Friend's drinking behaviour and adolescent alcohol consumption: the moderating role of friendship characteristics

Perception of Parental Attitudes and Self-Efficacy in Refusing Alcohol Drinking and Smoking by Spanish Adolescents: A Cross-Sectional Study

Adolescents are particularly vulnerable to initiation of the use of substances harmful to health, and its increase is cause for concern. The objective of this study was to analyze the relationship between self-efficacy in refusing alcohol and the attitude of adolescents toward drugs and their perception of their parents' attitude toward refusal. The study was carried out in 2019 in a sample of 1287 students from 11 public high schools in the province of Almería (Spain). Students were aged 14 to 18 in their 3rd and 4th year of compulsory secondary education. The Drinking Refusal Self-Efficacy Questionnaire-Revised Adolescent version (DRSEQ-RA), Attitudes Toward Taking Drugs-Basic BIP Scale and the Parents' attitudes Toward Drug Use were administered. The results showed that family relationships seem to have a direct impact on adolescent patterns in smoking and drinking alcohol. However, a favorable attitude toward drugs is a risk factor for drinking alcohol and smoking tobacco. The self-efficacy dimension also acts as a protective factor against the probability of using alcohol or tobacco. The conclusions emphasized that communication within the family core can increase or decrease the risk of adolescents using substances harmful to health.

What Does it Mean to be Susceptible to Influence? A Brief Primer on Peer Conformity and Developmental Changes that Affect it

Peer influence is a twofold process that entails a behavior by an agent of influence that elicits conformity from the target of influence. Susceptibility describes the likelihood that conformity will occur. This review focuses on factors that shape susceptibility to peer influence. We argue that conformity has two distinct sources. In some instances, conformity is a product of characteristics of the target of influence, operationalized as stable individual difference variables. Trait-like attributes associated with susceptibility to peer influence include conformity dispositions, social goals, resource acquisition strategies, vulnerabilities, and maturational status. In other instances, conformity is a product of the context in which the target is situated, operationalized as impermanent individual difference variables. State-like circumstances associated with susceptibility to peer influence include conditions of uncertainty, personal attributes that differ from the partner or group, perceived benefits of impression management, unmet social needs, and social referents and beliefs about their behavior. Empirical illustrations are provided. We close with a discussion of developmental changes hypothesized to impact variations in susceptibility to peer influence.

A influência dos pares no consumo de Substâncias Psicoativas entre estudantes universitários/as

Entre os inúmeros fatores de influência social, os/as estudantes universitários/as são sensíveis aos comportamentos dos seus pares, sendo este considerado um preditor psicossocial robusto do consumo de substâncias psicoativas. O objetivo deste estudo prendeu-se com a análise da influência dos pares consumidores de substâncias psicoativas no consumo dessas mesmas substâncias por estudantes universitários. Este é um estudo transversal com uma amostra probabilística (n = 840) de estudantes universitários portugueses. Os dados foram recolhidos através de um questionário de autorelato anónimo e previamente validado composto por questões acerca dos consumos de substâncias psicoativas e dos consumos dessas substâncias pelos seus pares. Os resultados identificaram uma elevada prevalência de consumo de substâncias psicoativas (20.1%, 22.2% e 60.0% dos/as estudantes era fumador, consumidor de drogas ilícitas e apresentava um consumo excessivo de álcool, respetivamente). A maioria dos/as estudantes inquiridos/as referiu ter amigos/as consumidores/as de tabaco (84.8%), de drogas ilícitas (52.3%) e de álcool (93.9%). O consumo de substâncias psicoativas associou-se positivamente com ao consumo de substâncias psicoativas pelos pares. Estes resultados têm implicações práticas na investigação e intervenção em educação para a saúde no Ensino Superior. Por um lado, mostra a importância das instituições de ensino superior monitorizarem regularmente os comportamentos não-saudáveis e, por outro lado, que os programas de intervenção deverão capacitar os estudantes na tomada de decisões conscientes e positivas, promovendo o desenvolvimento de competências de regulação das emoções e a participação ativa das redes sociais mais próximas.

Peer influence in adolescent drinking behavior: A meta-analysis of stochastic actor-based modeling studies

Objectives

To measure the effects of peer influence and peer selection on drinking behavior in adolescence through a rigorous statistical approach designed to unravel these interrelated processes.

Methods

We conducted systematic searches of electronic databases, thesis collections and conference proceedings to identify studies that used longitudinal network design and stochastic actor-oriented modeling to analyze drinking behavior in adolescents. Parameter estimates collected from individual studies were analyzed using multilevel random-effects models.

Results

We identified 26 articles eligible for meta-analysis. Meta-analyses for different specifications of the peer influence effect were conducted separately. The peer influence effect was positive for every specification: for average similarity (avSim) mean log odds ratio was 1.27 with 95% confidence interval [0.04; 2.49]; for total similarity (totSim) 0.46 (95% CI = [0.44; 0.48]), and for average alter (avAlt) 0.70 (95% CI = [-0.01; 1.41]). The peer selection effect (simX) was also positive: 0.46 (95% CI = [0.28; 0.63]). Conversion log odds ratio values to Cohen’s d gives estimates from 0.25 to 0.70, which is considered as medium to large effect.

Conclusions

Advances in methodology for social network analysis have made it possible to accurately estimate peer influence effects free from peer selection effects. More research is necessary to clarify the roles of age, gender, and individual susceptibility on the changing behavior of adolescents under the influence of their peers. Understanding the effects of peer influence should inform practitioners and policy makers to design and deliver more effective prevention programs.

Social Learning and Addiction

Social learning theory, as originally proposed by Albert Bandura, followed 2000 years of intellectual inquiry into the determinants of human behavior. Reciprocal determinism is a central component of this theory and proposes that human behavior is determined by functional relationships between (1) personal factors, (2) the external environment, and (3) the behavior itself. Using this model, drug addiction can be viewed as resulting from the functional relationships between an individual's personal characteristics, social environment, and drug-centric behaviors. In other words, addiction can be viewed as a chronically evolving biopsychosocial disorder, encompassing dimensions that are both internal and external to the individual. Effective treatment interventions should thus target all nodes of the model and the functional relationships between them, and they must constantly evolve with the progression of the disorder. An argument is thus constructed that emphasizes the need for an organized structure of metacontingencies, operating within an individual's social environment, that targets the functional relationships between the factors that drive drug use. Optimally, these metacontingencies would operate within socially connected individuals who have the power to control the functional relationships that influence drug use, the vested interest to monitor individual and collective outcomes, the skills to determine what moment-to-moment decisions are needed to influence behavioral change, and the relative permanence necessary to carry through with the implementation of new strategies to produce outcomes that are cumulatively significant.

Stressful life events and adolescent well-being: The role of parent and peer relationships

It is well established that stressful life events (e.g., family bereavements or moving to a new country) are damaging to psychological health and well-being. Indeed, social relationships are often noted as an important factor that can influence well-being and buffer the negative effects of stress. However, the quality and source of these relationships, particularly for adolescents, are often overlooked. Using the Growing Up in Ireland Survey, a population-based study of 13-year-old Irish adolescents (N = 7,525; 51.1% female), the current study examines the quality of both parent and peer relationships as potential mechanisms explaining the association between stressful life events and psychological well-being indices in adolescents. As expected, results showed that stressful life events negatively impacted the psychological well-being of adolescents. Parallel mediation analyses indicated that both parent and peer relationship quality mediated this association. Further exploratory analyses found that for girls, greater numbers of stressful life events were associated with poorer quality relationships with both their parents and peers, and in turn, these were linked to lower levels of psychological well-being. For boys, this effect was only evident for parental relationship quality, but not peers. The implication of these findings for adolescent's psychological well-being, particularly for girls, is discussed.

Qualitative exploration of the intersection between social influences and cultural norms in relation to the development of alcohol use behaviour during adolescence

OBJECTIVES

Few contemporary studies have examined peer and social drivers of alcohol use during mid-adolescence. We sought to explore young people's perspectives on socio-cultural influences relating to alcohol use behaviour during this period.

DESIGN

Qualitative research study.

METHODS

Semi-structured one-to-one (n=25), paired (n=4) or triad (n=1) interviews and one focus group (n=6) were conducted with 30 young people aged 14 to 15 (13 males, 17 females) recruited from 4 schools, and 12 participants (aged 14 to 18, 8 males, 4 females) recruited from two youth groups in an urban centre in the West of England. Nineteen participants abstained from alcohol use, 9 were occasional or moderate drinkers and 14 drank alcohol more regularly. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim and analysed thematically using NVivo V.10, through a lens of social influence and social norms theories.

RESULTS

Alcohol consumption was associated with being cool, mature and popular, while enabling escape from reality and boosting confidence and enjoyment. Positive expectancies, alongside opportunity, contributed to motivating initiation, but social influences were paramount, with participants describing a need to 'fit in' with friends to avoid social exclusion. Such influences positioned drinking at parties as a normative social practice, providing opportunities for social learning and the strengthening of peer norms. Social media presented young people with positive alcohol-associated depictions of social status, enjoyment and maturity. This intersection of influences and norms generated a pressurised environment and a sense of unease around resisting pressures, which could elicit stigmatising insults.

CONCLUSIONS

Cultural norms, social influences and social media intersect to create a pressurised environment around alcohol use during mid-adolescence, driving the escalation in the prevalence of excessive consumption at this stage. New interventions need to address normative influences to enable the prevention of excessive alcohol use during adolescence.

Sources of Social Influence on Adolescents' Alcohol Use

The present research examines social influences on self-reported frequency of drunkenness in a longitudinal sample of 1,439 adolescents (46% female, 90% White, mean age = 14 at baseline) with social network measures from friends, romantic partners, and romantic partners' friends. We build on past research by addressing multiple mechanisms of social influence-peers' frequency of drunkenness, alcohol-related attitudes, and unstructured socializing-across relationship types. Adolescents' drunkenness frequency increased when their friends' and partners' friends' drunkenness frequency increased and when their romantic partners' positive alcohol-related attitudes increased. Furthermore, the association between unstructured socializing and frequency of drunkenness was stronger for older than younger adolescents. Results advance understanding of the social transmission of alcohol use in adolescence and inform intervention efforts.

Determinants of harmful use of alcohol among urban slum dwelling adults in Kenya

BACKGROUND

Harmful alcohol use is a public health problem associated with negative health and socio-economic impacts. However, patterns and dynamics of alcohol use among slum-dwellers in Kenya are poorly understood.

OBJECTIVE

To establish determinants of harmful alcohol use among adults in an urban slum setting in Kenya.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cross-sectional study involving a consecutively selected sample (N=215) from Githurai, in Nairobi. A pre-tested questionnaire that captured data on socio-demographics, drinking patterns, type, reasons, initiator, and support system.

RESULTS

Of the respondents, those above 31 years, married, separated/divorced/widowed, of high education, earning above 50 USD, and from dysfunctional families consumed more alcohol. Low earners consumed (p < 0.05) unrecorded while high earners drank (p< 0.001) recorded alcohol. Adults from families with a drinking father and sibling consumed more alcohol (p=0.001). Single, low educational attainment/earners, and those in dysfunctional families (p <0.05) drank due to stress and reported alcohol-related problems. Young, unmarried, and casual laborers were introduced (p < 0.05) to alcohol by friends.

CONCLUSION

Socio-demographic, economic, familial, social interactions, and stress are associated with harmful alcohol use among adults from slums calling for interventions targeting these factors.

Associations between Harmful Experiences from Alcohol Use of Others and Mental Health in Korean Adolescents

This study assessed alcohol-induced harm to those not drinking and investigated its association with mental health in Korean adolescents. The 14th Korea Youth Risk Behavior Survey (2018) was used and 60,040 adolescents were analyzed. Harm from others’ alcohol consumption was assessed by four criteria: teasing in public places, being scared in public places, sleep problems, and unsafety of public places due to people drinking alcohol. Mental health included stress, depressive symptoms, suicidal ideation, and attempted suicide. Harm reported due to the alcohol use of others was 5.8% for teasing in public places, 33.6% for being scared in public places, 5.6% for sleep problems, and 40.2% for unsafety of public places among total study participants. Experiences of teasing in public places due to people who drank alcohol were associated with an increased risk of stress, depressive symptoms, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempts. Similarly, experiences of being scared in public places, sleep problems, and unsafety of public places due to people who drank alcohol were associated with poor mental health. In the stratified analysis, alcohol-induced harm was associated with poor mental health in both non-drinkers and drinkers. Harmful experiences from others’ alcohol consumption were associated with poor mental health among Korean adolescents.

Social Interaction With an Alcohol-Intoxicated or Cocaine-Injected Peer Selectively Alters Social Behaviors and Drinking in Adolescent Male and Female Rats

BACKGROUND

Drinking alcohol is facilitated by social interactions with peers, especially during adolescence. The importance of peer social influences during adolescence on alcohol and substance use has recently received more attention. We have shown that social interaction with an alcohol-intoxicated peer influences adolescent alcohol drinking differently in male and female rats using the demonstrator-observer paradigm. The present set of experiments analyzed the social interaction session to determine changes in social behaviors and subsequent alcohol drinking in adolescent male and female rats.

METHODS

Specifically, in Experiment 1, we determined whether specific social behaviors were altered during interaction with an alcohol-intoxicated demonstrator administered 1.5 g/kg ethanol (EtOH) and assessed changes in EtOH intake in adolescent observers. Experiment 2 examined changes in voluntary saccharin consumption to determine whether social interaction with an alcohol-intoxicated demonstrator administered 1.5 g/kg EtOH altered consumption of a palatable solution. In Experiment 3, we administered saline, and a low (5 mg/kg) or high (20 mg/kg) dose of cocaine to the demonstrator and assessed changes in the adolescent observers to determine whether social interaction with a "drugged" peer altered social behaviors and voluntary EtOH intake.

RESULTS

We showed that social interaction with an alcohol-intoxicated demonstrator administered 1.5 g/kg EtOH (i) decreased social play and increased social investigation and social contact in adolescent male and female observers, (ii) did not alter nonsocial behaviors, (iii) did not alter saccharin consumption, and (iv) increased voluntary EtOH intake in adolescent female but not male observers. When the peer was injected with cocaine, (i) social play was dose-dependently decreased, (ii) there were no changes in other social or nonsocial behaviors, and (iii) voluntary EtOH intake in adolescent male and female observers was unaffected.

CONCLUSIONS

The present results are consistent and extend our previous work, showing that social interaction with an alcohol-intoxicated peer selectively alters social behaviors and alcohol drinking in adolescent rats. Females appear to be more sensitive to the elevating effects of social interaction on voluntary EtOH consumption.

Peer influence in adolescent drinking behaviour: a protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis of stochastic actor-based modeling studies

INTRODUCTION

Alcohol consumption is a considerable public health problem that is especially harmful to young people. To develop effective prevention programmes targeted at adolescents, it is important to understand the social mechanisms triggering alcohol consumption. Among such mechanisms, peer influence plays an important role. The effects of peer influence are very difficult to evaluate because of the entanglement with social selection, that is, a tendency of people to befriend others with similar behaviour. The recently developed stochastic actor-oriented models (SAOM) approach is designed to disentangle social influence from social selection. The aim of this study is to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies employing SAOM methodology to evaluate the effects of social influence on adolescent drinking behaviour.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

In order to analyse the co-evolution of alcohol consumption and adolescent friendship networks, we will collect articles that use SAOM methodology through systematic electronic searches in Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, The Cochrane Library (Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials), EBSCOhost (MEDLINE, SocINDEX, Academic Source, ERIC), ProQuest (ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global), PsycINFO (PsycNET), Excerpta Medica database (Embase) and Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL). We will collect the literature from academic journals, dissertations/theses, reports and conference materials. Three reviewers will retrieve and independently assess potentially relevant material in terms of whether they comply with prespecified criteria. Subsequently, we will summarise the results of the studies in a systematic review. If a sufficient number of studies can be found, SAOM quantitative results will be extracted and meta-analysed. The project will go from 1 December 2018 to 1 December 2019.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Ethical approval will not be required as our work is based on published studies. A list of all the studies included in this work will be available for review. We plan dissemination in a peer-reviewed international scientific journal and through conference presentations. Our review will highlight the peer effect of peers in adolescent drinking behaviour and provide guidance for developing effective prevention and intervention programmes. We expect it to be informative for policy and practice, decision-making as well as for further research in public health and sociology of adolescents.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42019119836.

Prospective changes in neural alcohol cue reactivity in at-risk adolescents

Adolescence represents an ideal time for elucidating the etiology of cue reactivity profiles. This study examined the influence of three risk factors consistently associated with heavy adolescent drinking on alcohol cue reactivity. Youth were first assessed while still naïve to alcohol (12-14 years old) and followed after transitioning into alcohol use (17-21 years old). The effects of family history of substance use disorder, sex, and history of early of dating (i.e., before 14 years of age) on BOLD response contrast to alcohol picture cues were examined in a linear mixed model, controlling for age and alcohol use patterns at follow-up. Activation to alcohol picture cues differed as a function of risk factor and time. At baseline, family history positive youth showed greater activation to alcohol cues than family history negative peers in the right middle occipital and anterior cingulate gyri. Youth with a history of early-dating showed greater activation to alcohol cues, compared to non-early daters, in the left anterior cingulate/white matter region. Girls showed greater activation to alcohol than boys at baseline in left middle frontal gyrus. At follow-up, after drinking started, patterns reversed for each risk factor. These results indicate that even prior to initiating alcohol use, adolescents showed differences in activation to alcohol cues based on their family history, dating history, and sex.

Prospective Associations of Actual and Perceived Descriptive Norms with Drinking Among Emerging Adults

BACKGROUND

Descriptive norms are commonly associated with participant drinking. However, study participants may incorrectly perceive that their peers drink about the same amount as they do, which would bias estimates of drinking homogeneity.

OBJECTIVES

This research examined the magnitude of associations between emerging adults' reports of their own drinking and peer drinking measured the previous year by measures of (1) participants' perceptions of friends' drinking; and (2) actual drinking reported by nominated peers.

METHODS

The data are from annual surveys conducted in 2014 and 2015, Waves 4 and 5 (the first 2 years after high school) of 7 annual assessments as part of the NEXT Generation Health Study (n = 323). Associations of participant alcohol use with perceived friend use (five closest, closest male, and closest female friends), and with actual peer use. Logistic regression analyses estimated the magnitudes of prospective associations between each measure of peer drinking at W4 and participant drinking at W5.

Social Drinking on Social Media: Content Analysis of the Social Aspects of Alcohol-Related Posts on Facebook and Instagram

Background

Alcohol is often consumed in social contexts. An emerging social context in which alcohol is becoming increasingly apparent is social media. More and more young people display alcohol-related posts on social networking sites such as Facebook and Instagram.

Objective

Considering the importance of the social aspects of alcohol consumption and social media use, this study investigated the social content of alcohol posts (ie, the evaluative social context and presence of people) and social processes (ie, the posting of and reactions to posts) involved with alcohol posts on social networking sites.

Methods

Participants (N=192; mean age 20.64, SD 4.68 years, 132 women and 54 men) gave researchers access to their Facebook and/or Instagram profiles, and an extensive content analysis of these profiles was conducted. Coders were trained and then coded all screenshotted timelines in terms of evaluative social context, presence of people, and reactions to post.

Results

Alcohol posts of youth frequently depict alcohol in a positive social context (425/438, 97.0%) and display people holding drinks (277/412, 67.2%). In addition, alcohol posts were more often placed on participants’ timelines by others (tagging; 238/439, 54.2%) than posted by participants themselves (201/439, 45.8%). Furthermore, it was revealed that such social posts received more likes (mean 35.50, SD 26.39) and comments than nonsocial posts (no people visible; mean 10.34, SD 13.19, P<.001).

Conclusions

In terms of content and processes, alcohol posts on social media are social in nature and a part of young people’s everyday social lives. Interventions aiming to decrease alcohol posts should therefore focus on the broad social context of individuals in which posting about alcohol takes place. Potential intervention strategies could involve making young people aware that when they post about social gatherings in which alcohol is visible and tag others, it may have unintended negative consequences and should be avoided.

When and How Do Brief Alcohol Interventions in Primary Care Reduce Alcohol Use and Alcohol-Related Consequences among Adolescents?

OBJECTIVE

To systematically describe when and how brief alcohol interventions delivered to adolescents in primary care settings reduce alcohol use and alcohol-related consequences among adolescents, using realist review methodology.

STUDY DESIGN

Eleven electronic databases, gray literature, and reference screening were searched up to June 2016; 11 brief interventions published in 13 studies met inclusion criteria. Intervention design components (delivery context and intervention mechanisms) underlying brief alcohol interventions for adolescents were extracted and linked to alcohol use and related consequences.

RESULTS

Brief interventions had either an indicated context of delivery (provided to adolescent patients with low-to-moderate risk for alcohol problems) or universal context of delivery (provided to general adolescent patient population). Interventions that used motivational interviewing in an indicated delivery context had 2 potential mechanisms-eliciting and strengthening motivation to change and providing direction through interpretation. These interventions resulted in clinically significant reductions in alcohol use and associated consequences. Peer risk also was identified among universal and indicated brief interventions as a potential mechanism for changing alcohol-related outcomes among adolescents who received the intervention. None of the studies tested the processes by which interventions were expected to work.

CONCLUSIONS

The current evidence base suggests that both indicated and universal delivery of brief alcohol interventions to adolescents in primary care settings can result in clinically important changes in alcohol-related outcomes. Studies that test brief intervention processes are now necessary to better understand how brief interventions work with adolescents in primary care settings.

Development and testing of the Youth Alcohol Norms Survey (YANS) instrument to measure youth alcohol norms and psychosocial influences

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to develop and validate an online instrument to: (1) identify common alcohol-related social influences, norms and beliefs among adolescents; (2) clarify the process and pathways through which proalcohol norms are transmitted to adolescents; (3) describe the characteristics of social connections that contribute to the transmission of alcohol norms; and (4) identify the influence of alcohol marketing on adolescent norm development.

SETTING

The online Youth Alcohol Norms Survey (YANS) was administered in secondary schools in Western Australia PARTICIPANTS: Using a 2-week test-retest format, the YANS was administered to secondary school students (n=481, age=13-17 years, female 309, 64.2%).

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

The development of the YANS was guided by social cognitive theory and comprised a systematic multistage process including evaluation of content and face validity. A 2-week test-retest format was employed. Exploratory factor analysis was conducted to determine the underlying factor structure of the instrument. Test-retest reliability was examined using intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and Cohen's kappa.

RESULTS

A five-factor structure with meaningful components and robust factorial loads was identified, and the five factors were labelled as 'individual attitudes and beliefs', 'peer and community identity', 'sibling influences', 'school and community connectedness' and 'injunctive norms', respectively. The instrument demonstrated stability across the test-retest procedure (ICC=0.68-0.88, Cohen's kappa coefficient=0.69) for most variables.

CONCLUSIONS

The results support the reliability and factorial validity of this instrument. The YANS presents a promising tool, which enables comprehensive assessment of reciprocal individual, behavioural and environmental factors that influence alcohol-related norms among adolescents.

Who's Got the Booze? The Role of Access to Alcohol in the Relations Between Social Status and Individual Use

OBJECTIVE

The findings of previous research that examined relationships between popularity and alcohol use in adolescents have been mixed, and few hypotheses have proposed mechanisms for this relationship. The current study expands on previous literature (a) by examining a possible mechanism that can explain the relation between popularity and alcohol use (home access to alcohol) and (b) by using another sociometric measure ("betweenness"), beyond popularity, that may relate more to home alcohol access.

METHOD

Using network-level data from adolescents in 9th-11th grades in eight schools within two in-home waves of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health), we examined two sociometric measures of social status: popularity (number of schoolmates who nominated participants as a friend) and betweenness (level of ties participants have to multiple social subgroups within a network).

RESULTS

Betweenness, but not popularity, related to later alcohol use. Having home access to alcohol positively related to later alcohol use, and having friends with home access to alcohol negatively related to later alcohol use. Alcohol access was also related to later sociometric status. Friends' alcohol access negatively related to later betweenness, and personal alcohol access moderated other pathways predicting betweenness.

CONCLUSIONS

Betweenness appears to play a unique role in the association between social status and alcohol use in adolescent social networks. This is potentially tied to specific ways in which adolescents may be able to access alcohol (through home or through friends with access at home). More research is necessary to examine the ways in which multiple sociometric statuses relate to the contexts in which adolescents access and use alcohol.

Freundschaften im Klassenzimmer und deren Bedeutung für einen adaptiven individuellen Umgang mit Fehlern

Zusammenfassung. Erfolgreiches Lernen aus Fehlern setzt einen adaptiven Umgang mit Fehlern voraus: Als affektiv-motivational adaptiv wird die Aufrechterhaltung der Motivation sowie günstiger Lernemotionen angesehen, während sich handlungsadaptive Fehlerreaktionen auf geeignete Lernhandlungen und -strategien zur tieferen Auseinandersetzung mit dem Fehler und dessen Korrektur beziehen. Neben individuellen Merkmalen des Lernenden wird ein solch adaptiver Umgang mit Fehlern maßgeblich vom sozialen Kontext mitbestimmt. Obwohl Klassenkamerad_innen einen wesentlichen Bestandteil des sozialen Lernkontextes von Jugendlichen ausmachen, wurde in Forschungsarbeiten zum Fehlerklima bisher vorrangig das Lehrkraftverhalten (im Umgang mit Mitschülerreaktionen) in den Blick genommen. Demgegenüber stehen empirische und entwicklungspsychologische Evidenzen, dass Peerbeziehungen insbesondere im Jugendalter eine zentrale Stellung – auch für die Übernahme schulischer Überzeugungen und Verhaltensweisen – einnehmen. Basierend auf einer Stichprobe von 270 Schüler_innen der 5. – 7. Jahrgangsstufe wurde untersucht, inwiefern dyadische reziproke Freundschaften innerhalb der Klasse im Zusammenhang mit dem Umgang mit Fehlern und somit auch indirekt mit der Leistung von Schüler_innen stehen. Dazu wurde von jeder_m Jugendlichen die beste Freundin bzw. der beste Freund innerhalb der Klasse nominiert und alle Schüler_innen mittels eines standardisierten Fragebogens zu deren individuellem Umgang mit Fehlern in Mathematik und Englisch befragt. Als Leistungsmaß wurde die Schulaufgabennote in beiden Unterrichtsfächern herangezogen. Ergebnisse von Strukturgleichungsmodellen ergaben positive Zusammenhänge zwischen dem adaptiven Fehlerumgang befreundeter Jugendlicher, sowie indirekte Effekte auf die Leistung. Die Ergebnisse zeigten sich in beiden Unterrichtsfächern und ergänzen bisherige Erkenntnisse zu den sozialen Faktoren, die das schulische Lernverhalten beeinflussen.

The Effect of Active and Passive Peer Discouragement on Adolescent Risk taking: An Experimental Study

This experiment investigated the effect of peer discouragement on adolescent risk taking. Overall, 269 Dutch adolescents aged 11-15 years completed a risk taking computer task in the presence of an e-confederate who demonstrated very little risk taking (passive peer discouragement) and/or sent risk-discouraging messages to participants (active peer discouragement). The results showed that, compared to a situation with no peer discouragement, adolescents took significantly less risk only when they encountered a combination of active and passive peer discouragement; hence, when peers practiced what they preached. No gender differences were found in the effect of passive and active peer discouragement on risk taking. The results showed that digital peer messages play a promising role in diminishing adolescent risk taking.

The effects of social contact on cocaine intake in female rats

BACKGROUND

Studies conducted in male rats report that social contact can either facilitate or inhibit drug intake depending on the behavior of social partners. The purpose of the present study was to: (1) examine the effects of social contact on cocaine intake in female rats, (2) examine the behavioral mechanisms by which social contact influences cocaine intake, and (3) examine whether the estrous cycle moderates the effects of social contact on cocaine intake.

METHODS

Female rats were assigned to either isolated or pair-housed conditions in which a social partner either had access to cocaine (cocaine partner) or did not have access to cocaine (abstinent partner). Pair-housed rats were tested in custom-built operant conditioning chambers that allowed both rats to be tested simultaneously in the same chamber.

RESULTS

Rats housed with a cocaine partner self-administered more cocaine than isolated rats and rats housed with an abstinent partner. A behavioral economic analysis indicated that these differences were driven by a greater intensity of cocaine demand (i.e., greater intake at lower unit prices) in rats housed with a cocaine partner. Multivariate modeling revealed that the estrous cycle did not moderate the effects of social contact on cocaine intake.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that: (1) social contact influences cocaine self-administration in females in a manner similar to that reported in males, (2) these effects are due to differences in the effects of social contact on the intensity of cocaine demand, and (3) these effects are consistent across all phases of the estrous cycle.

The Role of Friendship Reciprocity in University Freshmen's Alcohol Consumption

BACKGROUND

The similarity of friends in the frequency and quantity of alcohol consumption is explored.

METHOD

During their first semester, 57 psychology freshmen indicated weekly drinking frequency and quantity and nominated the three peers of this group they liked most. These nominations were then used to derive the weekly alcohol consumption of friends that either did or did not reciprocate a nomination.

RESULTS

Multilevel modeling of weekly variations showed that individuals' drinking frequency was similar to peers who reciprocated a friendship (b = 0.15, p = .001), but not to non-reciprocating peers (b = -0.01, p = .720). In contrast, weekly variation in quantity of individual students' drinking was similar to both reciprocating (b = 0.11, p = .018) and non-reciprocating peers' drinking (b = 0.10, p = .014). Yet across all weeks, quantity tended only to be similar to non-reciprocating peers (b = 0.49, p = .020).

CONCLUSIONS

Freshmen might spend drinking time with peers who reciprocate a friendship, but are similar regarding the quantity of drinks consumed to all people they find interesting. Thus, alcohol consumption is used strategically for social purposes. This social purpose should also be acknowledged in alcohol-reduction interventions.

Among friends: a qualitative exploration of the role of peers in young people's alcohol use using Bourdieu's concepts of habitus, field and capital

Drinking is viewed by young people as a predominantly social activity which provides an opportunity for entertainment and bonding with friends. Using Bourdieu's concepts of habitus, field and capital, this article explores young people's attitudes and beliefs around alcohol use, influences on behaviour, and the role of peers, with a view to informing the development of preventive interventions. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 28 young people aged 18-20 in the south west of England. We describe how friends were integral in drinking experiences, and drinking with friends was equated with fun and enjoyment. In this way, the desire for social and symbolic capital appeared to be a key motivator for adolescent drinking. Critically, however, wider cultural norms played the predominant role in shaping behaviour, via the internalisation of widely accepted practice and the subsequent externalisation of norms through the habitus. Applying Bourdieu's theory suggests that population-level interventions that regulate alcohol consumption, and thus disrupt the field, are likely to facilitate behaviour change among young people by driving a response in habitus.

Individual Popularity, Peer Group Popularity Composition and Adolescents' Alcohol Consumption

Previous studies have convincingly shown associations between popularity and adolescent drinking. This study examined whether the popularity composition of the peer group and the relative difference in popularity between adolescents and their peers are also associated with adolescent drinking. Participants were 800 adolescents (M _age = 14.73; SD_age = 1.00; 51.6 % girls) from 31 classrooms who completed peer ratings of popularity and self-reports of alcohol consumption. Results showed that drinking was higher among popular than unpopular adolescents, higher among popular adolescents surrounded by less popular classmates, and lower in classrooms with more variability in popularity. Thus, beyond individual popularity, peer group popularity composition also should be taken into account when investigating antisocial and health risk behaviors in adolescence such as drinking.

Risk and protective factors associated with adolescent girls' substance use: Data from a nationwide Facebook sample

BACKGROUND

Despite overall reductions in teenage substance use, adolescent girls' rates of substance use remain unacceptably high. This article examines whether girls' substance use is associated with general risk and protective factors (goal setting, problem solving, refusal skills, peer use, and self-efficacy) and gender-specific risk and protective factors (communication style, coping skills, self-esteem, body image, perceived stress, anxiety, and depression).

METHODS

Cross-sectional data were collected in 2013 via online surveys from a nationwide sample of adolescent girls (N = 788), aged 13 and 14 years, who were recruited through Facebook.

RESULTS

In multivariate analyses, controlling for correlates of adolescent substance use, 11 of the 13 general and gender-specific risk and protective factors were consistently associated with past-month alcohol, cigarette, and other drug use in the expected direction; past-month marijuana use was associated with 8 of the 13 factors. Refusal skills, peer use, coping, and depressive mood were most consistently and strongly associated with substance use.

CONCLUSIONS

Substance abuse prevention programs targeting adolescent girls should focus on such general risk and protective factors as problem solving, refusal skills, peer influences, and self-efficacy, as well as such gender-specific risk and protective factors as communication style, coping, self-esteem, body image, perceived stress, and mood management.

The effects of sex, estrous cycle, and social contact on cocaine and heroin self-administration in rats

RATIONALE

Preclinical studies indicate that gonadal hormones are important determinants of drug self-administration. To date, little is known about the influence of sex and estrous cycle on drug self-administration in ecologically relevant social contexts.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to examine the role of sex and estrous cycle in a rat model during cocaine and heroin self-administration with male-female and female-female social dyads.

METHODS

Male and female virgin rats were trained to self-administer cocaine and heroin in operant conditioning chambers that permitted two rats to self-administer concurrently, but prevented physical contact. Experiment 1 examined cocaine self-administration on a progressive ratio schedule in male-female dyads. Experiments 2 and 3 examined heroin self-administration on a fixed ratio schedule in male-female dyads at constant and varying doses, respectively. Experiment 4 examined heroin self-administration in female-female dyads on a fixed ratio schedule.

RESULTS

Cocaine-maintained breakpoints increased by ∼17 % in females during estrus, but remained consistent in males. Heroin self-administration decreased by ∼70 % during proestrus in females whether they were isolated, housed with males, or housed with females. Heroin self-administration was lower in males than females under some conditions and was not consistently associated with the responding of females.

CONCLUSIONS

Cocaine and heroin self-administration is influenced by the estrous cycle in females when in the presence of a male partner. As a novel finding, these data illustrate that heroin self-administration is reduced in females during proestrus regardless of the social context tested. Finally, these data suggest that drug self-administration in males is only minimally influenced by the hormonal status of a female partner.

Lost in translation: a focus group study of parents' and adolescents' interpretations of underage drinking and parental supply

Background

Reductions in underage drinking will only come about from changes in the social and cultural environment. Despite decades of messages discouraging parental supply, parents perceive social norms supportive of allowing children to consume alcohol in ‘safe’ environments.

Methods

Twelve focus groups conducted in a regional community in NSW, Australia; four with parents of teenagers (n = 27; 70 % female) and eight with adolescents (n = 47; 55 % female). Participants were recruited using local media. Groups explored knowledge and attitudes and around alcohol consumption by, and parental supply of alcohol to, underage teenagers; and discussed materials from previous campaigns targeting adolescents and parents.

Results

Parents and adolescents perceived teen drinking to be a common behaviour within the community, but applied moral judgements to these behaviours. Younger adolescents expressed more negative views of teen drinkers and parents who supply alcohol than older adolescents. Adolescents and parents perceived those who ‘provide alcohol’ (other families) as bad parents, and those who ‘teach responsible drinking’ (themselves) as good people. Both groups expressed a preference for high-fear, victim-blaming messages that targeted ‘those people’ whose behaviours are problematic.

Conclusions

In developing and testing interventions to address underage drinking, it is essential to ensure the target audience perceive themselves to be the target audience. If we do not have a shared understanding of underage ‘drinking’ and parental ‘provision’, such messages will continue to be perceived by parents who are trying to do the ‘right’ thing as targeting a different behaviour and tacitly supporting their decision to provide their children with alcohol.

Students' drinking behavior and perceptions towards introducing alcohol policies on university campus in Denmark: a focus group study

BACKGROUND

High alcohol consumption among university students is a well-researched health concern in many countries. At universities in Denmark, policies of alcohol consumption are a new phenomenon if existing at all. However, little is known of how students perceive campus alcohol policies. The aim of this study is to explore students' perceptions of alcohol policies on campus in relation to attitudes and practices of alcohol consumption.

METHODS

We conducted six focus group interviews with students from the University of Southern Denmark at two different campuses. The interviews discussed topics such as experiences and attitudes towards alcohol consumption among students, regulations, and norms of alcohol use on campus. The analysis followed a pre-determined codebook.

RESULTS

Alcohol consumption is an integrated practice on campus. Most of the participants found it unnecessary to make major restrictions. Instead, regulations were socially controlled by students themselves and related to what was considered to be appropriate behavior. However students were open minded towards smaller limitations of alcohol availability. These included banning the sale of alcohol in vending machines and limiting consumption during the introduction week primarily due to avoiding social exclusion of students who do not drink. Some international students perceived the level of consumption as too high and distinguished between situations where they perceived drinking as unusual.

CONCLUSION

The study showed that alcohol is a central part of students' lives. When developing and implementing alcohol policies on campus, seeking student input in the process and addressing alcohol policies in the larger community will likely improve the success of the policies.

Predicting the Onset of Alcohol Use and the Development of Alcohol Use Disorder Among Indigenous Adolescents

Empirical efforts to identify the predictors of drinking behavior among North American Indigenous adolescents are relatively limited. Using longitudinal data, this study considers perceived discrimination, positive drinker prototypes, and peer drinking behavior as risk factors for the onset of alcohol use and development of an alcohol use disorder among 674 Indigenous adolescents as they progressed from early to late adolescence (M age at baseline = 11.11, SD = 0.83). Results showed that positive drinker prototypes and associations with peers who drink increased the risk for the onset of drinking, while perceived discrimination and associations with peers who drink increased the risk for the development of an alcohol use disorder. The theoretical and practical implications of our results are discussed.

A qualitative investigation of the role of the family in structuring young people's alcohol use

BACKGROUND

Few qualitative studies have investigated young people's perspectives around influences on substance use. We aimed to examine young people's understandings, attitudes and experiences around alcohol, tobacco and cannabis use and factors influencing substance use behaviour.

METHODS

Qualitative interview study involving 28 young people (13 males and 15 females) aged 18-20 years, recruited purposively on the basis of substance use, who were participating in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Interviews were conducted at participants' homes or at local cafés. Audio data were transcribed verbatim, systematically coded and analysed inductively using a constant comparative approach.

RESULTS

Parental attitudes and behaviours and the nature of communication emerged as critical factors structuring young people's alcohol use. Initiation of alcohol use was frequently mediated by parents early in adolescence, with the home recounted as a primary site of early drinking experiences. Later in adolescence, young people perceived a more permissive stance towards alcohol use, with broad acceptance of high levels of consumption and recognition of drinking as a cultural norm during adolescence. In contrast, young people reported a more prohibitive and discouraging stance from their parents towards tobacco and cannabis use, and the use of these substances appeared to be of greater parental concern.

CONCLUSIONS

Interventions involving parents or guardians have a critical role to play in the prevention of harms arising from alcohol use during adolescence. However, such interventions are needed in conjunction with individual, school, community and environmental interventions to shift cultural norms across the population and to facilitate effective prevention.

Perceptions of alcohol use by friends compared to peers: Associations with middle adolescents' own use

BACKGROUND

In this study, the authors (a) distinguished between adolescents' perceptions of their peers' and friends' alcohol use to examine the unique associations these perceptions have on adolescents' own alcohol use and (b) tested if the ability to resist peer influence moderated those associations.

METHODS

Data were from the Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (N = 876, all aged 15). Adolescents reported (a) perceptions of alcohol use by their peers, (b) perceptions of alcohol use by their friends, (c) their own alcohol use in the last year, and (d) a measure of their ability to resist peer influence. Data were analyzed with hierarchical logistic regression (HLR), controlling for demographic variables and parental knowledge.

RESULTS

Three HLR models were computed: 1 for the full sample, 1 for only males, and 1 for only females. In all models, perceptions of alcohol use by friends (odds ratios [ORs]: OR_Full = 10.17, OR_Female = 15.51, OR_Male = 7.25) were associated with a greater likelihood of adolescents using alcohol themselves. Perceptions of alcohol use by peers (OR_Full = 1.13, OR_Female = 1.11, OR_Male = 1.14) were not significantly associated with adolescents' own alcohol use. The ability to resist peer influence did not moderate any of those associations.

CONCLUSIONS

It appears that when adolescents perceive more of their friends, but not their peers, consume alcohol, they themselves are at greater risk for alcohol use, and those associations do not depend upon their ability to resist peer influence.

Moderation, mediation - or even both? School climate and the association between peer and adolescent alcohol use

INTRODUCTION

Ample studies discuss the enhancing effects of peer drinking on student alcohol use. In addition, there is vast research on school climate impact on student alcohol use. Though these two areas are intertwined for most young adolescents, it is heretofore not completely clear, in what way these characteristics functionally interact and affect drinking behavior.

METHODS

In a longitudinal study, we analyzed a sample of 2490 German adolescents (Mage=13.32, SD=0.57, range=8-13) from 5th (fall 2010) to 8th (fall 2013) grade. We discerned mediating (class climate) and moderating (school organization variables) functions of school on the association between peer and adolescent alcohol use, and finally combined them in direct effect moderated mediation models for a variety of outcomes (lifetime alcohol use, frequency and amount of drinking, binge drinking), adjusting for possible confounders.

RESULTS

Class climate mediated a small significant part of the association between peer and adolescent alcohol use (1.8-2.4%), with the exception of lifetime drinking. Student-teacher ratio and percentage of at-risk students significantly moderated the peer-adolescent association, with the latter having an enhancing and the first having a buffering effect.

CONCLUSIONS

School life serves as an important context of adolescent development and as such, seems to have direct and indirect effects on behavior and health. Future research should pay attention to differentiating effects of school climate and include both forms of operationalization when analyzing school effects on student behavior.

Learning to drink: How Chinese adolescents make decisions about the consumption (or not) of alcohol

BACKGROUND

The aim of the study was to provide in-depth understanding of how Chinese adolescents learn to drink and how they make decisions about the consumption (or not) of alcohol. This study explored the ways in which social and cultural factors shape the drinking trajectories of Chinese underage young people.

METHODS

The study used a qualitative design to collect and analyse the data. We recruited adolescents aged between 14 and 17 from a range of secondary schools in Hong Kong. Focus group interviews were undertaken with 22 groups encompassing 111 participants. A thematic analysis based upon grounded theory was performed using NVivo 10.

RESULTS

The traditional Chinese drinking culture, characterised by the coming together of friends and relatives for celebrations, signifies the Chinese adolescents' first alcohol experiment. The adolescents' motivations for drinking essentially reflect the value placed upon alcohol within the Chinese culture - promoting conviviality, sociability and camaraderie. Whereas a sense of commonality encouraged alcohol use among them, there was little indication that drinkers and non-drinkers separately clustered around friendship networks. A high degree of self-regulation was exercised when drinking and this emerged as an acceptable social norm amongst young drinkers within social and cultural contexts. Most respondents saw underage drinking as an entirely normal and accepted part of social lives provided that it is kept under control.

CONCLUSIONS

This study sheds light on the Chinese adolescents' own understandings and interpretations of their drinking. Our findings suggest that interventions aimed to curtail underage drinking need to reflect social and cultural contexts within which alcohol comes into play and importantly, consider social environments that are conducive to underage drinking.

Effects of psychosocial variables in the similarity and interdependence of physical activity levels among adolescent best friend dyads

Given that physical activity (PA) tends to decrease with age during adolescence, addressing factors that affect change is important. This study examined the similarity and interdependence of PA as influenced by psychosocial factors among adolescent best friend dyads. A total of 660 adolescents, representing 330 best friend dyads, completed questionnaires with regard to PA, sitting time, perceived exercise benefits and barriers, physical self-perception and social support for PA. Dyads were also identified as reciprocal and non-reciprocal best friends; reciprocal means that both considered each other best friends and non-reciprocal were those in which only one considered the other a best friend. Data were analysed using a hierarchical linear model framework. Results indicated significant similarities between reciprocal best friend dyads for PA and sitting time, and for sitting time in non-reciprocal best friends (P values <.01). Psychosocial variables were associated with PA in reciprocal best friend dyads and with sitting time in reciprocal and non-reciprocal best friend dyads. Best friend gender, regular sports practice of the person, perceived exercise barriers of the best friend and best friend social support were the best predictors for PA.

Animal models of social contact and drug self-administration

Social learning theories of drug abuse propose that individuals imitate drug use behaviors modeled by social peers, and that these behaviors are selectively reinforced and/or punished depending on group norms. Historically, animal models of social influence have focused on distal factors (i.e., those factors outside the drug-taking context) in drug self-administration studies. Recently, several investigators have developed novel models, or significantly modified existing models, to examine the role of proximal factors (i.e., those factors that are immediately present at the time of drug taking) on measures of drug self-administration. Studies using these newer models have revealed several important conclusions regarding the effects of social learning on drug abuse: 1) the presence of a social partner influences drug self-administration, 2) the behavior of a social partner determines whether social contact will increase or decrease drug intake, and 3) social partners can model and imitate specific patterns of drug self-administration. These findings are congruent with those obtained in the human laboratory, providing support for the cross-species generality and validity of these preclinical models. This mini-review describes in detail some of the preclinical animal models used to study social contact and drug self-administration to guide future research on social learning and drug abuse.

Subjective Reality: The Influence of Perceived and Objective Conversational Valence on Binge Drinking Determinants

Previous studies have shown that interpersonal communication, and particularly perceived conversational valence (i.e., the perceived negativity or positivity of conversations) about health topics, influences health determinants. On the basis of 43 dyads (N = 86) discussing the topic of alcohol consumption, this study is the first to show that whereas perceived and objective conversational valence are positively related, only perceived conversational valence is a significant predictor of binge drinking attitudes and intentions. Thus, subjective reality matters more than objective reality. Furthermore, only the perceived valence of the participants' own contributions-and not of their conversation partners--influences binge drinking intentions, indicating that self-persuasion is more influential than persuasion by others. Thus, conversations in which discussants themselves express negative opinions about unhealthy behaviors can enhance public health.

Neighborhood characteristics associated with the availability of alcohol outlets in quebec, Canada

Objectives. The objectives of this study were to examine the spatial accessibility to alcohol outlets in Quebec and to assess the association between neighborhood level characteristics and availability of alcohol outlets. Methods. The Tobit Model was used to assess the association between neighborhood level characteristics and the availability of alcohol outlets within 500, 1000, 2000, and 3000 metres, respectively. Results. Alcohol outlets were found to be most available in the two largest metropolitan areas of the province of Quebec (Montréal and Québec City). Within 1000 metres, alcohol outlets are more available in neighbourhoods with the following characteristics: highest concentration of men, least materially deprived highest concentration of persons aged 20 years or more, and location either in a metropolitan area or in a small town. Finally, the number of bars with video lottery terminals increases with the level of social and material deprivation. Conclusion. In Québec, there is no rule governing the location of alcohol outlets. Thus, there is an abundant literature indicating that the regulation of alcohol outlet density could be an effective means of controlling risk attributable to alcohol consumption.

Willingness to drink as a function of peer offers and peer norms in early adolescence

OBJECTIVE

The goal of this study was to explore the effect of subjective peer norms on adolescents' willingness to drink and whether this association was moderated by sensitivity to peer approval, prior alcohol use, and gender.

METHOD

The sample was 1,023 middle-school students (52% female; 76% White; 12% Hispanic; M(age) = 12.22 years) enrolled in a prospective study of drinking initiation and progression. Using web-based surveys, participants reported on their willingness to drink alcohol if offered by (a) a best friend or (b) a classmate, peer norms for two referent groups (close friends and classmates), history of sipping or consuming a full drink of alcohol, and sensitivity to peer approval (extreme peer orientation). Items were re-assessed at two follow-ups (administered 6 months apart).

RESULTS

Multilevel models revealed that measures of peer norms were significantly associated with both willingness outcomes, with the greatest prediction by descriptive norms. The association between norms and willingness was magnified for girls, those with limited prior experience with alcohol, and youths with low sensitivity to peer approval.

CONCLUSIONS

Social norms appear to play a key role in substance use decisions and are relevant when considering more reactive behaviors that reflect willingness to drink under conducive circumstances. Prevention programs might target individuals with higher willingness, particularly girls who perceive others to be drinking and youths who have not yet sipped alcohol but report a higher perceived prevalence of alcohol consumption among both friends and peers.

Proximal and distal social influence on alcohol consumption and marijuana use among middle school adolescents

OBJECTIVES

This study assesses the independent and combined effects of (1) perceived peer norms, (2) best friend use, and (3) being in the presence of others who use on middle school adolescents' consumption of marijuana and alcohol, and how the effects of these sources of social influence evolve over time as youth progress through middle school.

METHODS

The analytic sample consisted of 11,667 adolescents (50% female; >65% Hispanic) in 6th, 7th or 8th grade from 16 middle schools across three school districts in Southern California. Participants were assessed at 5 time points from 2008 to 2011.

RESULTS

All sources of social influence were predictive of alcohol and marijuana consumption. As youth grew older, spending time with other adolescents who drink increased adolescents' likelihood of drinking alcohol, whereas perceived norms became less influential. Furthermore, as adolescents spent more time around other youths who drink, the predictive value of perceived norms on alcohol consumption decreased. Similarly, as youth grew older, the influence of best friend's use and spending time with other adolescents who use marijuana remain stable, whereas perceived norms became less influential.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that perceived peer norms may be more influential in early adolescence; whereas proximal social determinants (e.g., being in the presence of other peers who consume) become more influential as youth enter middle adolescence. Prevention programs should continue to address misperception of norms with younger adolescents to decrease the chances of initiation, but also utilize strategies such as refusal skills and alternate coping mechanisms for older adolescents.

Alcohol and Substance Use in Adolescence and Young Adulthood: The Role of Siblings

Interpersonal relationships both within and outside the family have been a central part of alcohol and substance use research. Many studies have focused on the role of parents and peers; fewer studies have focused on siblings. This paper examined siblings' roles in ATOD use patterns and trajectories in the context of familial and non-familial factors across time. First, intraclass correlations (ICCs) were used to examine the degree to which older siblings' ATOD use was associated with younger siblings' ATOD use. Second, hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to examine the degree to which individual, parent, sibling and peer factors over time were associated with adolescents' and young adults' ATOD use. It should be noted that developmentally proximal predictors were utilized in these models and within-family replication was also examined. Results demonstrate strong associations between older and younger siblings' ATOD use. Moreover, the developmentally proximal sibling variables were predictive of younger sibling ATOD use in the context of other variables across all substances. Study findings are discussed in terms of identifying promising and potentially malleable points of intervention for future investigators.

Alcohol use and church attendance among seventh through twelfth grade students, Dominican Republic, 2011

Excessive alcohol consumption increases the years of life lost to premature death and disability worldwide. Religion is a mitigating factor in alcohol consumption. A survey in the Dominican Republic showed increasing church attendance by middle and high school students (N = 3,478) was associated with a delay in age at first alcoholic drink, fewer students who had consumed alcohol in the past month (current drinkers), lower alcohol consumption levels, fewer episodes of inebriation, and less heavy episodic alcohol consumption (all P < 0.0001). The results suggested that it may be useful to conceive of church-attending youth as a subset of the adolescent social network when planning primary alcohol prevention programs for young people.