwann cell-conditioned medium (SCCM) was then evaluated in a human neuroblastoma cell lineage and mouse neurons. ST8814 Schwann cells exposed to M. leprae affected neuronal viability by deviating glial ¹⁴ C-labeled lactate, important fuel of neuronal central metabolism, to de novo lipid synthesis. The phenolic glycolipid-1 (PGL-1) is a specific M. leprae cell wall antigen proposed to mediate bacterial-Schwann cell interaction. Therefore, we assessed the role of the PGL-1 on Schwann cell phenotype by using transgenic M. bovis (BCG)-expressing the M. leprae PGL-1. We observed that BCG-PGL-1 was able to induce a phenotype similar to M. leprae, unlike the wild-type BCG strain. We next demonstrated that this Schwann cell neurotoxic phenotype, induced by M. leprae PGL-1, occurs through the protein kinase B (Akt) pathway. Interestingly, the pharmacological inhibition of Akt by triciribine significantly reduced free fatty acid content in the SCCM from M. leprae- and BCG-PGL-1-infected Schwann cells and, hence, preventing neuronal death. Overall, these findings provide novel evidence that both M. leprae and PGL-1, induce a toxic Schwann cell phenotype, by modifying the host lipid metabolism, resulting in profound implications for neuronal loss. We consider this metabolic rewiring a new molecular mechanism to be the basis of leprosy neuropathy.

Ultra-fast screening of free fatty acids in human plasma using ion mobility mass spectrometry

Free fatty acids involved in many metabolic regulations in human body. In this work, an ultra-fast screening method was developed for the analysis of free fatty acids using trapped ion mobility spectrometry coupled with mass spectrometry. Thirty-three free fatty acids possessing different unsaturation degrees and different carbon chain lengths were baseline separated and characterized within milliseconds. Saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated free fatty acids showed different linearities between collision cross section values and m/z. Establishment of correlations between structures and collision cross section values provided additional qualitative information and made it possible to determine free fatty acids which were out of the standards pool but possessed the confirmed linearity. Gas-phase separation made the quantitative analysis reliable and repeatable at a much lower time cost than chromatographic methods. The sensitivity was comparable to and even better than the reported results. The method was validated and applied to profiling free fatty acids in human plasma. Saturated free fatty acids abundance in the fasting state was found to be lower than that in the postprandial state, while unsaturated species abundance was found higher. The method was fast and robust with minimum sample pretreatment, so it was promising in high-throughput screening of free fatty acids. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

A New Hypothesis for Alzheimer's Disease: The Lipid Invasion Model

This paper proposes a new hypothesis for Alzheimer's disease (AD)-the lipid invasion model. It argues that AD results from external influx of free fatty acids (FFAs) and lipid-rich lipoproteins into the brain, following disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The lipid invasion model explains how the influx of albumin-bound FFAs via a disrupted BBB induces bioenergetic changes and oxidative stress, stimulates microglia-driven neuroinflammation, and causes anterograde amnesia. It also explains how the influx of external lipoproteins, which are much larger and more lipid-rich, especially more cholesterol-rich, than those normally present in the brain, causes endosomal-lysosomal abnormalities and overproduction of the peptide amyloid-β (Aβ). This leads to the formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, the most well-known hallmarks of AD. The lipid invasion model argues that a key role of the BBB is protecting the brain from external lipid access. It shows how the BBB can be damaged by excess Aβ, as well as by most other known risk factors for AD, including aging, apolipoprotein E4 (APOE4), and lifestyle factors such as hypertension, smoking, obesity, diabetes, chronic sleep deprivation, stress, and head injury. The lipid invasion model gives a new rationale for what we already know about AD, explaining its many associated risk factors and neuropathologies, including some that are less well-accounted for in other explanations of AD. It offers new insights and suggests new ways to prevent, detect, and treat this destructive disease and potentially other neurodegenerative diseases.

Renal mitochondrial injury in the pathogenesis of CKD: mtDNA and mitomiRs

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a public health concern that affects over 200 million people worldwide and is associated with a tremendous economic burden. Therefore, deciphering the mechanisms underpinning CKD is crucial to decelerate its progression towards end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Renal tubular cells are populated with a high number of mitochondria, which produce cellular energy and modulate several important cellular processes, including generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), calcium homeostasis, proliferation, and apoptosis. Over the past few years, increasing evidence has implicated renal mitochondrial damage in the pathogenesis of common etiologies of CKD, such as diabetes, hypertension, metabolic syndrome (MetS), chronic renal ischemia, and polycystic kidney disease (PKD). However, most compelling evidence is based on preclinical studies because renal biopsies are not routinely performed in many patients with CKD. Previous studies have shown that urinary mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copy numbers may serve as non-invasive biomarkers of renal mitochondrial dysfunction. Emerging data also suggest that CKD is associated with altered expression of mitochondria-related microRNAs (mitomiRs), which localize in mitochondria and regulate the expression of mtDNA and nucleus-encoded mitochondrial genes. This review summarizes relevant evidence regarding the involvement of renal mitochondrial injury and dysfunction in frequent forms of CKD. We further provide an overview of non-invasive biomarkers and potential mechanisms of renal mitochondrial damage, especially focusing on mtDNA and mitomiRs.

Destabilization of β Cell FIT2 by saturated fatty acids alter lipid droplet numbers and contribute to ER stress and diabetes

SignificanceWith obesity on the rise, there is a growing appreciation for intracellular lipid droplet (LD) regulation. Here, we show how saturated fatty acids (SFAs) reduce fat storage-inducing transmembrane protein 2 (FIT2)-facilitated, pancreatic β cell LD biogenesis, which in turn induces β cell dysfunction and death, leading to diabetes. This mechanism involves direct acylation of FIT2 cysteine residues, which then marks the FIT2 protein for endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated degradation. Loss of β cell FIT2 and LDs reduces insulin secretion, increases intracellular ceramides, stimulates ER stress, and exacerbates diet-induced diabetes in mice. While palmitate and stearate degrade FIT2, unsaturated fatty acids such as palmitoleate and oleate do not, results of which extend to nutrition and diabetes.

Metabolic, structural and biochemical changes in diabetes and the development of heart failure

Diabetes contributes to the development of heart failure through various metabolic, structural and biochemical changes. The presence of diabetes increases the risk for the development of cardiovascular disease (CVD), and since the introduction of cardiovascular outcome trials to test diabetic drugs, the importance of improving our understanding of the mechanisms by which diabetes increases the risk for heart failure has come under the spotlight. In addition to the coronary vasculature changes that predispose individuals with diabetes to coronary artery disease, diabetes can also lead to cardiac dysfunction independent of ischaemic heart disease. The hyperlipidaemic, hyperglycaemic and insulin resistant state of diabetes contributes to a perturbed energy metabolic milieu, whereby the heart increases its reliance on fatty acids and decreases glucose oxidative rates. In addition to changes in cardiac energy metabolism, extracellular matrix remodelling contributes to the development of cardiac fibrosis, and impairments in calcium handling result in cardiac contractile dysfunction. Lipotoxicity and glucotoxicity also contribute to impairments in vascular function, cardiac contractility, calcium signalling, oxidative stress, cardiac efficiency and lipoapoptosis. Lastly, changes in protein acetylation, protein methylation and DNA methylation contribute to a myriad of gene expression and protein activity changes. Altogether, these changes lead to decreased cardiac efficiency, increased vulnerability to an ischaemic insult and increased risk for the development of heart failure. This review explores the above mechanisms and the way in which they contribute to cardiac dysfunction in diabetes.

Mitochondrial H+ Leak and Thermogenesis

Mitochondria of all tissues convert various metabolic substrates into two forms of energy: ATP and heat. Historically, the primary focus of research in mitochondrial bioenergetics was on the mechanisms of ATP production, while mitochondrial thermogenesis received significantly less attention. Nevertheless, mitochondrial heat production is crucial for the maintenance of body temperature, regulation of the pace of metabolism, and prevention of oxidative damage to mitochondria and the cell. In addition, mitochondrial thermogenesis has gained significance as a pharmacological target for treating metabolic disorders. Mitochondria produce heat as the result of H⁺ leak across their inner membrane. This review provides a critical assessment of the current field of mitochondrial H⁺ leak and thermogenesis, with a focus on the molecular mechanisms involved in the function and regulation of uncoupling protein 1 and the ADP/ATP carrier, the two proteins that mediate mitochondrial H⁺ leak.

Fifty Years of Research on Protonophores: Mitochondrial Uncoupling As a Basis for Therapeutic Action

Protonophores are compounds capable of electrogenic transport of protons across membranes. Protonophores have been intensively studied over the past 50 years owing to their ability to uncouple oxidation and phosphorylation in mitochondria and chloroplasts. The action mechanism of classical uncouplers, such as DNP and CCCP, in mitochondria is believed to be related to their protonophoric activity; i.e., their ability to transfer protons across the lipid part of the mitochondrial membrane. Given the recently revealed deviations in the correlation between the protonophoric activity of some uncouplers and their ability to stimulate mitochondrial respiration, this review addresses the involvement of some proteins of the inner mitochondrial membrane, such as the ATP/ADP antiporter, dicarboxylate carrier, and ATPase, in the uncoupling process. However, these deviations do not contradict the Mitchell theory but point to a more complex nature of the interaction of DNP, CCCP, and other uncouplers with mitochondrial membranes. Therefore, a detailed investigation of the action mechanism of uncouplers is required for a more successful pharmacological use, including their antibacterial, antiviral, anticancer, as well as cardio-, neuro-, and nephroprotective effects.

Adaptation of the heart to Frataxin depletion: Evidence that integrated stress response can predominate over mTORC1 activation

Friedreich's ataxia (FRDA) is an inherited disorder caused by depletion of frataxin (FXN), a mitochondrial protein required for iron-sulfur cluster (ISC) biogenesis. Cardiac dysfunction is the main cause of death. Yet pathogenesis, and, more generally, how the heart adapts to FXN loss, remain poorly understood, though are expected to be linked to an energy deficit. We modified a transgenic (TG) mouse model of inducible FXN depletion that permits phenotypic evaluation of the heart at different FXN levels, and focused on substrate-specific bioenergetics and stress signaling. When FXN protein in the TG heart was 17% of normal, bioenergetics and signaling were not different from control. When, 8 weeks later, FXN was ~ 97% depleted in the heart, TG heart mass and cardiomyocyte cross-sectional area were less, without evidence of fibrosis or apoptosis. mTORC1 signaling was activated, as was the integrated stress response, evidenced by greater phosphorylation of eIF2α relative to total eIF2α, and decreased protein translation. We interpret these results to suggest that, in TG hearts, an anabolic stimulus was constrained by eIF2α phosphorylation. Cardiac contractility was maintained in the 97%-FXN-depleted hearts, possibly contributed by an unexpected preservation of β-oxidation, though pyruvate oxidation was lower. Bioenergetics alterations were matched by changes in the mitochondrial proteome, including a non-uniform decrease in abundance of ISC-containing proteins. Altogether, these findings suggest that the FXN depleted heart can suppress a major ATP demanding process such as protein translation, which, together with some preservation of β-oxidation, could be adaptive, at least in the short term.

The Role of Lipids, Lipid Metabolism and Ectopic Lipid Accumulation in Axon Growth, Regeneration and Repair after CNS Injury and Disease

Axons in the adult mammalian nervous system can extend over formidable distances, up to one meter or more in humans. During development, axonal and dendritic growth requires continuous addition of new membrane. Of the three major kinds of membrane lipids, phospholipids are the most abundant in all cell membranes, including neurons. Not only immature axons, but also severed axons in the adult require large amounts of lipids for axon regeneration to occur. Lipids also serve as energy storage, signaling molecules and they contribute to tissue physiology, as demonstrated by a variety of metabolic disorders in which harmful amounts of lipids accumulate in various tissues through the body. Detrimental changes in lipid metabolism and excess accumulation of lipids contribute to a lack of axon regeneration, poor neurological outcome and complications after a variety of central nervous system (CNS) trauma including brain and spinal cord injury. Recent evidence indicates that rewiring lipid metabolism can be manipulated for therapeutic gain, as it favors conditions for axon regeneration and CNS repair. Here, we review the role of lipids, lipid metabolism and ectopic lipid accumulation in axon growth, regeneration and CNS repair. In addition, we outline molecular and pharmacological strategies to fine-tune lipid composition and energy metabolism in neurons and non-neuronal cells that can be exploited to improve neurological recovery after CNS trauma and disease.

A protet-based, protonic charge transfer model of energy coupling in oxidative and photosynthetic phosphorylation

Textbooks of biochemistry will explain that the otherwise endergonic reactions of ATP synthesis can be driven by the exergonic reactions of respiratory electron transport, and that these two half-reactions are catalyzed by protein complexes embedded in the same, closed membrane. These views are correct. The textbooks also state that, according to the chemiosmotic coupling hypothesis, a (or the) kinetically and thermodynamically competent intermediate linking the two half-reactions is the electrochemical difference of protons that is in equilibrium with that between the two bulk phases that the coupling membrane serves to separate. This gradient consists of a membrane potential term Δψ and a pH gradient term ΔpH, and is known colloquially as the protonmotive force or pmf. Artificial imposition of a pmf can drive phosphorylation, but only if the pmf exceeds some 150-170mV; to achieve in vivo rates the imposed pmf must reach 200mV. The key question then is 'does the pmf generated by electron transport exceed 200mV, or even 170mV?' The possibly surprising answer, from a great many kinds of experiment and sources of evidence, including direct measurements with microelectrodes, indicates it that it does not. Observable pH changes driven by electron transport are real, and they control various processes; however, compensating ion movements restrict the Δψ component to low values. A protet-based model, that I outline here, can account for all the necessary observations, including all of those inconsistent with chemiosmotic coupling, and provides for a variety of testable hypotheses by which it might be refined.

Metabolomics analysis reveals the effect of copper on autophagy in myocardia of pigs

Among different synthetic compounds copper (Cu) is persistently and frequently used as growth promoter, antibacterial, antifungal and antiparasitic agent and has become common environmental pollutant. Therefore, this study explores the cardio-toxic effects of control group (10 mg/kg bw Cu) and treatment group (125 and 250 mg/kg bw Cu), and it association with process of autophagy and metabolomics in myocardium of pigs kept in three different experimental treatments for a period of 80 days. The results of serum biochemical parameters showed a significantly increase in creatinine kinase (CK), creatine kinase-MB (CK-MB), high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C), low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) in pigs exposed to 125 mg/kg bw and 250 mg/kg bw Cu. Meanwhile, the severe structural abnormalities in cardiomyocytes were found when exposed to 250 mg/kg Cu at day 80. In addition, the mRNA and proteins (Beclin1, ATG5 and LC3II) expression levels were significantly increased and p62 was significantly decreased in cardiomyocytes exposed to 250 mg/kg Cu at day 80 of the trial. Further, UPLC-QTOF/MS technique showed that 7 metabolites were up-regulated and 37 metabolites were down-regulated in cardiomyocytes after 250 mg/kg Cu treatment, with a principal impact on the metabolic pathways including glycerophospholipid metabolism, one carbon pool by folate, fatty acid elongation and fatty acid degradation, which were related to autophagy. Overall, our study identified the autophagy processes and metabolites in metabolic pathways in Cu-induced myocardium injury, which provided useful evidence of myocardium toxicity caused by Cu exposure via metabolomics and multiple bioanalytic methods.

In vivo emergence of beige-like fat in chickens as physiological adaptation to cold environments

While it has been hypothesized that brown adipocytes responsible for mammalian thermogenesis are absent in birds, the existence of beige fat has yet to be studied directly. The present study tests the hypothesis that beige fat emerges in birds as a mechanism of physiological adaptation to cold environments. Subcutaneous neck adipose tissue from cold-acclimated or triiodothyronine (T₃)-treated chickens exhibited increases in the expression of avian uncoupling protein (avUCP, an ortholog of mammalian UCP2 and UCP3) gene and some known mammalian beige adipocyte-specific markers. Morphological characteristics of white adipose tissues of treated chickens showed increased numbers of both small and larger clusters of multilocular fat cells within the tissues. Increases in protein levels of avUCP and mitochondrial marker protein, voltage-dependent anion channel, and immunohistochemical analysis for subcutaneous neck fat revealed the presence of potentially thermogenic mitochondria-rich cells. This is the first evidence that the capacity for thermogenesis may be acquired by differentiating adipose tissue into beige-like fat for maintaining temperature homeostasis in the subcutaneous fat 'neck warmer' in chickens exposed to a cold environment.

The role of lipids in the central nervous system and their pathological implications in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Lipids play an important role in the central nervous system (CNS). They contribute to the structural integrity and physical characteristics of cell and organelle membranes, act as bioactive signalling molecules, and are utilised as fuel sources for mitochondrial metabolism. The intricate homeostatic mechanisms underpinning lipid handling and metabolism across two major CNS cell types; neurons and astrocytes, are integral for cellular health and maintenance. Here, we explore the various roles of lipids in these two cell types. Given that changes in lipid metabolism have been identified in a number of neurodegenerative diseases, we also discuss changes in lipid handling and utilisation in the context of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), in order to identify key cellular processes affected by the disease, and inform future areas of research.

A 20/20 view of ANT function in mitochondrial biology and necrotic cell death

The adenosine nucleotide translocase (ANT) family of proteins are inner mitochondrial membrane proteins involved in energy homeostasis and cell death. The primary function of ANT proteins is to exchange cytosolic ADP with matrix ATP, facilitating the export of newly synthesized ATP to the cell while providing new ADP substrate to the mitochondria. As such, the ANT proteins are central to maintaining energy homeostasis in all eukaryotic cells. Evidence also suggests that the ANTs constitute a pore-forming component of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP), a structure that forms in the inner mitochondrial membrane that is thought to underlie regulated necrotic cell death. Additionally, emerging studies suggest that ANT proteins are also critical for mitochondrial uncoupling and for promoting mitophagy. Thus, the ANTs are multifunctional proteins that are poised to participate in several aspects of mitochondrial biology and the greater regulation of cell death, which will be discussed here.

Antioxidant Versus Pro-Apoptotic Effects of Mushroom-Enriched Diets on Mitochondria in Liver Disease

Mitochondria play a central role in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) progression and in the control of cell death signalling during the progression to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Associated with the metabolic syndrome, NAFLD is mostly driven by insulin-resistant white adipose tissue lipolysis that results in an increased hepatic fatty acid influx and the ectopic accumulation of fat in the liver. Upregulation of beta-oxidation as one compensatory mechanism leads to an increase in mitochondrial tricarboxylic acid cycle flux and ATP generation. The progression of NAFLD is associated with alterations in the mitochondrial molecular composition and respiratory capacity, which increases their vulnerability to different stressors, including calcium and pro-inflammatory molecules, which result in an increased generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that, altogether, may ultimately lead to mitochondrial dysfunction. This may activate further pro-inflammatory pathways involved in the progression from steatosis to steatohepatitis (NASH). Mushroom-enriched diets, or the administration of their isolated bioactive compounds, have been shown to display beneficial effects on insulin resistance, hepatic steatosis, oxidative stress, and inflammation by regulating nutrient uptake and lipid metabolism as well as modulating the antioxidant activity of the cell. In addition, the gut microbiota has also been described to be modulated by mushroom bioactive molecules, with implications in reducing liver inflammation during NAFLD progression. Dietary mushroom extracts have been reported to have anti-tumorigenic properties and to induce cell-death via the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. This calls for particular attention to the potential therapeutic properties of these natural compounds which may push the development of novel pharmacological options to treat NASH and HCC. We here review the diverse effects of mushroom-enriched diets in liver disease, emphasizing those effects that are dependent on mitochondria.

Mitochondrial Uncoupling: A Key Controller of Biological Processes in Physiology and Diseases

Mitochondrial uncoupling can be defined as a dissociation between mitochondrial membrane potential generation and its use for mitochondria-dependent ATP synthesis. Although this process was originally considered a mitochondrial dysfunction, the identification of UCP-1 as an endogenous physiological uncoupling protein suggests that the process could be involved in many other biological processes. In this review, we first compare the mitochondrial uncoupling agents available in term of mechanistic and non-specific effects. Proteins regulating mitochondrial uncoupling, as well as chemical compounds with uncoupling properties are discussed. Second, we summarize the most recent findings linking mitochondrial uncoupling and other cellular or biological processes, such as bulk and specific autophagy, reactive oxygen species production, protein secretion, cell death, physical exercise, metabolic adaptations in adipose tissue, and cell signaling. Finally, we show how mitochondrial uncoupling could be used to treat several human diseases, such as obesity, cardiovascular diseases, or neurological disorders.

H+ transport is an integral function of the mitochondrial ADP/ATP carrier

The mitochondrial ADP/ATP carrier (AAC) is a major transport protein of the inner mitochondrial membrane. It exchanges mitochondrial ATP for cytosolic ADP and controls cellular production of ATP. In addition, it has been proposed that AAC mediates mitochondrial uncoupling, but it has proven difficult to demonstrate this function or to elucidate its mechanisms. Here we record AAC currents directly from inner mitochondrial membranes from various mouse tissues and identify two distinct transport modes: ADP/ATP exchange and H⁺ transport. The AAC-mediated H⁺ current requires free fatty acids and resembles the H⁺ leak via the thermogenic uncoupling protein 1 found in brown fat. The ADP/ATP exchange via AAC negatively regulates the H⁺ leak, but does not completely inhibit it. This suggests that the H⁺ leak and mitochondrial uncoupling could be dynamically controlled by cellular ATP demand and the rate of ADP/ATP exchange. By mediating two distinct transport modes, ADP/ATP exchange and H⁺ leak, AAC connects coupled (ATP production) and uncoupled (thermogenesis) energy conversion in mitochondria.

The effect of a physiological increase in temperature on mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation in rat myofibers

We investigated the effect of temperature increase on mitochondrial fatty acid (FA) and carbohydrate oxidation in the slow-oxidative skeletal muscles (soleus) of rats. We measured mitochondrial respiration at 35°C and 40°C with the physiological substrates pyruvate + 4 mM malate (Pyr) and palmitoyl-CoA (PCoA) + 0.5 mM malate + 2 mM carnitine in permeabilized myofibers under nonphosphorylating (V˙0) or phosphorylating (V˙max) conditions. Mitochondrial efficiency was calculated by the respiratory control ratio (RCR = V˙max/V˙0). We used guanosine triphosphate (GTP), an inhibitor of uncoupling protein (UCP), to study the mechanisms responsible for alterations of mitochondrial efficiency. We measured hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) production under nonphosphorylating and phosphorylating conditions at both temperatures and substrates. We studied citrate synthase (CS) and 3-hydroxyl acyl coenzyme A dehydrogenase (3-HAD) activities at both temperatures. Elevating the temperature from 35°C to 40°C increased PCoA-V˙0 and decreased PCoA-RCR, corresponding to the uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). GTP blocked the heat-induced increase of PCoA-V˙0. Rising temperature moved toward a Pyr-V˙0 increase, without significance. Heat did not alter H₂O₂ production, resulting from either PCoA or Pyr oxidation. Heat induced an increase in 3-HAD but not in CS activities. In conclusion, heat induced OXPHOS uncoupling for PCoA oxidation, which was at least partially mediated by UCP and independent of oxidative stress. The classically described heat-induced glucose shift may actually be mostly due to a less efficient FA oxidation. These findings raise questions concerning the consequences of heat-induced alterations in mitochondrial efficiency of FA metabolism on thermoregulation.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Ex vivo exposure of skeletal myofibers to heat uncouples substrate oxidation from ADP phosphorylation, decreasing the efficiency of mitochondria to produce ATP. This heat effect alters fatty acids (FAs) more than carbohydrate oxidation. Alteration of FA oxidation involves uncoupling proteins without inducing oxidative stress. This alteration in lipid metabolism may underlie the preferential use of carbohydrates in the heat and could decrease aerobic endurance.

High-density lipoprotein ameliorates palmitic acid-induced lipotoxicity and oxidative dysfunction in H9c2 cardiomyoblast cells via ROS suppression

Background

High levels circulating saturated fatty acids are associated with diabetes, obesity and hyperlipidemia. In heart, the accumulation of saturated fatty acids has been determined to play a role in the development of heart failure and diabetic cardiomyopathy. High-density lipoprotein (HDL) has been reported to possess key atheroprotective biological properties, including cellular cholesterol efflux capacity, anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory activities. However, the underlying mechanisms are still largely unknown. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to test whether HDL could protect palmitic acid (PA)-induced cardiomyocyte injury and explore the possible mechanisms.

Results

H9c2 cells were pretreated with HDL (50–100 μg/ml) for 2 h followed by PA (0.5 mM) for indicated time period. Our results showed that HDL inhibited PA-induced cell death in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, HDL rescued PA-induced ROS generation and the phosphorylation of JNK which in turn activated NF-κB-mediated inflammatory proteins expressions. We also found that PA impaired the balance of BCL₂ family proteins, destabilized mitochondrial membrane potential, and triggered subsequent cytochrome c release into the cytosol and activation of caspase 3. These detrimental effects were ameliorated by HDL treatment.

Conclusion

PA-induced ROS accumulation and results in cardiomyocyte apoptosis and inflammation. However, HDL attenuated PA-induced lipotoxicity and oxidative dysfunction via ROS suppression. These results may provide insight into a possible molecular mechanism underlying HDL suppression of the free fatty acid-induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis.

The role of HMGB1 in liver inflammation in obese rats

Obesity is a chronic disease that is characterized by increased body fat owing to imbalance between consumed and expended energy. Inflammation generally is accompanied by accumulation of excess lipid in adipose tissue and liver. High mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) participates in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases. We investigated the relation of the number of HMGB1 positive cells to body mass index (BMI), liver inflammation and the number of Kupffer cells. We divided 18 female Wistar albino rats into two groups: group 1, untreated control fed normal commercial rat diet and group 2, obese rats fed a special diet containing 40% fat. The plasma concentrations of cholesterol, glucose, superoxide dismutase enzyme (SOD) and catalase activities were measured for all animals. The numbers of hepatocytes, Kupffer cells and HMGB1 positive cells were counted using stereological methods. The mean numbers of Kupffer cells and HMGB1 positive cells were higher for group 2 than for group 1. The concentrations of plasma cholesterol and glucose levels also were higher in group 2. Plasma levels of SOD and catalase were significantly lower in group 2 compared to group 1. The number of HMGB1 cells was related directly to BMI and inflammation. The role of HMGB1 was demonstrated for the liver of the obese group. We demonstrated the relations among HMGB1, BMI, obesity and inflammation.

High fat diet administration leads to the mitochondrial dysfunction and selectively alters the expression of class 1 GLUT protein in mice

Metabolic syndrome is an agglomeration of disorders including obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases and characterized as chronic mild inflammation which elevates the circulatory inflammatory markers. This could be due to mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress and hypoxia as a consequence of high fat diet (HFD) intake. The present study focuses on the effects of HFD on lactate and mitochondrial metabolism as well as tissue dependent changes in glucose transporter (GLUT) expression in liver, skeletal muscles and adipose tissue of mouse. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and mitochondrial dysfunction established the link between the occurrences of metabolic stress due to HFD. In this work, it was observed that chronic HFD administration aggravated the metabolic alterations by causing reduced ATP production, imbalanced oxidative stress and altered class 1 GLUTs expression. Chronic HFD significantly reduced (p < 0.001) the superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) activities alongside elevated liver injury markers AST and ALT. This in turn causes decreased ATP/ADP ratio, mitochondrial dysfunction and exacerbated LDH levels. This imbalance further led to altered GLUT expression in hepatic cells, adipose tissue and skeletal muscles. HFD significantly (p < 0.001) upregulated the GLUT 1 and 3 expressions while significant downregulated (p < 0.001) GLUT 2 and 4 expression in liver, skeletal muscles and white adipose tissue. These results revealed the link between class 1 GLUTs, mitochondrial dysfunction and HFD-induced metabolic disorder. It can be concluded that HFD impacts mitochondrial metabolism and reprograms tissue-dependent glucose transporter.

Type 2 diabetes - An autoinflammatory disease driven by metabolic stress

Type 2 diabetes has traditionally been viewed as a metabolic disorder characterised by chronic high glucose levels, insulin resistance, and declining insulin secretion from the pancreas. Modern lifestyle, with abundant nutrient supply and reduced physical activity, has resulted in dramatic increases in the rates of obesity-associated disease conditions, including diabetes. The associated excess of nutrients induces a state of systemic low-grade chronic inflammation that results from production and secretion of inflammatory mediators from the expanded pool of activated adipocytes. Here, we review the mechanisms by which obesity induces adipose tissue dysregulation, detailing the roles of adipose tissue secreted factors and their action upon other cells and tissues central to glucose homeostasis and type 2 diabetes. Furthermore, given the emerging importance of adipokines, cytokines and chemokines in disease progression, we suggest that type 2 diabetes should now be viewed as an autoinflammatory disease, albeit one that is driven by metabolic dysregulation.

Coumarins improved type 2 diabetes induced by high-fat diet and streptozotocin in mice via antioxidation

Coumarins extensively exist in plants and are utilized against diabetes in some folk medicines. Recent studies have demonstrated that oxidative stress plays a crucial role in the etiology and pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus. We investigated the antioxidant ability of 3 coumarins (osthole, esculin, and fraxetin) in type 2 diabetes. After being fed a high-fat diet, ICR mice were exposed to low doses of streptozotocin and then treated with experimental coumarins for 5 weeks. We found osthole, esculin, and metformin significantly lowered fasting blood glucose, HOMA-IR, and 3 blood lipids (total cholesterol, total triglyceride, free fatty acids), and increased insulin levels, while fraxetin only enhanced insulin levels and lessened free fatty acids. Both osthole and esculin had antioxidative effects in pancreas through elevating the activities of glutathione peroxidase, catalase, and superoxide dismutase; fraxetin, however, merely heightened catalase activity. By contrast, 3 coumarins significantly increased those antioxidase activities in liver. Hematoxylin and eosin staining revealed 3 coumarins, especially osthole, attenuated cellular derangement, blurry fringes of hepatic sinusoid and extensive vacuolization due to hepatocellular lipid accumulation, and lessened inflammatory infiltration in pancreas. The glomerular and islet structure of diabetic mice were improved, with reduced mesangial matrix and glomerular basement membrane thickening. Therefore, our study supports that coumarins could be promising candidates against type 2 diabetes through antioxidative mechanisms.

Neuronal Lipid Metabolism: Multiple Pathways Driving Functional Outcomes in Health and Disease

Lipids are a fundamental class of organic molecules implicated in a wide range of biological processes related to their structural diversity, and based on this can be broadly classified into five categories; fatty acids, triacylglycerols (TAGs), phospholipids, sterol lipids and sphingolipids. Different lipid classes play major roles in neuronal cell populations; they can be used as energy substrates, act as building blocks for cellular structural machinery, serve as bioactive molecules, or a combination of each. In amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), dysfunctions in lipid metabolism and function have been identified as potential drivers of pathogenesis. In particular, aberrant lipid metabolism is proposed to underlie denervation of neuromuscular junctions, mitochondrial dysfunction, excitotoxicity, impaired neuronal transport, cytoskeletal defects, inflammation and reduced neurotransmitter release. Here we review current knowledge of the roles of lipid metabolism and function in the CNS and discuss how modulating these pathways may offer novel therapeutic options for treating ALS.

Systems biology reveals uncoupling beyond UCP1 in human white fat-derived beige adipocytes

Pharmaceutical induction of metabolically active beige adipocytes in the normally energy storing white adipose tissue has potential to reduce obesity. Mitochondrial uncoupling in beige adipocytes, as in brown adipocytes, has been reported to occur via the uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1). However, several previous in vitro characterizations of human beige adipocytes have only measured UCP1 mRNA fold increase, and assumed a direct correlation with metabolic activity. Here, we provide an example of pharmaceutical induction of beige adipocytes, where increased mRNA levels of UCP1 are not translated into increased protein levels, and perform a thorough analysis of this example. We incorporate mRNA and protein levels of UCP1, time-resolved mitochondrial characterizations, and numerous perturbations, and analyze all data with a new fit-for-purpose mathematical model. The systematic analysis challenges the seemingly obvious experimental conclusion, i.e., that UCP1 is not active in the induced cells, and shows that hypothesis testing with iterative modeling and experimental work is needed to sort out the role of UCP1. The analyses demonstrate, for the first time, that the uncoupling capability of human beige adipocytes can be obtained without UCP1 activity. This finding thus opens the door to a new direction in drug discovery that targets obesity and its associated comorbidities. Furthermore, the analysis advances our understanding of how to evaluate UCP1-independent thermogenesis in human beige adipocytes.

The Linkage between Breast Cancer, Hypoxia, and Adipose Tissue

OBJECTIVE

The development of breast cancer cells is linked to hypoxia. The hypoxia-induced factor HIF-1α influences metastasis through neovascularization. Hypoxia seems to decrease the responsiveness to hormonal treatment due to loss of estrogen receptors (ERs). Obesity is discussed to increase hypoxia in adipocytes, which promotes a favorable environment for tumor cells in mammary fat tissue, whereas, tumor cells profit from good oxygen supply and are influenced by its deprivation as target regions within tumors show. This review gives an overview of the current state on research of hypoxia and breast cancer in human adipose tissue.

METHODS

A systematic literature search was conducted on PubMed (2000-2016) by applying hypoxia and/or adipocytes and breast cancer as keywords. Review articles were excluded as well as languages other than English or German. There was no restriction regarding the study design or type of breast cancer. A total of 35 papers were found. Eight studies were excluded due to missing at least two of the three keywords. One paper was removed due to Russian language, and one was dismissed due to lack of adherence. Seven papers were identified as reviews. After applying exclusion criteria, 18 articles were eligible for inclusion.

RESULTS

Two articles describe the impairment of mammary epithelial cell polarization through hypoxic preconditioning. A high amount of adipocytes enhances cancer progression due to the increased expression of HIF-1α which causes the loss of ER α protein as stated in four articles. Four articles analyzed that increased activation of HIF's induces a series of transcriptions resulting in tumor angiogenesis. HIF inhibition, especially when combined with cytotoxic chemotherapy, holds strong potential for tumor suppression as stated in further four articles. In two articles there is evidence of a strong connection between hypoxia, oxidative stress and a poor prognosis for breast cancer via HIF regulated pathways. Acute hypoxia seems to normalize the microenvironment in breast cancer tissue and has proven to affect tumor growth positively as covered in two articles.

CONCLUSION

This review indicates that the development of breast cancer is influenced by hypoxia. A high amount of adipocytes enhances cancer progression due to the increased expression of HIF-1α.

Ketogenic diet in the treatment of epilepsy in children under the age of 2 years: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

The incidence of epilepsy is greatest in the first 2 years of life, an age group where there is generally a poor prognosis for both seizure control and neurodevelopmental outcome. Early control of seizures can be associated with better developmental outcome but many of the epilepsies presenting in infancy are poorly responsive to antiepileptic medication. The ketogenic diet (KD) is a high-fat, low-carbohydrate diet designed to mimic the effects of starvation on the body. Dietary fat is converted into ketones in the body and used as an energy source by the brain. The KD has been shown to be successful in controlling seizures in many observational studies, and in two randomised controlled trials (RCTs) in older children. However, little evidence is available in the very young.

METHODS/DESIGN

An open-label RCT where eligible children (age 3 months to 2 years with epilepsy who have failed two antiepileptic drugs (AEDs)) undergo baseline assessment, including medical and seizure history. Participants then start an observation period (7 or 14 days) with documentation of seizure frequency. Randomisation will occur on day 8 or day 15 to receive the KD or a further AED; the allocated treatment will commence on day 15, with instruction and training. A second assessment (4 weeks after start of treatment) will include a clinical review and tolerability questionnaire (modified Hague Scale of Side Effects - for those allocated to the KD group). Assessments will be repeated at 8 weeks after the start of treatment including biochemical investigations, after which, according to patient response, KD (diet group) or AED (standard AED group) will then be continued or changed. Those in the AED group who have failed to achieve seizure control at the 8-week assessment will then be offered KD outside the context of the trial. Those in the KD arm who fail to achieve seizure control will be changed to standard clinical management. All patients will be followed up for 12 months from randomisation for retention, seizure outcome, quality of life and neurodevelopmental status.

DISCUSSION

The slow rate of recruitment is an ongoing practical issue. There is a limitation to the number of eligible patients compared to what was predicted, mainly due to the nature of this patient group. After a substantial amendment to widen inclusion criteria and reduce the baseline period to 7 days for patients with a high seizure burden, the rate of recruitment steadily increased. A number of operational concerns regarding dietetic time were also highlighted impacting on the recruitment rate. However, the combination of a low dropout rate and the opening of further centres, the trial should successfully meet the final recruitment target. All nine centres are now recruiting and we hope to open further centres within the UK.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier: NCT02205931 . Registered on 16 December 2013.

Brain energy metabolism spurns fatty acids as fuel due to their inherent mitotoxicity and potential capacity to unleash neurodegeneration

The brain uses long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs) to a negligible extent as fuel for the mitochondrial energy generation, in contrast to other tissues that also demand high energy. Besides this generally accepted view, some studies using cultured neural cells or whole brain indicate a moderately active mitochondrial β-oxidation. Here, we corroborate the conclusion that brain mitochondria are unable to oxidize fatty acids. In contrast, the combustion of liver-derived ketone bodies by neural cells is long-known. Furthermore, new insights indicate the use of odd-numbered medium-chain fatty acids as valuable source for maintaining the level of intermediates of the citric acid cycle in brain mitochondria. Non-esterified LCFAs or their activated forms exert a large variety of harmful side-effects on mitochondria, such as enhancing the mitochondrial ROS generation in distinct steps of the β-oxidation and therefore potentially increasing oxidative stress. Hence, the question arises: Why do in brain energy metabolism mitochondria selectively spurn LCFAs as energy source? The most likely answer are the relatively higher content of peroxidation-sensitive polyunsaturated fatty acids and the low antioxidative defense in brain tissue. There are two remarkable peroxisomal defects, one relating to α-oxidation of phytanic acid and the other to uptake of very long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) which lead to pathologically high tissue levels of such fatty acids. Both, the accumulation of phytanic acid and that of VLCFAs give an enlightening insight into harmful activities of fatty acids on neural cells, which possibly explain why evolution has prevented brain mitochondria from the equipment with significant β-oxidation enzymatic capacity.

Meaningful respirometric measurements of UCP1-mediated thermogenesis

Regarding the enormous interest in brown and brite/beige adipose tissue in the context of metabolic disease, reliable quantification of thermogenesis in these adipocytes is a central issue. This requires an assay specific for uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) mediated thermogenesis in adherent intact cells. In a recent study we identified a major pitfall associated with established procedures generally applied for this purpose. Meaningful respirometry of UCP1-mediated thermogenesis imperatively requires activation of UCP1 and control over free fatty acid levels. By comparison of respiration profiles of wild-type (WT) and UCP1 knock-out (KO) cells we reproducibly quantified the thermogenic capacity enabled by UCP1 in both brown and brite adipocytes. Employing this protocol, we demonstrated that (1) brite adipocytes display a similar thermogenic capacity as classical brown adipocytes, (2) variations in brite adipogenesis known for inbred mouse strains are associated with differential capacities for thermogenesis in these cells, and (3) adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL) activity is required for UCP1 activation in intact cells. We here further refined our cell-based respirometry assay by implementation of two strategies to inhibit UCP1 in WT cells. First, we employed the purine nucleotide guanosine diphosphate (GDP) to directly quantify the fraction of thermogenesis enabled by UCP1 activity. Second, applying siRNA mediated knockdown of UCP1 and ATGL we demonstrated the feasibility of this technology to study the functional relevance of candidate genes for thermogenesis in brown and brite adipocytes.

The mitochondria-targeted imidazole substituted oleic acid 'TPP-IOA' affects mitochondrial bioenergetics and its protective efficacy in cells is influenced by cellular dependence on aerobic metabolism

A variety of mitochondria-targeted small molecules have been invented to manipulate mitochondrial redox activities and improve function in certain disease states. 3-Hydroxypropyl-triphenylphosphonium-conjugated imidazole-substituted oleic acid (TPP-IOA) was developed as a specific inhibitor of cytochrome c peroxidase activity that inhibits apoptosis by preventing cardiolipin oxidation and cytochrome c release to the cytosol. Here we evaluate the effects of TPP-IOA on oxidative phosphorylation in isolated mitochondria and on mitochondrial function in live cells. We demonstrate that, at concentrations similar to those required to achieve inhibition of cytochrome c peroxidase activity, TPP-IOA perturbs oxidative phosphorylation in isolated mitochondria. In live SH-SY5Y cells, TPP-IOA partially collapsed mitochondrial membrane potential, caused extensive fragmentation of the mitochondrial network, and decreased apparent mitochondrial abundance within 3h of exposure. Many cultured cell lines rely primarily on aerobic glycolysis, potentially making them less sensitive to small molecules disrupting oxidative phosphorylation. We therefore determined the anti-apoptotic efficacy of TPP-IOA in SH-SY5Y cells growing in glucose or in galactose, the latter of which increases reliance on oxidative phosphorylation for ATP supply. The anti-apoptotic activity of TPP-IOA that was observed in glucose media was not seen in galactose media. It therefore appears that, at concentrations required to inhibit cytochrome c peroxidase activity, TPP-IOA perturbs oxidative phosphorylation. In light of these data it is predicted that potential future therapeutic applications of TPP-IOA will be restricted to highly glycolytic cell types with limited reliance on oxidative phosphorylation.