Determinants of adolescents' active defending and passive bystanding behavior in bullying

They Are Not All the Same: Defenders of Ethnically Victimized Adolescents

Developing a comprehensive understanding of adolescents' defending behaviors in peer victimization incidents is crucial, as these behaviors are instrumental in preventing victimization in schools. Despite recent efforts to examine various defender subgroups and their characteristics, the heterogeneity in defending behaviors within the context of ethnic victimization remains unclear. To address this gap in knowledge, the current study examined naturally occurring subgroups of defenders in ethnic victimization incidents and investigated whether these subgroups differ in their socio-cognitive skills, class norms, and social status within peer relationships. The sample included adolescents in Sweden (N = 1065; Mage = 13.12, SD = 0.41; 44.5% females). Cluster analysis yielded four distinct subgroups: victim-oriented defenders (41.3%), hybrid defenders (23.5%), bully-oriented defenders (9.8%), and non-defenders (25.4%). Hybrid and victim-oriented defenders had higher levels of perspective taking skills and positive attitudes toward immigrants than non-defenders. All three defender subgroups perceived their classroom climate as more socially cohesive than non-defenders. All four subgroups did not significantly differ in their peer status. These findings emphasize the importance of fostering inclusive class norms and implementing classroom practices that facilitate the development of perspective taking skills among students. Such effort can enhance adolescents' active defending behaviors in instances of ethnic victimization.

Individual and contextual-level predictors of progression in the bystander intervention model

The situational model of bystander behavior is a validated 5-step process for understanding intervention in bullying and sexual harassment, yet the individual-level and contextual-level factors that facilitate the progression from one step to the next are not well understood. The purpose of the current study was to examine whether individual characteristics (social-emotional skills, affective empathy, cognitive empathy, and personal attitudes toward bullying and sexual harassment) and contextual-level factors (school climate and perceived peer attitudes toward bullying and sexual harassment) explained the association between subsequent steps of the bystander intervention model. A sample of 788 high school students completed several validated measures of these constructs. Structural equation modeling analysis revealed that each step significantly and positively predicted the next step, and the addition of a direct path from accepting responsibility to helping improved model fit. The mediational model indicated that individual-level characteristics had significant direct effects on interpreting bullying and sexual harassment as problems, accepting responsibility, and helping, and indirect effects from noticing the bullying and sexual harassment to all subsequent steps except knowing. In contrast, contextual-level effects contributed to accepting responsibility in an inverse direction.

Longitudinal associations between parents' prosocial behavior and media use and young children's prosocial development: The mediating role of children's media use

Research has found that media is associated with children's prosocial behavior (PB) from an early age, and that parents play a key role in children's media use and behavior. However, few studies explore these relations as early as infancy while also controlling for well-established predictors of PB (e.g., empathic concern). Thus, the present study examined longitudinal associations between parents' PB and media use, and prosocial development during early childhood, mediated by children's own media use. Participants were 519 children (M age at Time 1 = 17.77 months) and parents who participated in three timepoints of an ongoing, longitudinal study. A longitudinal path model suggested that children's media use was still significantly associated with PB 1 year later after accounting for factors such as parents' PB, media use, and empathy. These findings have important implications for the early development of behaviors that serve as a foundation for social and moral development.

School bullying and self-efficacy in adolescence: A meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

Given that literature has examined the relation between school bullying and self-efficacy, findings have been mixed. This meta-analysis aimed to clarify whether school bullying is associated with adolescents' self-efficacy, a key component of social information processing essential for the evaluation of potential behavioral responses. We further examined moderators associated with heterogeneity in the above relation, including participant roles, types of school bullying, types of self-efficacy, and demographic factors (e.g., age, gender, and cultural background).

METHOD

This study followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses Statement for searching, identifying, and screening eligible articles. A total of 53 articles (N = 71,661; Mage  = 12.69 years) were included (50 in English and 3 in Chinese). Articles were coded by two graduate-level coders independently with a high inter-rater reliability (97.12%).

RESULTS

The results showed that (1) school bullying was negatively associated with self-efficacy (r = -.07, p < .001) among adolescents, and (2) the above relation varied by participant role (e.g., bullies, victims, bully-victims, and defenders), types of school bullying (e.g., traditional bullying, cyberbullying, and both), and types of self-efficacy (e.g., general and domain-specific self-efficacy).

FINDINGS

The findings highlight that school bullying is associated with disruptive cognitive processing in adolescence, low self-efficacy in particular, and the heterogeneity should be considered to fully understand the association between school bullying and self-efficacy among adolescents.

Development and Validation of the Adolescent Defending Behaviors Questionnaire Among Chinese Early Adolescents

This study aimed to clarify the multidimensionality of defending by developing and validating the Adolescent Defending Behaviors Questionnaire (ADBQ) in a sample of Chinese adolescents. Results of Study 1 (N = 824, Mage = 11.25) indicated that a five-factor model, comprising (a) assertive defending, (b) aggressive defending, (c) comforting victims, (d) reporting to authority, and (e) tactical defending, yielded a good fit to the data. Study 2 (N = 1,086, Mage = 11.18) established ADBQ's reliability (α = .78-.93) and construct validity: the five defending dimensions were differentially associated with cognitive and affective empathy, aggression, sociability, peer preference, and victimization. Together, the results suggest that the ADBQ is a psychometrically valid and reliable instrument for assessing the multidimensionality of defending.

Effects of the KiVa anti-bullying program on defending behavior: Investigating individual-level mechanisms of change

Given that defending victimized peers might help discourage bullying behavior and prevent its harmful consequences, various anti-bullying programs have attempted to increase defending behavior among participating children. However, the cognitions that underlie the effectiveness of interventions in increasing defending remain unknown. Data for this randomized controlled trial (RCT) of the KiVa anti-bullying program were collected in Finnish primary schools at baseline, after 5 months of implementation, and after 9 months of implementation and were used to examine the possible mediating role of seven psychological factors (empathy for the victim, feelings of responsibility to intervene, self-efficacy for defending, negative attitudes towards victims, and outcome expectations that defending would decrease or stop the bullying, be beneficial for one's status, and not increase one's risk of being victimized). Analyses conducted on a sample of 5731 children (baseline M_age = 11 years; 51% girls) revealed that the positive effects of KiVa on defending behavior after 9 months of implementation could partly be explained by the positive effects of the program on two factors (i.e., feelings of responsibility to intervene and expectations that the defending would make the bullying decrease or stop) after 5 months of implementation. This study provides information regarding the individual-level factors that anti-bullying interventions can target to successfully promote defending of victimized peers in primary schools.

Sexual Harassment in the Workplace: Consequences and Perceived Self-Efficacy in Women and Men Witnesses and Non-Witnesses

Despite the numerous advances made in Italy over the years in the study of sexual harassment in the workplace (SHW), research has focused exclusively on victims, perpetrators, and their relationships, and not on the consequences that the experience of sexual harassment can produce in witnesses. The present study aims to address this gap by examining how the indirect experience of SHW, in conjunction with variables such as gender, age, self-efficacy, and coping strategies, affects the mental health status of witnesses of SHW. A sample of 724 employees completed a questionnaire that included a modified version of the Sexual Experience Questionnaire (SEQ), the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory (OLBI), the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ), the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS), and the Emotional Self-Efficacy Scale (RESE). Of the group, 321 participants reported witnessing sexual harassment in the workplace (28.2% of women and 16.2% of men). Results show that witnesses were younger than participants who described themselves as non-witnesses. Results also show that women and men who were witnesses were more likely to suffer the emotional and psychological consequences of the experience than non-witnesses. In addition, female witnesses expressed more positive emotions than men, which enabled them to manage their anxiety and emotional states when triggered in response to sexual harassment in the workplace. Finally, a significant association was found between perceptions of mental health and age, gender, experience with SHW, and self-efficacy strategies. The findings underscore the importance of sexual harassment intervention in the workplace, women and men who witness sexual harassment suffer vicarious experiences, psychological impact, exhaustion, disengagement, and negative feelings.

Exploring Multivariate Profiles of Psychological Distress and Empathy in Early Adolescent Victims, Bullies, and Bystanders Involved in Cyberbullying Episodes

(1) Background: Adolescents may be involved in cyberbullying as victims, perpetrators, or to a lesser extent, victim-perpetrators simultaneously. The present research investigated differences between participants acting in different bullying roles-namely, bully, victim, or bully/victim-and bystander roles-namely, defending, passive bystander, and passive/defending; (2) Methods: We used multivariate analysis of covariance to determine how, in the same individuals, direct involvement in cyberbullying episodes compares to participating in them as by-standers in relation to both psychological distress and empathy; (3) Results: Both victims and bully/victims were found to be at increased risk for suicidal ideation, internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and emotional dysregulation compared with students who were neither victims nor perpetrators of cyberbullying episodes. Additionally, victims showed higher empathy scores when compared with bullies and bully/victims. All bystander roles showed increased emotional dysregulation compared with uninvolved students, but no differences emerged on other psychological distress measures. Finally, defending bystanders showed increased cognitive empathy. (4) Conclusions: During early adolescence, the direct experience of cyberbullying, as a bully or a victim (or both), show a stronger association with psychological distress than the mere participation in cyberbullying as a witness, regardless of the witness acting defensive toward the victim, or passive. However, both cyberbullying and bystanding roles provide a similar (small) explicative power over empathy variables.

Study of the Psychometric Properties of the Social Self-Efficacy Scale with Spanish Adolescents by Gender, Age and Family Socioeconomic Level

Social self-efficacy has been shown to be a key resource for adolescents’ social experiences with peers and a predictor of prosocial behaviour among adolescents. However, differences by gender, age and socioeconomic level have previously been found in social self-efficacy. The objective of this study is to assess the psychometric properties of the subscale of social self-efficacy from the Self-Efficacy Questionnaire for Children (SEQ-C) developed by Muris (2001) in a representative sample of Spanish adolescents while considering gender, age and socioeconomic level differences. In general, the results showed good psychometric properties and a one-dimensional structure with high internal consistency, adequate explained variance and evidence of external validity for the subscale. Furthermore, the invariance analysis demonstrated that the social self-efficacy subscale shows no bias when used with populations of adolescents who differ by gender, age and socioeconomic level. The results indicate that the Spanish version of the social self-efficacy subscale of the SEQ-C is an adequate measurement instrument for assessing adolescents’ perception of their own social skills.

Why the Victims of Bullying Are More Likely to Avoid Involvement When Witnessing Bullying Situations: The Role of Bullying Sensitivity and Moral Disengagement

Recent studies have suggested a link between bullying victimization and passive bystander behaviors, such as more outsider behaviors and fewer defender behaviors. However, little is known about the internal mechanism underpinning this relation. The present study aimed to examine the direct and indirect relationships between bullying victimization and two types of bystander behaviors (defender behavior and outsider behavior), considering the possible mediator role of bullying sensitivity and moral disengagement among Chinese adolescents. Participants were 435 primary school students aged from 11 to 13 years (M = 12.27, SD = 0.69) who completed measurements of bullying victimization, bullying sensitivity, moral disengagement, and bystander behaviors. The results of the total effect model indicated that bullying victimization was positively related to outsider behavior and negatively related to defender behavior. The results from the structural equation modelling (SEM) analysis showed that bullying sensitivity mediated the relationship between bullying victimization and defender behavior. The relationship between bullying victimization and outsider behavior was mediated by moral disengagement, as well as the multiple mediation of bullying sensitivity and moral disengagement. These results highlight the roles of bullying sensitivity and moral disengagement in explaining the relation between bullying victimization and bystander behavior among adolescent students. The findings provide important implications for developing intervention programs aiming at school bullying prevention.

Effects of Bystander's Emotional Empathy and Social Problem-Solving Skills on Defending Behaviors Against Bullying in Elementary School: Mediated Through Peer Acceptance

Objectives: Many children are exposed to their peers being bullied, which negatively impacts individuals and the society as a whole. We investigated the effects of elementary school children’s emotional empathy and social problem-solving skills on their defending behaviors. We evaluated the direct and indirect effects of these personal characteristics, mediated through their perceived peer acceptance among classmates. Gender differences were also tested.Methods: The study participants were 386 fourth- and fifth-graders (<i>M</i> = 10.4 yrs.) from six elementary schools in the metropolitan Seoul area of South Korea. Children’s perceived social acceptance, emotional empathy, and problem-solving skills were measured using self-reported questionnaires. Defending behavior was measured using peer nomination. To analyze the data, descriptive statistics and structural equation modeling were conducted using SPSS 21.0 and MPLUS 6.12.Results: Bystanders‘ emotional empathy and social problem-solving skills had significant effects on defending behaviors. Social problem-solving skills directly affected defending behaviors of boys and girls. Girls’ peer acceptance mediated both emotional empathy and social problem-solving skills for defending behaviors, while no mediation effect was found in boys.Conclusion: For children, feeling accepted by classmates is important for defending bullied peers. For girls, peer acceptance magnifies their socio-emotional and socio-cognitive skills, empowering them to defend the bullied peers. However, for boys, having competent socio-cognitive skills alone is sufficient. Based on this study’s findings, it is recommended that interventions are needed to enhance bystanders’ emotional empathy and social problem-solving skills, and thereby, empowering them to be competent defenders against school bullying.

Adolescent School Bullying and Life Skills: A Systematic Review of the Recent Literature

The health consequences of being involved in bullying and cyberbullying are well described for adolescents, but many questions related to the role played by their life skills remain unanswered. Accordingly, this systematic review aims to provide a clear overview of research on the relationships between bullying involvement as a bully, victim, bully-victim or bystander, and adolescents' life skills. This article systematically reviewed 71 relevant empirical studies that met the inclusion criteria, extracted from the PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, Sage, Wiley, and SpringerLink databases. Their main findings were categorized according to the three types of life skills described by the World Health Organization: decision-making/problem-solving skills, interpersonal and communication skills, and self-management skills. Results showed relatively consensual outcomes for communication and interpersonal skills (empathy, moral disengagement) and skills for managing stress (coping strategies). Other decision-making or interpersonal skills, such as executive function or theory of mind, were poorly explored, and require further research, if we are to understand how life skills may be involved in bullying. Taken together, our findings highlight methodological heterogeneity and measurement problems in bullying studies that make their results difficult to interpret. Recommendations for prevention/education health researchers and professionals are provided, emphasizing the importance of considering the sociocognitive development of adolescents in bullying prevention.

Adolescent Empathy Influences Bystander Defending in School Bullying: A Three-Level Meta-Analysis

Even though numerous studies have shown that adolescent empathy is positively related to bystander defending in school bullying, others have failed to detect a significant association between these two variables. To address this discrepancy, a three-level meta-analysis of 27 papers (35 independent studies, N = 25,012 adolescents) was conducted. The results showed that empathy was positively correlated with bystander defending. Furthermore, the strength of the relationship between empathy and bystander defending was moderated by the type of empathy and the evaluators of defending. Specifically, the correlation coefficient between affective empathy and bystander defending (r = 0.27, 95% CI [0.22, 0.32]) was significantly stronger than that between cognitive empathy and bystander defending (r = 0.22, 95% CI [0.17, 0.28]). Finally, the strength of the relationship between empathy and bystander defending was moderated by the evaluator of defending behavior. That is, the correlation coefficient of bystander defending measured by self-evaluation was significantly stronger than that measured by peer-evaluation. The results showed that empathy was closely related to bystander defending. Thus, school bullying can be prevented from the perspective of enhancing empathy among adolescents.

Crossing ethnic boundaries? A social network investigation of defending relationships in schools

Prosocial peer relationships, such as defending against victimization, are beneficial for integration. Using the concept of multiple categorization, this study considers the extent to which similarity in gender, being in the same classroom, and similarity in network position regarding bullying or victimization contributes to the formation of cross-ethnic defending relationships among children. Longitudinal social network models were applied to complete school-level networks of 1,325 children in eight multi-ethnic elementary schools. Although same-ethnic peers were more likely to defend each other than cross-ethnic peers, similarity in gender, being in the same classroom, and similarity in network position in bullying fostered cross-ethnic defending. Moreover, being in the same classroom increased the likelihood of cross-ethnic defending even more than it did same-ethnic defending. A better understanding of how multiple categorization contributes to positive relationships between peers of different ethnic backgrounds may help to promote interethnic integration in multi-ethnic classrooms.

Factors Affecting the Perception of Disability: A Developmental Perspective

Perception of disability is an important construct affecting not only the well-being of individuals with disabilities, but also the moral compass of the society. Negative attitudes toward disability disempower individuals with disabilities and lead to their social exclusion and isolation. By contrast, a healthy society encourages positive attitudes toward individuals with disabilities and promotes social inclusion. The current review explored disability perception in the light of the in-group vs. out-group dichotomy, since individuals with disabilities may be perceived as a special case of out-group. We implemented a developmental approach to study perception of disability from early age into adolescence while exploring cognitive, affective, and behavioral components of children’s attitudes. Potential factors influencing perception of disability were considered at the level of society, family and school environment, and the individual. Better understanding of factors influencing the development of disability perception would allow the design of effective interventions to improve children’s attitudes toward peers with disabilities, reduce intergroup biases, and promote social inclusion. Based on previous research in social and developmental psychology, education, and anthropology, we proposed an integrative model that provides a conceptual framework for understanding the development of disability perception.

Standing Up or Standing By: Understanding Bystanders’ Proactive Reporting Responses to Social Media Harassment

Social media harassment, a cyberbullying behavior, poses a serious threat to users and platform owners of social media. In this paper, we contextualize the bystander intervention framework and reporting literature to social media in order to understand why bystanders report social media harassment. Our contextualized intervention framework focuses on three sociotechnical aspects—the online social environment, characteristics of the technology platform, and their interplay—that explain bystander reporting on social media platforms. We tested the model using data gathered from active Facebook users. Our findings direct practitioners’ attention to the role of the platform in encouraging bystanders to help stop social media harassment. For policy makers, our findings direct attention to supporting programs that encourage social media users to feel responsible for reporting harassment and making transparent the outcomes of reporting social media harassment using anonymous reporting tools. For platform owners, our findings direct attention to investing in tools that enable anonymous reporting, to fostering a climate that encourages reporting, and to ensuring that all users understand that reporting social media harassment results in swift, effective responses from platform owners. Taken together, we believe our research offer insight into how to build safer and secure social media platforms.

HEXACO personality correlates of adolescents' involvement in bullying situations

Adolescents' involvement in bullying situations is—at least partially—personality trait‐activated. Although some studies investigated personality correlates of bullying and being victimized, little is known about personality correlates of bystander responses (i.e., reinforcing, outsider behavior, indirect defending, and direct defending). The present study investigated whether Dutch adolescents' self‐reported HEXACO personality traits could explain their peer‐reported involvement in bullying (N = 552; M_age = 13.4 years, SD = 0.8 years). The results show that bullying was negatively related to honesty‐humility, emotionality, agreeableness (for boys specifically), and openness, whereas reinforcing was only negatively related to honesty‐humility and openness. Conversely, direct defending and outsider behavior were positively related to honesty‐humility, emotionality, and openness, whereas indirect defending was only positively related to emotionality and openness. Furthermore, reinforcing was positively related to extraversion (for boys only), whereas outsider behavior was negatively related extraversion and positively to conscientiousness. Finally, being victimized was positively related to emotionality and negatively to extraversion. These findings contribute to our understanding of the heterogeneity in adolescents' involvement in bullying and fit the view of bullying and defending as strategic and goal‐directed behavior. Implications for bullying prevention programs are discussed.

The Bystander Behavior (For Friends) Scale: Factor Structure and Correlation With Prior Victimization

The Bystander Behavior (for Friends) Scale (BBS) offers a promising method of studying prosocial bystander behavior in the context of sexual assault and intimate partner violence. The underlying structure of the BBS has only been studied in the development sample, which was predominantly White and from one university in the Northeast region of the United States. This single sample raises questions about the replicability and generalizability of the factor structure. In addition, confirmatory factor analytic (CFA) methods, which are favored for binary data, were not used in the developmental sample. There also is limited research on individual characteristics that may relate to engagement in different types of bystander behavior. The primary aims of the current study were to (a) use CFA to evaluate the factor structure of the BBS in a sample of university undergraduates recruited from four universities and (b) test associations between prior victimization (general and family-specific) and BBS factors. University undergraduates (n = 556) from four U.S. universities comprised the sample. Weighted least squares CFA confirmed the original four-factor model of the BBS, namely, Risky Situations, Accessing Resources, Proactive Behaviors, and Party Safety. The Proactive Behaviors factor was positively associated with both general and family-specific prior victimization. The Risky Situations and Party Safety factors were positively associated with general prior victimization but were not associated with family-specific prior victimization. The Accessing Resources factor was not associated with either general or family-specific prior victimization. The BBS is multidimensional, and the factor structure is robust. The different associations between certain types of bystander behavior and prior victimization highlight the potential value in considering the BBS factors separately.

Empathy Mind-Set Moderates the Association Between Low Empathy and Social Aggression

Empathy plays an important role in creating and maintaining adaptive interpersonal relationships. Accordingly, existing studies often report a negative correlation between empathy and interpersonal aggression. However, findings are sometimes inconsistent, and concerns have been raised about the size of the overall effect. Here, we examined the potential moderating role of empathy mind-sets-beliefs about the malleability of empathy. We hypothesized that the association between low empathy and aggression would be especially strong if individuals also believed that their levels of empathy were unchangeable (i.e., they endorsed a fixed mind-set about empathy); in contrast, a belief that empathy was malleable may weaken the association. Results supported this hypothesis, such that individuals with low levels of empathy were less likely to report aggression-social aggression in particular-if they also believed that empathy was changeable. These results point to a role for beliefs about the malleability of empathy as an important moderator and may point to ways to enhance empathy interventions by targeting mind-sets.

Teaching Professionalism: Comparing Written and Video Case-Studies

PURPOSE

Professionalism is a difficult concept to teach to healthcare professionals. Case-studies in written and video format have demonstrated to be effective teaching tools to improve a student's knowledge, but little is known about their impact on student behaviour. The purpose of this research study was to investigate and compare the impact of the 2 teaching tools on a student's behaviour during a simulation.

METHOD

A 3-stage mixed method study was conducted with senior Medical Laboratory Science (MLS) undergraduate students. All students were randomly divided into a Written Group or Video Group to attend a mandatory professionalism workshop focused on bullying and gossip. Twenty-six students completed the voluntary assignment and 21 students participated in the voluntary group simulations. Thematic analysis was performed on the assignments and simulation. Frequencies of themes were calculated. A Group Simulation Assessment Rubric was used to score simulations and calculate an adjusted group performance average (AGPA).

RESULTS

The assignment demonstrates that students from both groups obtained a theoretical understanding of how to resolve gossip and bullying. From the Written Group and Video Group, 70%/18% of students discouraged/resolved gossiping and 80%/63% prevented bullying. The mean AGPA for the Written Group and Video Group was 5.4 and 4.9 respectively (t ₍₅₎ = 1.5, P = .2).

DISCUSSION

Students can successfully apply knowledge they have gained in written and video case-studies focused on the professionalism topics of bullying and gossip to a hypothetical situation. However, a discrepancy in their actions was found during the simulations. The data from the study suggests that written and video case-studies do not have different impacts on a student's behaviour.

The Zero Violence Brave Club: A Successful Intervention to Prevent and Address Bullying in Schools

Bullying among peers in schools is a growing problem affecting children and adolescents from an early age worldwide. The consequences of bullying victimization in the emotional development of children and youth and their academic achievement are adverse for them and the rest of the school community, with its negative impact extending into the mid and long run. The Zero Violence Brave Club is implemented in schools in the framework of the Dialogic Model of Violence Prevention, a successful educational action according to the INCLUD-ED project [Strategies for inclusion and social cohesion in Europe from Education] (6th Framework Program of Research of the European Commission). The Zero Violence Brave Club has decreased peer bullying in schools by establishing and cultivating a culture of zero tolerance to violence in educational centers located in diverse socioeconomic and cultural contexts. This evidence-based intervention is grounded in the principle that only the person who denounces violence suffered by a peer and takes a stand always on the victim's side-and those who support her or him-against the aggressor can be considered brave. This article reports a qualitative study of the Zero Violence Brave Club as a successful intervention in seven schools in Spain. The schools are diverse in terms of public or private ownership, religious or lay background, and population served (different proportions of cultural minorities and students with special needs), challenging the misconception that the impact of educational interventions depends on the context. Interviews were conducted with teachers in the schools implementing the Zero Violence Brave Club in their class, using the communicative methodology of research. The results shed light on specific mechanisms through which the Zero Violence Brave Club prevents and responds to bullying in schools, such as emptying of social attractiveness any aggressive behaviors or attitudes. Benefits on mental health and psychological wellbeing are also reported.

Meta-Representational Skills in Bullying Roles: The Influence of Definitional Competence and Empathy

This study investigated the influence of meta-representational aspects on bullying. Meta-representation was operationalized in terms of the metalinguistic skill to produce conventional definitions, reflecting culturally shared representations and of the meta-level capacity to represent others' mental states underlying empathic disposition. One hundred and seventeen children, aged between 8;5 and 10;11 years, completed a definitional task and self-report questionnaires on bullying roles and empathic disposition. Descriptive, correlational, and regression analyses were performed. Results confirmed that hostile roles are negatively related to definitional competence and to empathic disposition. Lack of definitional competence was the main predictor (accounting for about 16% of variance), followed by empathy (explaining a further 6% of variance) of Primary School children's disposition to assume aggressive behaviors. These findings suggest that a lack of general meta-representational abilities may hinder the development of abstract and other-centered perspective taking, and compromise (compromising) social adjustment. This implies the need to work, particularly in school, on enhancing meta-representational and metalinguistic skills, such as the ability to recognize mental states and verbally make explicit cultural-semantic word meaning representations.

Tempted to join in or not? Moral temptation and self-reported behaviour in bullying situations

We investigate the relationship between adolescents' construction of a transgression relating to a hypothetical temptation and bystander behaviour and bullying (offline and online). A total of 331 Swiss eighth graders completed an electronic questionnaire on bystanding, bullying, moral disengagement, and empathy. Moral functioning was assessed in a hypothetical scenario, using different moral judgements (deontic and self-judgement, judging the transgression; paper-and-pencil measure). Cluster analyses were used to identify patterns of moral functioning. For the open situation (deontic and self-judgement), happy transgressors, happy moralists, ashamed moralists, and indifferent moralists were differentiated, and for the transgression (accomplished deed) moralists and happy opportunists. The analyses yielded significant differences between the different cluster groups. Happy transgressors (open situation) reported higher levels of assisting the bullying than unconcerned moralists. Happy transgressors also reported lower levels of helping than ashamed and happy moralists. Opportunists (accomplished deed) reported higher levels of assisting the bullying, offline bullying, and lower levels of helping the victim. The multivariate GEE analyses showed that happy transgressors reported higher levels of assisting the bully and online bullying than the moralist groups (open situation). The study shows that adolescents who construct a favourable interpretation of yielding to temptation in a hypothetical scenario displayed higher levels of both assisting the bully and online bullying, emphasizing the need for incorporating targeted moral education in bullying prevention.

Can Empathy Offset Low Bystander Efficacy? Effectiveness of Domestic Violence Prevention Narratives in India

Domestic violence stems from deeply rooted patriarchal norms and directly conflicts with humanitarian standards. Given that this issue impacts women across the world, many countries have initiated campaigns to heighten awareness and fight this epidemic. Based on Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), we explored whether narrative health messages might prompt bystanders to intervene (e.g., calling a helpline number) when they encounter domestic violence. Using a sample of participants from India, we found that narratives had a stronger impact on attitude toward the ad and reporting intention than non-narratives and such effects were mediated by feelings of empathy. More importantly, the mediating effects of empathy were significantly greater when bystander efficacy was low rather than high.

Experiences of adolescent witnesses to peer victimization: The bystander effect

Many anti-bullying programs now emphasize the role of bystanders - youth who witness peer victimization. Using a large sample of adolescents (aged 12-18) from the United Kingdom who completed an online survey, the present study examined the types of bystander interventions, their outcomes, and reasons for intervening and not intervening. No significant group differences by any demographic group were found in intervening or not. Results showed that those who had a negative affective reaction when they witnessed bullying were more likely to intervene. Two intervening behaviors (telling the bully to stop and telling an adult) were the strongest predictors of positive results. The most frequently selected reason for not intervening was not knowing what to do, and for intervening, having prosocial and altruistic motives was most common. These and other results are discussed for theoretical and practical implications.

Dimensions of empathy and bystander intervention in bullying in elementary school

The current study investigated associations among cognitive empathy, affective empathy, internalizing problems, and the five steps of the bystander intervention model (notice bullying events, interpret as an event requiring intervention, accept responsibility for intervening, know how to intervene, and act). Participants included 336 fourth and fifth grade students (58.9% boys) at a school in the Midwest region of the United States. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that greater cognitive empathy was related to noticing bullying events, accepting responsibility to intervene, and knowing how to intervene. Affective empathy was significantly related to the actual act of intervention. Further, significant interactions revealed that affective empathy was positively associated with interpreting bullying as an event that required intervention at low and moderate levels of internalizing problems, but not at high levels of internalizing problems. Overall these findings underscore the need to examine the decision to intervene as the culmination of a series of steps as outlined in the bystander intervention model, with each step potentially influenced by a unique set of precursors.

Effects of a Growth Mindset of Personality on Emerging Adults' Defender Self-Efficacy, Moral Disengagement, and Perceived Peer Defending

This study investigated the effects of a brief educational exercise aimed to promote a growth mindset of personality (the belief that personality traits are malleable) on outcomes linked to peer defending. Undergraduates (N = 60) were randomly assigned to complete a learning task designed to foster a growth mindset of personality or to a matching control task. They then read a vignette of a college student victimized by peers and completed paper-and-pencil measures of defender self-efficacy, moral disengagement, and perceived defender behavior, followed by a brief manipulation check. The experimental manipulation was successful, and participants who completed the growth mindset of personality intervention reported higher defender self-efficacy, lower moral disengagement, and higher perceived defending behavior. There was also a significant indirect effect of the experimental manipulation on perceived defending via self-efficacy, suggesting that a growth mindset of personality may influence peer defending through gains in defender self-efficacy. Implications are discussed for bullying prevention, with emphasis on programming for emerging adults at college.

Associations among Adolescents' Relationships with Parents, Peers, and Teachers, Self-Efficacy, and Willingness to Intervene in Bullying: A Social Cognitive Approach

We applied the Social Cognitive Theory to investigate whether parent–child relationships, bullying victimization, and teacher–student relationships are directly as well as indirectly via self-efficacy in social conflicts associated with adolescents’ willingness to intervene in a bullying incident. There were 2071 (51.3% male) adolescents between the ages of 12 and 17 from 24 schools in Germany who participated in this study. A mediation test using structural equation modeling revealed that parent–child relationships, bullying victimization, and teacher–student relationships were directly related to adolescents’ self-efficacy in social conflicts. Further, teacher–student relationships and bullying victimization were directly associated with adolescents’ willingness to intervene in bullying. Finally, relationships with parents, peers and teachers were indirectly related to higher levels of students’ willingness to intervene in bullying situations due to self-efficacy in social conflicts. Thus, our analysis confirms the general assumptions of Social Cognitive Theory and the usefulness of applying its approach to social conflicts such as bullying situations.

Evaluating the impact of a defender role-play intervention on adolescent’s defender intentions and responses towards name-calling

Researchers and anti-bullying organisations have increasingly turned their attention to the role of bystanders in tackling bullying and peer victimisation (e.g. name-calling). The objective of this study was to develop and assess the impact of a role-play programme designed to strengthen adolescent’s defending behaviour to name-calling. This was measured in two contexts: defending intentions in an outgroup name-calling scenario and cyber-defender behaviour in a scripted online peer interaction. Participants ( N = 121, Mage = 12.90 years) were randomly assigned to either a role-play condition or a control condition. Results showed that defender intentions in an outgroup name-calling scenario were higher in the role-play condition, compared to the control; in addition, cyber-defender behaviour was more likely and quicker in the role-play condition, compared to the control. Defender self-efficacy was found to be significantly higher in the role-play condition, and mediated the effect of the role-play programme on defender intentions. Findings also revealed that defender intentions were positively correlated with cyber-defender behaviour, highlighting a link between intentions and behaviour. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

New Approaches to Defender and Outsider Roles in School Bullying

Using latent profile analysis, this study refined the traditional defender and outsider roles in bullying research and examined intrapersonal, interpersonal, and contextual factors associated with subtypes of roles. Participants were 1,373 adolescents (40% girls, M_age : 14 years) from 54 classrooms in six middle schools. The results revealed that defenders could be classified as either assertive or comforting and that outsiders could be classified as either sympathetic or indifferent. These different profiles were explained by affective empathy, antibullying attitudes, self-efficacy, and responsibility to intervene at the intrapersonal level; popularity and peer preference at the interpersonal level; and peers' antibullying attitudes and expectations at the contextual level. Implications for studying participant roles in bullying research and for advancing antibullying interventions were discussed.

Empathy and perceptions of their brother or sister among adolescent siblings of individuals with and without autism spectrum disorder

BACKGROUND

Although clinicians have hypothesized that siblings of individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD), may exhibit more empathy and understanding of others, no studies have yet examined empathy among siblings of individuals with ASD.

AIMS

The current study examined self- reported empathy and feelings about adolescents' brothers or sisters with and without ASD.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Adolescent siblings (age 12-18) of individuals with (n=26) or without ASD (n=48) completed an online survey with measures of empathy and their feelings about their brother or sister, as well as an open ended task asking them for three "magic wishes."

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

Siblings of individuals with ASD (ASD- Sibs) reported significantly more perspective-taking than did siblings of typically-developing individuals (TD-Sibs). Perspective-taking was significantly related to feelings of positive affect toward the brother/sister for both groups. ASD-Sibs also were significantly more likely to report wishes related to their family, while TD-Sibs reported more wishes for themselves.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Findings suggest that potentially higher levels of perspective-taking ability among ASD-Sibs may contribute to better understanding of and therefore more positive affect toward their brother or sister with ASD. More research is needed to understand patterns of empathy among ASD-Sibs.

Defend, Stand By, or Join In?: The Relative Influence of Moral Identity, Moral Judgment, and Social Self-Efficacy on Adolescents' Bystander Behaviors in Bullying Situations

In bullying situations, adolescent bystanders may help bullied others, just stand by, or join in the antisocial behavior. Current studies have yet to fully examine the moral and social factors motivating these varied responses to bullying encounters. Extending from pertinent developmental theories, the present study investigated the relative contributions of moral identity (i.e., viewing moral qualities as central to the self), moral judgment, and social self-efficacy to adolescents' bystander behaviors vis-à-vis bullies. Also investigated were the interactions among these variables. Three hundred and thirty-seven adolescents (M age = 13 years, 56.1% female) who self-identified as Caucasian (90.2%), Hispanic-American (2.1%), Asian-American (0.9%), African-American (3.9%), or Other/Unknown (2.9%) participated in the study. Students completed questionnaires assessing moral identity, moral judgment, social self-efficacy, and how they would respond if they observed a peer being bullied. Moral identity predicted more prosocial action, particularly for adolescents high in social self-efficacy. Moral identity related positively to moral judgment, and both predicted less antisocial (joining in) behavior. Interestingly, moral judgment maturity primarily diminished antisocial behavior when moral identity was relatively low. Social self-efficacy predicted less passive bystanding. Overall, moral identity strongly relates to defending behavior, and-as does moral judgment maturity-predicts less antisocial behavior among bystanders.

Don’t hurt my outgroup friend: A multifaceted form of imagined contact promotes intentions to counteract bullying

A growing body of research has shown that imagined intergroup contact can improve outgroup attitudes. The aim of the present study was to examine the effectiveness of a multifaceted form of imagined contact in counteracting bullying in school children, and additionally to test the underlying processes of this effect. Two hundred and fifteen Italian elementary school children took part in a 3-week intervention, where they were asked to imagine a scenario in which they become friends with an unknown disabled child, interact in various social settings, and react to forms of discrimination toward the newly acquired friend. After each session, they discussed collectively what they had imagined. The dependent measures were administered 1 week after the last session. Results revealed that inclusion of an outgroup member in the self mediated the effect of imagined contact on intentions to counteract social exclusion and bullying of disabled children, as well as helping intentions. Imagined contact also promoted greater willingness for outgroup contact via more positive outgroup attitudes and empathy. Our findings are important in delineating new forms of imagined contact, and understanding ways to promote behaviors that defend victims of social exclusion and bullying in school environments.

Differences in adolescents' motivations for indirect, direct, and hybrid peer defending

Adolescents' defending of peers who are being bullied-or peer defending-was recently found to be a heterogeneous behavioral construct. The present study investigated individual differences in adolescents' motivations for executing these indirect, direct, and hybrid defending behaviors. In line with the literature on bullying as goal-directed strategic behavior, we adopted a social evolution theory framework to investigate whether these peer-defending behaviors could qualify as goal-directed strategic prosocial behaviors. A sample of 549 Dutch adolescents (49.4% boys; M age = 12.5 years, SD = 0.6 years) participated in this study. Their peer reported defending behaviors (including bullying behavior as a control variable) and the following behavioral motivations were assessed: (a) agentic and communal goals (self-report), (b) prosocial and coercive social strategies (peer report), and (c) altruistic and egocentric motivations for prosocial behavior (self-report). The outcomes of hierarchical linear regression analyses suggest that adolescents' motivations for executing the different subtypes of peer defending partially overlap but are also different. While indirect defending was fostered by genuine concerns for victims' well-being, direct defending was more motivated by personal gains. Hybrid defending combined favorable aspects of both indirect and direct defending as a goal-directed, strategic, and altruistically motivated prosocial behavior. The implications of these findings are discussed.