D-Glucose-sensitive and -insensitive cytochalasin B binding proteins from microvillous plasma membranes of human placenta. Identification of the D-glucose transporter

Fetomaternal Expression of Glucose Transporters (GLUTs)-Biochemical, Cellular and Clinical Aspects

Several types of specialized glucose transporters (GLUTs) provide constant glucose transport from the maternal circulation to the developing fetus through the placental barrier from the early stages of pregnancy. GLUT1 is a prominent protein isoform that regulates placental glucose transfer via glucose-facilitated diffusion. The GLUT1 membrane protein density and permeability of the syncytial basal membrane (BM) are the main factors limiting the rate of glucose diffusion in the fetomaternal compartment in physiological conditions. Besides GLUT1, the GLUT3 and GLUT4 isoforms are widely expressed across the human placenta. Numerous medical conditions and molecules, such as hormones, adipokines, and xenobiotics, alter the GLUT's mRNA and protein expression. Diabetes upregulates the BM GLUT's density and promotes fetomaternal glucose transport, leading to excessive fetal growth. However, most studies have found no between-group differences in GLUTs' placental expression in macrosomic and normal control pregnancies. The fetomaternal GLUTs expression may also be influenced by several other conditions, such as chronic hypoxia, preeclampsia, and intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy.

Nutrient transport across the placenta

The placenta forms a selective barrier that functions to transport nutrients that are of critical use to the fetus. Nutrient transport across the placenta is regulated by many different active transporters found on the surface of both maternal and fetal facing membranes of the placenta. The presence of these transporters in the placenta has been implicated in the facilitation of nutrient diffusion and proper fetal growth. In this review, recent developments concerning nutrient transporters that regulate glucose, amino acid, fatty acid, and nucleoside transplacental movement are discussed.

Mechanism of glucose transport across the human and rat placental barrier: a review

Glucose is one of the most important substances transferred from the maternal blood to the fetal circulation in the placenta, and its transport across the cellular membranes is mediated by glucose transporters. Facilitated-diffusion glucose transporter GLUT1 is abundant in the placental barrier, as is the case in other blood-tissue barriers, where GLUT1 is present at the critical plasma membranes of the barrier cells. In the human placenta, the microvillous apical and the basal plasma membranes of the syncytiotrophoblast are rich in GLUT1, which molecule seems to be responsible for the transcellular transport of glucose across the placental barrier. In the rat placental labyrinth, two layers of syncytiotrophoblasts (termed syncytiotrophoblasts I and II from the maternal side) serve as a barrier. GLUT1 is abundant at the plasma membrane of syncytiotrophoblast I facing the maternal side, and the plasma membrane of syncytiotrophoblast II facing the fetal side. Numerous gap junctions, made of connexin 26, connect syncytiotrophoblasts I and II, comprising a channel for the transfer of glucose between them. GLUT1 in combination with the gap junction, therefore, seems to serve as the structural basis for the transport of glucose across the rat placental barrier.

Transport of glucose across the blood-tissue barriers

In specialized parts of the body, free exchange of substances between blood and tissue cells is hindered by the presence of a barrier cell layer(s). Specialized milieu of the compartments provided by these "blood-tissue barriers" seems to be important for specific functions of the tissue cells guarded by the barriers. In blood-tissue barriers, such as the blood-brain barrier, blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier, blood-nerve barrier, blood-retinal barrier, blood-aqueous barrier, blood-perilymph barrier, and placental barrier, endothelial or epithelial cells sealed by tight junctions, or a syncytial cell layer(s), serve as a structural basis of the barrier. A selective transport system localized in the cells of the barrier provides substances needed by the cells inside the barrier. GLUT1, an isoform of facilitated-diffusion glucose transporters, is abundant in cells of the barrier. GLUT1 is concentrated at the critical plasma membranes of cells of the barriers and thereby constitutes the major machinery for the transport of glucose across these barriers where transport occurs by a transcellular mechanism. In the barrier composed of double-epithelial layers, such as the epithelium of the ciliary body in the case of the blood-aqueous barrier, gap junctions appear to play an important role in addition to GLUT1 for the transfer of glucose across the barrier.

Quantitation and immunolocalization of glucose transporters in the human placenta

The subcellular distributions of the mammalian passive glucose transporter isoforms GLUT1, GLUT3 and GLUT4, in the human placenta, were investigated using isoform-specific anti-peptide antibodies. On western blots of both basal and brush-border plasma membranes isolated from the syncytiotrophoblast, antibodies specific for GLUT1 labelled a broad band (apparent Mr 55,000) that co-migrated with the human erythrocyte GLUT1 glucose transporter. In contrast, no labelling was detectable when blots were probed with antibodies specific for the GLUT3 or GLUT4 isoforms. Densitometric analysis of blots showed that GLUT1 accounts for approximately 90 and 65 per cent of the D-glucose-sensitive cytochalasin B binding sites present in brush-border and basal membranes, respectively. Confocal immunofluorescence microscopy of fixed placental tissue showed that GLUT1 is abundant at both maternal- and fetal-facing surfaces of the syncytiotrophoblast whereas it was undetectable at the fetal capillary endothelium. In parallel experiments, no staining by antibodies against either the GLUT3 or the GLUT4 isoforms was detected in placental tissue. These results indicate that GLUT1 is the major isoform responsible for glucose transfer from mother to fetus. The absence of GLUT4 is consistent with the lack of insulin-sensitive glucose transport across the placenta.

Localization of erythrocyte/HepG2-type glucose transporter (GLUT1) in human placental villi

The syncytiotrophoblast covering the surface of the placental villi contains the machinery for the transfer of specific substances between maternal and fetal blood, and also serves as a barrier. Existence of a facilitated-diffusion transporter for glucose in the syncytiotrophoblast has been suggested. Using antibodies to erythrocyte/HepG2-type glucose transporter (GLUT1), one isoform of the facilitated-diffusion glucose transporters, we detected a 50 kD protein in human placenta at term. By use of immunohistochemistry, GLUT1 was found to be abundant in both the syncytiotrophoblast and cytotrophoblast. Endothelial cells of the fetal capillaries also showed positive staining for GLUT1. Electron-microscopic examination revealed that GLUT1 was concentrated at both the microvillous apical plasma membrane and the infolded basal plasma membrane of the syncytiotrophoblast. Plasma membrane of the cytotrophoblast was also positive for GLUT1. GLUT1 at the apical plasma membrane of the syncytiotrophoblast may function for the entry of glucose into its cytoplasm, while GLUT1 at the basal plasma membrane may be essential for the exit of glucose from the cytoplasm into the stroma of the placental villi. Thus, GLUT1 at the plasma membranes of syncytiotrophoblast and endothelial cells may play an important role in the transport of glucose across the placental barrier.

Identification of the glucose transporter in mammalian cell membranes with a 125I-forskolin photoaffinity label

The glucose transporter has been identified in a variety of mammalian cell membranes using a photoactivatable carrier-free radioiodinated derivative of forskolin, 3-[125I]iodo-4-azidophenethylamido-7-O-succinyldeacetylforskoli n ([125I]IAPS-forskolin) at 1-3 nM. The membranes that were photolabelled with [125I]IAPS-forskolin were human placental membranes, rat cortical and cerebellar synaptic membranes, rat cardiac sarcolemmal membranes, rat adipocyte plasma membranes, smooth-muscle membranes, and S49 wild-type (WT) lymphoma-cell membranes. The glucose transporter in plasma membranes prepared from the insulin-responsive rat cardiac sarcolemmal cells, rat adipocytes and smooth-muscle cells were determined to be approx. 45 kDa by SDS/polyacrylamide-gel electrophoresis (PAGE). Photolysis of human placental membranes, rat cortical and cerebellar synaptic membranes, and WT lymphoma membranes with [125I]-IAPS-forskolin, followed by SDS/PAGE, indicated specific derivatization of a broad band (43-55 kDa) in placental membranes and a narrower band (approx. 45 kDa) in synaptic membranes and WT lymphoma membranes. Digestion of the [125I]IAPS-forskolin-labelled placental and WT lymphoma membranes with endo-beta-galactosidase showed a reduction in the apparent molecular mass of the radiolabelled band to approx. 40 kDa. The membranes that were photolabelled with [125I]IAPS-forskolin and trypsin-treated produced a radiolabelled proteolytic fragment with an apparent molecular mass of 18 kDa. [125I]IAPS-forskolin is a highly effective probe for identifying low levels of glucose transporters in mammalian tissues.

Photoaffinity labeling of plasma membrane receptors for cytochalasins in Ehrlich tumor cells

Treatment of purified Ehrlich ascites cell plasma membranes either with [3H]cytochalasin B or [3H]19-O-acetylchaetoglobosin A under photolytic conditions produced several radioactive polypeptides which were characterized by SDS-PAGE analyses. The major proteins so photolabeled were in the 60,000-80,000 Da range, with less labeling found in polypeptides smaller than 43,000 and greater than 90,000 Da. Immunofluorescent staining failed to identify the major photolabeled component as actin. It is concluded, in keeping with prior investigations using other cell types, that the predominant proteins photolabeled by cytochalasins are affiliated with the glucose-transport system.

Sodium-gradient-driven, high-affinity, uphill transport of succinate in human placental brush-border membrane vesicles

Brush-border membrane vesicles isolated from normal human term placentas were shown to accumulate succinate transiently against a concentration gradient, when an inward-directed Na+ gradient was imposed across the membrane. This uptake was almost totally due to transport into intravesicular space, non-specific binding to the membranes being negligible. The dependence of the initial uptake rate of succinate on Na+ concentration exhibited sigmoidal kinetics, indicating interaction of more than one Na+ ion with the carrier system. The Hill coefficient for this ion was calculated to be 2.7. The Na+-dependent uptake of succinate was electrogenic, resulting in the transfer of positive charge across the membrane. Kinetic analysis showed that succinate uptake in these vesicles occurred via a single transport system, with an apparent affinity constant of 4.8 +/- 0.2 microM and a maximal velocity of 274 +/- 4 pmol/20 s per mg of protein. Uptake of succinate was strongly inhibited by various C4 or C5 dicarboxylic acids, whereas monocarboxylic acids, amino acids and glucose showed little or no effect. Li+ and K+ could not substitute for Na+ in the uptake process. Instead, Li+ was found to have a significant inhibitory effect on the Na+-dependent uptake of succinate.

Control of placental glucose transfer

There is little evidence to suggest that the membrane transfer mechanism of the placenta for glucose becomes saturated until maternal blood glucose concentrations are quite high. Also, recent evidence suggests that the membrane transport system for glucose in the placenta is not stimulated by maternal or fetal insulin. Furthermore, there is no solid evidence that hormonal or non-hormonal factors function in vivo to limit membrane transport of glucose in the placenta. Therefore, the limited data which are available suggest that there are no specific mechanisms which acutely regulate placental membrane transport of glucose, and that this membrane transport mechanism operates to maximize maternal-to-fetal glucose transfer. The rate of maternal-to-fetal glucose transfer is a function of the transplacental concentration gradient. This gradient appears to be under the control of fetal insulin and placental lactogen. The available data suggest that both hormones act to increase this concentration gradient: insulin by decreasing fetal blood glucose, and placental lactogen by both decreasing fetal and increasing maternal blood glucose concentrations. Furthermore, high rates of glucose uptake by fetal erythrocytes tend to promote maintenance of this concentration gradient. Therefore, these influences of the maternal-fetal concentration gradient promote transplacental glucose flux to the fetus. As illustrated by the fetal complications associated with maternal hyperglycaemia, the cellular and organismic physiology of the fetus and placenta appears to maximize, rather than optimize, glucose availability to the fetus. It may be, however, that during normal pregnancy, maximal availability is optimal for fetal development.

Role of monosaccharide transporter in vitamin C uptake by placental membrane vesicles

Dehydroascorbic acid (DHA), the reversibly oxidized form of vitamin C, was taken up much more rapidly than L-glucose into membrane vesicles prepared from the maternal face of the human placental syncytiotrophoblast. DHA uptake was sensitive to inhibition by cytochalasin B and was independent of a sodium concentration gradient. At equilibrium, the concentration of DHA in the vesicles did not exceed that of the medium. DHA and the D-glucose analogue, 3-O-methyl-D-glucose (3-O-MG) appeared to compete with one another for the transporter. The 3-O-MG and DHA inhibitory constants were indistinguishable. Vesicles loaded with a high concentration of 3-O-MG and suspended in low 3-O-MG displayed a marked, transitory enhancement of DHA, but not L-glucose uptake. These findings suggest that DHA is taken into the first cellular boundary of the placenta between maternal and fetal circulations by the sodium-independent monosaccharide transporter. In contrast to DHA, L-ascorbic acid, the reversibly reduced form of vitamin C, was taken into these vesicles much more slowly. This uptake was not affected by cytochalasin B nor by a sodium concentration gradient; it appeared to occur by simple diffusion.

Distinction of three types of D-glucose transport systems in animal cells

Immunoblotting of plasma membrane fractions from rat kidney cortex with antibody to human erythrocyte glucose transporter showed a single major cross-reacting material of 48K in basolateral membrane fractions possessing a facilitated diffusion system for D-glucose, but not in brush border membrane fractions which have a Na-dependent active transport system. Cytochalasin B inhibited D-glucose uptake in basolateral membrane vesicles but not in brush border vesicles. Cross-reacting materials of 44-55K were detected in several animal cells exhibiting facilitated diffusion systems, including a hormone dependent system. These results indicate molecular difference between glucose transporters of facilitated diffusion systems and active transport systems.

Reconstitution of the glucose transporter from bovine heart

Reconstitution of the glucose transporter from heart should be useful as an assay in its purification and in the study of its regulation. We have prepared plasma membranes from bovine heart which display D-glucose reversible binding of cytochalasin B (33 pmol sites/mg protein; Kd = 0.2 muM). The membrane proteins were reconstituted into liposomes by the freeze-thaw procedure. Reconstituted liposomes showed D-glucose transport activity which was stereospecific, saturable and inhibited by cytochalasin B, phloretin, and mercuric chloride. Compared to membrane proteins reconstituted directly, proteins obtained by dispersal of the membranes with low concentrations of cholate or by cholate solubilization showed 1.2- or 2.3-fold higher specific activities for reconstituted transport, respectively. SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis followed by electrophoretic protein transfer and labeling with antisera prepared against the human erythrocyte transporter identified a single band of about 45 kDa in membranes from both dog and bovine hearts, a size similar to that reported for a number of other glucose transporters in various animals and tissues.

The toxicology of mycotoxins

Mycotoxin problems are one of great concern to health scientists. Toxic fungal metabolites such as aflatoxins, trichothecenes, zearalenone and others are contaminated in our environments and induce various diseases. In this manuscript, the author will summarize the recent advances on toxicology of mycotoxins in special references to toxicological characters, cytotoxicity, genotoxicity (mutagenicity and carcinogenicity), metabolism, and biochemical mode of action. Interaction of mycotoxins with cellular components will be reviewed in order to clarify the toxicological characteristics of mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, trichothecenes, zearalenone, toxic peptides, and anthraquinoid mycotoxins.

Intramammary infusions of cytochalasin B and dimethyl sulfoxide do not suppress milk secretion in the goat

Cytochalasin B, an intracellular microfilament antagonist, was evaluated for its capacity to inhibit milk secretion in the goat. Intramammary infusions of the drug via teat canal in amounts to 6 mg had no effects on yields or fat and protein contents and minor, if any, effects on somatic cell counts of consecutive 12-h milkings. Our results suggest that the apical plasma membrane of lactating cells is impermeable to cytochalasin B and that the reduced secretion of lactose and casein caused by the drug in vitro may arise from its interference with glucose uptake at the base of cells. Dimethylsulfoxide, which we used (2 ml) in infusates to solubilize cytochalasin B, also was without effect on the foregoing lactation characteristics.

Characterization and solubilization of the cytochalasin B binding component from human placental microsomes

Human placental microsomes exhibit uptake of D-[3H]glucose which is sensitive to inhibition by cytochalasin B (apparent Ki = 0.78 microM). Characterization of [3H]cytochalasin B binding to these membranes reveals a glucose-sensitive site, inhibited by D-glucose with an ED50 = 40 mM. The glucose-sensitive cytochalasin B binding site is found to have a Kd = 0.15 microM by analysis according to Scatchard. Solubilization with octylglucoside extracts 60-70% of the glucose-sensitive binding component. Equilibrium dialysis binding of [3H]cytochalasin B to the soluble protein displays a pattern of inhibition by D-glucose similar to that observed for intact membranes, and the measurement of an ED50 = 37.5 mM D-glucose confirms the presence of the cytochalasin B binding component, putatively assigned as the glucose transporter. Further evidence is attained by photoaffinity labelling; ultraviolet-sensitive [3H]cytochalasin B incorporation into soluble protein (Mr range 42000-68000) is prevented by the presence of D-glucose. An identical photolabelling pattern is observed for incorporation of [3H]cytochalasin B into intact membrane protein, confirming the usefulness of this approach as a means of identifying the presence of the glucose transport protein under several conditions.