Human directed aggression in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris): Occurrence in different contexts and risk factors

From "Husky" to "Bulldog"- behavioural correlates between castration and breed groups in the domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris)

Neutering dogs is a widespread method and is carried out for various behavioural and husbandry reasons. This study's main objective is to investigate the behavioural correlations between neutering and the breed of male dogs. In order to possibly find breed-dependent differences in the behaviour of intact and castrated dogs, a differentiation between two clades - the "Huskies"(chow chow, shar pei, akita/shiba inu, alaskan malamute, siberian/alaskan husky) and the "Bulldogs" (german boxer, english/french bulldog, old english mastiff, boston terrier, english bull terrier, staffordshire bull terrier, american staffordshire terrier), based on Parker et al. [1], was made.Using an online questionnaire,, 31 neutered and 37 intact male dogs from the clade "Huskies" and 30 neutered and 38 intact male dogs from the clade "Bulldogs", participated in the study (N = 136).The survey included detailed questions on the dogs' personality and any associated issues as well as a behavioural anamnesis. Further questions relating to four of the "big five" personality dimensions based on the "Budapest questionnaire" by Turcsán et al. from 2011 [2] were also added.The results show, that neutered males from both breed clades more frequently displayed aggression toward humans than intact males (multinomial logistic regression, p = 0.002). When it came to aggression towards other dogs, it was the "Huskies" that differed significantly from the "Bulldogs"(multinomial logistic regression, p = 0.04) with being more aggressive. There were also significant differences in stress-related behaviour depending on castration status and breed (multinomial logistic regression, p < 0.001; Cramer's V = 0.33) and only the castration status had an impact on the significance (multinomial logistic regression, p < 0.001). The analysis also revealed significance for stress-indicating behaviour with dependence on neutering status (multinomial logistic regression, p < 0.001) and showed that stress as well as uncertainty are significantly more common in neutered dogs depending on breed and neutering status (multinomial logistic regression, p < 0.001; Cramer's V = 0.42), in that only neutered "Bulldogs" were stressed, but more "Huskies" overall.According to the Budapest questionnaire data, the "Bulldog" clade had considerably greater extraversion scores overall (ordinal regression, p < 0.001) than the "Huskies".Our findings highlight the risks and potential negative effects of neutering. Gonadectomy in no way substitutes for the dog receiving the necessary socialization, training, or bonding. Although in some circumstances it might have a favourable impact on the dog's behaviour, it should not be seen as a panacea for unwanted behaviour. Given that not all behaviours are influenced by sex hormones, every castration decision must be weighed up individually.

Puppy Socialisation Experiences in Relation to Age and COVID-19 Lockdown Restrictions in the UK and ROI

Limited socialisation can contribute to the development of undesirable dog behaviours. The COVID-19 lockdown potentially limited socialisation opportunities, which may negatively impact the future behaviour of puppies raised during lockdown. Data were gathered from longitudinal study participants in the United Kingdom/Republic of Ireland via multiple questionnaires between May 2016 and November 2022. The impact of age and lockdown phase (pre-, during, and post-) on the types of socialisation experiences of 8-to-19-week-old puppies and the recency of socialisation experiences of approximately 6-month-old puppies were examined. Puppies under 19-weeks had significantly more types of socialisation experiences (from a predefined list) as they aged, and pre-lockdown compared to post-lockdown, but not between other lockdown phases. Most 6-month-old puppies had met a new adult or dog outside the household, a familiar dog, and/or a child within the last 1-7 days, and this was similar between lockdown phases. During lockdown, 6-month-old puppies experienced longer periods between meeting a new adult in their home. Puppies were hypothesised to have had fewer experiences during lockdown, but this was not found. However, the quantity and quality of these experiences may have been affected. Future research within this longitudinal study will explore relationships between the timing and type of experiences had by puppies and their subsequent behaviour.

Impacts of Puppy Early Life Experiences, Puppy-Purchasing Practices, and Owner Characteristics on Owner-Reported Problem Behaviours in a UK Pandemic Puppies Cohort at 21 Months of Age

Problem behaviours are a leading cause of relinquishment and euthanasia of young dogs. Previous research has identified associations between owner-reported problem behaviours and risk factors, including how dogs were acquired as puppies, early socialisation experiences, and owners' experience levels. Puppies acquired during the 2020 phase of the UK COVID-19 pandemic ("Pandemic Puppies") were more likely to be exposed to many of these risk factors compared to puppies acquired in 2019; however, consequences for their adult behaviour are, as yet, unexplored. This study aimed to investigate the impact of these early-life and provenance-based risk factors, in addition to owner management strategies (including training methods) into early adulthood, upon adult dog behaviour aged 21 months. An online longitudinal cohort study of n = 985 Pandemic Puppies was conducted, recruited from a cohort of n = 4369 puppies originally surveyed in November-December 2020, which included data on how and why they were acquired and their socialisation/habituation experiences <16 weeks of age. Nearly all owners (96.7%) reported that their dog had exhibited at least one problem behaviour up to 21 months of age (median: 5; IQR: 3-7). Almost one third of dogs (30.9%) were reported to have displayed separation-related behaviours. Multivariable linear regression modelling revealed that owners reporting more problem behaviours were more likely to use multiple aversive training techniques (e.g., physical punishment), the use of which was notably high in this population (82.3%) compared to previous studies. Attendance at online puppy classes was the sole protective factor against owner use of aversive training methods. Almost one third of owners had underestimated how hard training their dog would be; this view was more likely among first-time owners. Urgent efforts are required to support this vulnerable population of dogs, including providing owner education regarding humane training techniques, to improve canine emotional health and avoid future relinquishment and/or behavioural euthanasia.

The Relationship Between Aggression and Physical Disease in Dogs

Aggression is a very common behavioral problem in dogs. Although aggression can be part of the normal behavior of dogs, medical conditions can either trigger aggression as in the case of intracranial tumors or aggravate an existing aggression problem as it happens with painful conditions. Therefore, it is essential to include an assessment of physical health in the diagnostic protocol of canine aggression.

Shelter dog behavior after adoption: Using the C-BARQ to track dog behavior changes through the first six months after adoption

Despite millions of dogs entering and exiting shelters annually, little is known about dog behavior long-term after adoption. Entering a shelter is stressful for dogs which may inhibit or exaggerate behavior. There is a common public sentiment that dogs have a "honeymoon period" after adoption where dogs do not show their full repertoire of behaviors, both positive and negative, until getting more comfortable in their new home. The aim of this prospective observational cohort study was to identify prevalence of and changes in behavior issues in dogs throughout the first six months following adoption. The owners of ninety-nine dogs adopted from five Ohio shelters between October 1, 2020 and June 1, 2021 were surveyed 7, 30, 90, and 180 days after adoption, using the Canine Behavioral Assessment & Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ). Owners were also asked about household changes that may affect behavior. Estimated age, sex, weight, length of shelter stay, shelter intake reason, use of gastrointestinal, antibiotic, and psychotropic medications in the shelter, whether the animal had been previously returned to the shelter, and whether the owner was a first-time dog owner, were evaluated as predictors in a mixed effect regression model of different behavior measures over time. At various timepoints, dogs showed high prevalence for stranger-directed aggression (81.7%), owner-directed aggression (32.3%), dog-directed aggression (75%), familiar dog aggression (37.8%), stranger directed fear (58.2%), nonsocial fear (95.8%), dog directed fear (80.0%) and separation-related behaviors (92.6%). Over 180 days, stranger-directed aggression, excitability, touch sensitivity, training difficulty, and chasing increased, while separation-related behaviors, attachment and attention-seeking decreased. Owners reported high satisfaction with their dogs' behavior. Use of psychotropic medications in the shelter was predictive of stranger-directed aggression and touch sensitivity at home. These findings help veterinarians and shelter professionals council owners on potential behavior changes after adoption.

Influence of Sex of Stranger on Responses of Shelter Dogs during Canine Behavioral Evaluations

In many situations, domestic dogs display greater uneasiness with unfamiliar men than unfamiliar women. However, little is known about whether the sex of an unfamiliar person is a risk factor for stranger-directed aggression, especially with respect to behaviors less intense than biting. We analyzed data collected by behavioral staff over a 27-month period (n = 283 dogs) at a New York shelter to determine whether the sex of an unfamiliar person influenced behaviors assessed during the Stranger test of the canine behavioral evaluation. Scores ranged from 1 (calm and friendly) to 5 (will not approach stranger or unsafe to allow an approach). No concerning behaviors (scores 1-3) were assessed for 19.2% of 26 undersocialized dogs from one home and 89.9% of the remaining 257 dogs. Within the group of 257, those tested with a male stranger had significantly higher scores than those tested with a female stranger; the effect size was small to moderate. Thus, we found that dogs responded differently to male and female strangers during this testing situation, but from a practical standpoint, our findings do not warrant adjustments in how shelters conduct or interpret tests for stranger-directed aggression. Our findings also highlight the importance of early exposure to different people and situations for dogs.

An Assessment of Scientific Evidence Relating to the Effect of Early Experience on the Risk of Human-Directed Aggression by Adult Dogs

Human-directed aggression by domestic dogs is a major worldwide public health problem. The causes of aggression are complex, and research in this area often has to balance ecological validity with pragmatic controls; accordingly, it often does not meet the thresholds for quality typically used in reviews applying a classical "evidence-based" approach. Here, we propose a method of literature assessment that makes the "best use" of available evidence to identify and synthesise evidence relating to the most likely risk factors reported in the scientific literature. We used a systematic review process to initially identify relevant literature relating to potential early life experience (i.e., in the first six months of life) risk factors in the dog for human-directed aggression in the adult animal. Fourteen papers met our initial screening process and were subsequently analysed in detail, with data extracted and effect sizes calculated where possible. This highlighted the potential importance of the source of the animal, the age at which it was rehomed, the reason for the acquisition, the experience level of the owner, the animal's socialisation experiences, the consistent husbandry and management practices, the training, the sex ratio of the litter and the history of dogs that display aggression in the pedigree as risk factors. Taken together, it seems that early experiences which limit the ability to develop effective coping strategies and routines may be particularly important. We provide guidance for the future standardised reporting of risk related to human-directed aggression by dogs to allow greater synthesis of the literature in the future.

Effect of neutering timing in relation to puberty on female dog behaviour-A scoping review

BACKGROUND

There are contradictory findings in the literature relating to the effects of timing of neutering on bitch behaviour that make decision making regarding neutering timing difficult.

METHODS

A scoping review was designed to identify and chart the evidence on the effect of neutering timing in relation to puberty on the behaviour of female domesticated dogs. A protocol was registered, and literature searches were conducted in CAB Abstracts, Medline and Web of Science. Studies were reviewed against the inclusion criteria. Data on study and population characteristics and behavioural outcomes were extracted for the final included studies.

RESULTS

A total of 1048 publications were reviewed; 13 were retained for inclusion and charting. Only one of the two studies that classified bitches as pre- or postpubertal presented results for the analysis of behaviours. The remaining 11 studies classified bitches by age at neutering.

LIMITATIONS

Since the scoping review searches were conducted, further relevant studies may have become available. The search strategy may not have identified all available literature; however, databases were used that provide high levels of coverage of veterinary literature.

CONCLUSION

This scoping review identified a lack of evidence to document the impact of neutering bitches before or after puberty on behaviour.

"It's Like Living with a Sassy Teenager!": A Mixed-Methods Analysis of Owners' Comments about Dogs between the Ages of 12 Weeks and 2 Years

Owners' understanding of dog behaviour influences dog welfare. This study aimed to investigate owners' experiences of living with dogs and perceptions of dog behaviour/behaviour change. Data from an ongoing UK/ROI longitudinal study of dogs were used. Open-ended survey data (n = 3577 comments, n = 1808 dogs) when dogs were 12/16 weeks (data combined), 6, 12, 18 and 24 months were analysed to cover the dog's puppyhood/adolescence. To evaluate the usefulness of open-ended survey questions, both quantitative textual and qualitative thematic analyses were employed. Textual analysis identified an overall positive sentiment at all timepoints; the proportion of positive: negative sentiments increased with the dog's age. Words related to 'love' were the most frequent descriptors at all but the first timepoint, when 'bite' was the most frequent descriptor. Qualitative analysis helped to identify that owners attribute dog behaviour to 'Dog's biology', 'Personality/deliberate action' and 'External influences'. Analysis of open-ended survey responses helped to identify changes in perception over time. When dogs were young, owners described problematic behaviours as 'mischievous', unintentional and context-specific. Similar behaviours shown by older dogs were seen as 'deliberate'. Both positive and negative experiences of dog ownership were identified. However, as not all respondents answered open-ended questions, the generalisability of our findings is limited.

The Science and Social Validity of Companion Animal Welfare: Functionally Defined Parameters in a Multidisciplinary Field

Social validity refers to the social significance and acceptability of intervention goals, procedures, and outcomes. Animal practitioners, who are often guided by the principles of ABA, lack the benefit of verbal participants (at least with respect to target animals) with which to assess a client's needs and preferences. The study of a learner's welfare is useful for determining areas where intervention is needed or how the learner feels about an intervention that is underway. Three tenets of animal welfare measurement include physiological function, naturalistic behavior, and affect, where affect refers to private events, including emotions, which are a function of the same variables and contingencies responsible for controlling public behavior. The development of new technologies allows us to look "under the skin" and account for subjective experiences that can now be observed objectively. We introduce the reader to tools available from the animal welfare sciences for the objective measurement of social validity from the learner's perspective.

Factors associated with pet dog behavior in Thailand

Background and Aim

Dog behavior problems pose serious public health and economic and animal welfare concerns. There are many factors influencing dog behavior. This study aims to explore factors associated with pet dog behavior in Thailand using the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ).

Materials and Methods

The Thai version of the C-BARQ was validated in 2022. The online C-BARQ survey (Google Forms) was advertised and distributed on social media for 3 months. There were a total of 1827 respondents to the survey. The relationship among 12 subscales and variables was analyzed using Spearman's correlation.

Results

"Excitability," "attachment- and attention-seeking," and "chasing" were the three most reported behavior problems. "Trainability," a favored dog behavior, also had a high score in the study. These behaviors were associated with the owner's age, house type, the dog's historical background, the number of dogs and the presence of other species in the household, the dog's training, diet types, and the daily number of meals. The lowest mean score was for "owner-directed aggression," and it was associated with the dog's gender and size, the number of dogs and the presence of other species in the household, the dog's training, and the number of daily meals.

Conclusion

This is the first empirical study demonstrating factors related to dog behavior in Thailand. It provides an in-depth understanding of the prevalence and factors associated with Thai pet dog behavior and important knowledge for further studies to advocate for dog-human relationships and contribute to a reduction in dog abandonment in Thailand.

Predictors of successful diversion of cats and dogs away from animal shelter intake: Analysis of data from a self-rehoming website

As animals experience distress in animal shelters, leaders call for increased efforts to divert intake of companion animals away from shelters. One novel intake diversion strategy is supported self-rehoming, where owners find new homes for their animals without surrendering to a physical shelter. This study aimed to identify predictors of successful diversion of animals through the AdoptaPet.com 'Rehome' online platform. Data for dogs (n = 100,342) and cats (n = 48,484) were analysed through logistic regression to assess the association of animal- and owner-related factors and outcome. Overall, 87.1% of dogs and 85.7% of cats were successfully diverted from animal shelters, out of which, 37.8% of dogs and 35.3% of cats were kept by their original owner. Multiple animal-related factors predicted increased odds of diversion (e.g. younger, smaller). Dog and cat owners who set a longer rehoming deadline (i.e. > 8 weeks) were over twice as likely to keep or adopt out their animal. Dog owners who surrendered for owner-related reasons had increased odds of diversion in comparison to animal behaviour issues. We conclude that online-supported, self-rehoming platforms provide pet owners with an alternative to relinquishment that may reduce the intake of animals to shelters; however, owners with animals that are not preferred by adopters may have to decide whether to keep their animal or relinquish their animal to a shelter or rescue. These results provide guidance for animal shelter professionals on the likelihood of successful diversion programmes given certain animal and owner characteristics.

Vasectomy and ovary-sparing spay in dogs: comparison of health and behavior outcomes with gonadectomized and sexually intact dogs

OBJECTIVE

To compare health and behavior outcomes for dogs that underwent vasectomy or ovary-sparing spay (hysterectomy) with sexually intact dogs or dogs that had undergone traditional castration or spay.

SAMPLE

6,018 dog owners responded to a web-based survey between November 3, 2021, and January 7, 2022.

PROCEDURES

Participants were asked demographic questions and to provide information about 1 or more dogs (living or deceased). Options for reproductive status were as follows: sexually intact, castrated, spayed (ovariohysterectomy or ovariectomy), vasectomy, or ovary-sparing spay (hysterectomy). Participants were asked questions about orthopedic and other health problems, cancer, and problematic behavior. Logistic regression models, survival analyses, and descriptive statistics were used to assess relationships between reproductive status and outcomes.

RESULTS

Owners provided valid surveys for 6,018 dogs, including 1,056 sexually intact, 1,672 castrated, and 58 vasectomized male dogs and 792 sexually intact, 2,281 spayed, and 159 female dogs that had undergone ovary-sparing spay. Longer exposure to gonadal hormones, regardless of reproductive status, was associated with reduced odds of general health problems and both problematic and nuisance behaviors.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

To our knowledge, this study provides the first data on health and behavior outcomes of vasectomy and ovary-sparing spay in dogs and is the first to compare these outcomes to sexually intact and gonadectomized dogs. It adds to accumulating data on the mixed benefits and risks of removing the gonads to prevent reproduction and emphasizes the importance of developing an informed, case-by-case assessment of each patient, taking into consideration the potential risks and benefits of spaying or neutering and alternative reproductive surgeries.

Changes in gut microbiota and short-chain fatty acids are involved in the process of canine obesity after neutering

Neutering is a significant risk factor for obesity in dogs. Changes in gut microbiota and its metabolites have been identified as a key player during obesity progression. However, the mechanisms that promote neuter-associated weight gain are not well understood. Therefore, in this study, sixteen clinically healthy Beagle dogs (6 male and 10 female, mean age = 8.22 ± 0.25 mo old) were neutered. Body weight (BW) and body condition score (BCS) were recorded at 1 d before neutering, 3, 6, 10, 16, and 21 mo after neutering. Dogs were grouped based on their BCS as ideal weight group (IW, n = 4, mean BW = 13.22 ± 1.30 kg, mean BCS = 5.00 ± 0.41) and obese group (OB, n = 12, mean BW = 18.57 ± 1.08 kg, mean BCS = 7.92 ± 0.82) at 21 mo after neutering. Serum lipid profile, glucose, and hormones and fecal microbiota and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) were measured. Our results showed that OB dogs had greater (P < 0.0001) BW (18.57 vs. 13.22 kg), BCS (7.92 vs. 5.00), and average daily gain (12.27 vs. 5.69 g/d) than IW dogs at 21 mo after neutering, and the obesity rate was up to 60%. In addition, significant increases (P < 0.05) in serum triglyceride (TG, 1.10 vs. 0.56 mmol/L) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C, 6.96 vs. 5.40 mmol/L) levels and a significant decrease (P < 0.05) in serum adiponectin (APN, 54.06 vs. 58.39 μg/L) level were observed in OB dogs; serum total cholesterol (4.83 vs. 3.75 mmol/L) (P = 0.075) and leptin (LEP, 2.82 vs. 2.53 μg/L) (P = 0.065) levels tended to be greater in OB dogs; there was a trend towards a lower (P = 0.092) APN/LEP (19.32 vs. 21.81) in OB dogs. Results of fecal microbial alpha-diversity showed that Observed_species and Chao1 indices tended to be lower (P = 0.069) in OB dogs. The STAMP and LEfSe analyses revealed that OB dogs had a greater (P < 0.05 and LDA > 2) reduction in relative abundances of Bacteroides, Prevotella_9, and Megamonas than IW dogs. In addition, OB dogs also had greater (P < 0.05) reduction in fecal acetate, propionate, and butyrate concentrations than IW dogs. Moreover, clear negative correlations (|r| > 0.5 and P < 0.05) were found between SCFAs-producing bacteria and BW, TG, and HDL-C. The functional predictions of microbial communities based on PICRUSt2 analysis revealed that lipid metabolism and endocrine system were significantly disturbed in obese dogs after neutering. Thus, intervention with SCFAs-producing bacteria might represent a new target for the prevention or treatment of canine obesity after neutering. Moreover, weight control before neutering may also contribute to the prevention of canine obesity after neutering.

Does Pet Parenting Style predict the social and problem-solving behavior of pet dogs (Canis lupus familiaris)?

The behavior and cognition of pet domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) has drawn increasing scientific attention over the last several decades. One area of focus has been the influence of lifetime variables, including the home environment and prior experiences, on the social and problem-solving behavior of dogs. While the human-dog relationship has become an important area of study, only a few studies have empirically investigated how the quality of that relationship may influence a dog's performance on behavioral or cognitive tasks. In the current study, we asked if a human caretaker's self-reported expectations and patterns of responding towards their dog (Pet Parenting Style) would predict the dog's social and problem-solving behavior. Owners who had previously been asked to complete a Pet Parenting Style survey were later invited to have their dogs participate in three behavioral tests: The Secure Base Test, a Sociability Test and the Solvable Task. Consistent with the human development literature, results indicated that Pet Parenting Styles did predict patterns of dog behavior and cognition on these tests. On average, dogs with authoritative owners (high expectations, high responsiveness) had the highest rate of secure attachment, were highly social, sensitive to social context and were more persistent and successful on the problem-solving task than dogs with authoritarian owners (high expectations and low responsiveness) and permissive owners (low expectations, low responsiveness). These findings suggest that the quality and style of individual dog-human relationships, including Pet Parenting Style, may be relevant when evaluating and interpreting outcomes of canine cognition research.

Environmental risk factors in puppies and kittens for developing chronic disorders in adulthood: A call for research on developmental programming

Many dogs and cats are affected by chronic diseases that significantly impact their health and welfare and relationships with humans. Some of these diseases can be challenging to treat, and a better understanding of early-life risk factors for diseases occurring in adulthood is key to improving preventive veterinary care and husbandry practices. This article reviews early-life risk factors for obesity and chronic enteropathy, and for chronic behavioral problems, which can also be intractable with life-changing consequences. Aspects of early life in puppies and kittens that can impact the risk of adult disorders include maternal nutrition, establishment of the gut microbiome, maternal behavior, weaning, nutrition during growth, growth rate, socialization with conspecifics and humans, rehoming and neutering. Despite evidence in some species that the disorders reviewed here reflect the developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD), developmental programming has rarely been studied in dogs and cats. Priorities and strategies to increase knowledge of early-life risk factors and DOHaD in dogs and cats are discussed. Critical windows of development are proposed: preconception, gestation, the suckling period, early growth pre-neutering or pre-puberty, and growth post-neutering or post-puberty to adult size, the durations of which depend upon species and breed. Challenges to DOHaD research in these species include a large number of breeds with wide genetic and phenotypic variability, and the existence of many mixed-breed individuals. Moreover, difficulties in conducting prospective lifelong cohort studies are exacerbated by discontinuity in pet husbandry between breeders and subsequent owners, and by the dispersed nature of pet ownership.

Are children and dogs best friends? A scoping review to explore the positive and negative effects of child-dog interactions

Personal wellbeing is greatly influenced by our childhood and adolescence, and the relationships formed during those phases of our development. The human-dog bond represents a significant relationship that started thousands of years ago. There is a higher prevalence of dog ownership around the world, especially in households including children. This has resulted in a growing number of researchers studying our interactions with dogs and an expanding evidence base from the exploration of child-dog interactions. We review the potential effects of child-dog interactions on the physical, mental, and social wellbeing of both species. A search of the SCOPUS database identified documents published between January 1980 and April 2022. Filtering for key inclusion criteria, duplicate removals, and inspecting the references of these documents for additional sources, we reviewed a total of 393 documents, 88% of which were scientific articles. We were able to define the numerous ways in which children and dogs interact, be it neutral (e.g., sharing a common area), positive (e.g., petting), or negative (e.g., biting). Then, we found evidence for an association between childhood interaction with dogs and an array of benefits such as increased physical activities, a reduction of stress, and the development of empathy. Nonetheless, several detrimental outcomes have also been identified for both humans and dogs. Children are the most at-risk population regarding dog bites and dog-borne zoonoses, which may lead to injuries/illness, a subsequent fear of dogs, or even death. Moreover, pet bereavement is generally inevitable when living with a canine companion and should not be trivialized. With a canine focus, children sometimes take part in caretaking behaviors toward them, such as feeding or going for walks. These represent opportunities for dogs to relieve themselves outside, but also to exercise and socialize. By contrast, a lack of physical activity can lead to the onset of obesity in both dogs and children. Dogs may present greater levels of stress when in the presence of children. Finally, the welfare of assistance, therapy, and free-roaming dogs who may interact with children remains underexplored. Overall, it appears that the benefits of child-dog interactions outweigh the risks for children but not for dogs; determination of the effects on both species, positive as well as negative, still requires further development. We call for longitudinal studies and cross-cultural research in the future to better understand the impact of child-dog interactions. Our review is important for people in and outside of the scientific community, to pediatricians, veterinarians, and current or future dog owners seeking to extend their knowledge, and to inform future research of scientists studying dogs and human-animal interactions.

Context and prediction matter for the interpretation of social interactions across species

Predictions about others' future actions are crucial during social interactions, in order to react optimally. Another way to assess such interactions is to define the social context of the situations explicitly and categorize them according to their affective content. Here we investigate how humans assess aggressive, playful and neutral interactions between members of three species: human children, dogs and macaques. We presented human participants with short video clips of real-life interactions of dyads of the three species and asked them either to categorize the context of the situation or to predict the outcome of the observed interaction. Participants performed above chance level in assessing social situations in humans, in dogs and in monkeys. How accurately participants predicted and categorized the situations depended both on the species and on the context. Contrary to our hypothesis, participants were not better at assessing aggressive situations than playful or neutral situations. Importantly, participants performed particularly poorly when assessing aggressive behaviour for dogs. Also, participants were not better at assessing social interactions of humans compared to those of other species. We discuss what mechanism humans use to assess social situations and to what extent this skill can also be found in other social species.

Canine Socialisation: A Narrative Systematic Review

There are over 10 million pet dogs in the UK alone, and they have become a member of modern human families. If not properly socialised as puppies, dogs have a higher risk of problematic behaviours during adulthood, yet socialisation studies are lacking. Much of the experimental research was carried out at least 50 years ago, and the importance of socialisation was demonstrated so clearly that further studies with unsocialised controls would be deemed unethical. In this review, the aim was to evaluate all literature relevant to canine socialisation. This review used PRISMA-P guidelines to identify 29 studies: 14 were questionnaire-based studies (two of which also had a testing element), 15 included some form of experimental manipulation relating to socialisation, and one was a purely observational study. Based on this literature review, we recommend future research into minimum necessary socialisation levels, as well as breed differences in the timing of effective socialisation. Such studies will help owners and breeders produce well-adjusted adult dogs.

Unwanted Scratching Behavior in Cats: Influence of Management Strategies and Cat and Owner Characteristics

Despite scratching behavior in owned domestic cats being a self-motivated and natural behavior, it is commonly reported as a behavior problem by owners when it results in damage to household items. The objectives of this study were to use a cross-sectional survey targeting cat owners within the United States and Canada, to explore perspectives on cat scratching behavior and management strategies, as well as identify factors that influence the performance of inappropriate scratching behavior in the household. A total of 2465 cat owners participated in the survey and three mixed logistic regression models were generated to explore associations between (1) cat demographic factors, (2) provisions of enrichment, and (3) owner demographic and management factors with owner reports of problematic scratching. In this convenience sample, inappropriate scratching was reported by 58% of cat owners. Owner perspectives and management strategies aligned with current recommendations as they preferred to use appropriate surfaces (e.g., cat trees) and training to manage scratching as opposed to surrendering, euthanizing, or declawing. Logistic regression results found fewer reports of unwanted scratching behavior if owners provide enrichment (flat scratching surfaces (p = 0.037), sisal rope (p < 0.0001), and outdoor access (p = 0.01)), reward the use of appropriate scratching objects (p = 0.007), apply attractant to preferred items (p < 0.0001), restrict access to unwanted items (p < 0.0001), provide additional scratching posts (p < 0.0001), and if their cat is 7 years of age or older (p < 0.00001). Whereas if owners use verbal (p < 0.0001) or physical correction (p = 0.007) there were higher reports of unwanted scratching. Results suggest that damage to household items from scratching behavior is related to management strategies owners employ, and these findings can be used to support owner education in mitigation and prevention of inappropriate scratching.

US Adults' Perceptions of Dog Breed Bans, Dog Aggression and Breed-Specific Laws

Dog aggression directed towards people is a leading reason for relinquishment and a major public health hazard. In response to the threat of dog aggression and dog bites, breed-specific legislation has been introduced in numerous cities within the United States and countries throughout the world. There is limited evidence, however, to suggest that such laws are effective. This study explored, through an online, anonymous, cross-sectional survey, US residents' views about the bite risk of common dog breeds, breed-specific legislation, and alternative options for improved public safety. A total of 586 surveys were completed by adult US residents, 48.8% female and 48.6% male. Approximately half of the respondents reported feeling that dog bites are a serious public health issue. Although 70% of respondents were opposed to a breed ban, only 56% felt that banning specific breeds creates an animal welfare issue. Females were less likely to support a ban or agree that specific breed bans improve public safety. When participants were asked to indicate their support of several alternatives to breed-specific legislation, the most frequently endorsed options included public education about animal welfare and animal behavior, and stricter leash laws. Further research pertaining to the most effective public education dissemination methods is warranted.

Assessing the Relationship Between Emotional States of Dogs and Their Human Handlers, Using Simultaneous Behavioral and Cardiac Measures

Negative stress due to human handling has been reported for a number of domestic animals, including dogs. Many companion dogs display significant stress during routine care in the veterinary clinic, risking injury to staff and potentially compromising the quality of care that these dogs receive. On the other hand, positive interactions with humans can have a beneficial effect on dogs, particularly in stressful situations such as animal shelters. Research has shown that dogs can detect human emotions through visual, auditory, and chemical channels, and that dogs will exhibit emotional contagion, particularly with familiar humans. This study investigated relationships between emotional states of dogs and unfamiliar human handlers, using simultaneous measures of cardiac activity and behavior, during two sessions of three consecutive routine handling sets. Measures of cardiac activity included mean heart rate (HR_mean), and two measures of heart rate variability (HRV): the root mean square of successive differences between normal heartbeats (RMSSD); and the high frequency absolute power component of HRV, log transformed (HF_log). We also assessed human handlers' emotional state during handling sessions following an intervention designed to reduce stress, compared with sessions conducted on a different day and following a control activity. Polar H10 cardiac sensors were used to simultaneously record cardiac activity for both canine and human participants, and behavioral data were collected via digital video. The strongest influence on the dogs' stress levels in our study was found to be increasing familiarity with the setting and the handler; HR_mean and SI decreased, and HRV (as RMSSD) increased, significantly from the first to the third handling set. Canine HRV (as HF_log) was also highest in set 3, although the difference was not statistically significant. There were no strong patterns found in the human cardiac data across handling set, session, or by pre-handling activity. We did not find consistent support for emotional contagion between the dogs and their handlers in this study, perhaps due to the brief time that the dogs spent with the handlers. Recommendations for application to dog handling, and limitations of our methods, are described.

A Prospective Cohort Study Investigating the Behavioural Development of Bitches in a Guide Dog Training Programme Neutered Prepubertally or Post-Pubertally

There are few studies that investigate the effect of neutering bitches before or after puberty. The majority of current literature examining the impact of the timing of neutering on health and behaviour has used age rather than the onset of puberty as the key variable. The aim of this prospective cohort study was to investigate the effects of timing of neutering in relation to puberty on behaviour in female dogs reared and trained in an assistance dog programme. The study examined data for bitches neutered before or after puberty to compare scores for six behavioural factors (training and obedience, aggression, fear and anxiety, excitability, attachment and attention-seeking, and social behaviour) measured at 1 and 3 years of age. Labrador and Golden Retriever crossbreed bitches were neutered before (n = 155) or after (n = 151) puberty. Neutering before or after puberty had no impact on mean scores for the six behavioural factors at 1 or 3 years of age. When examining the change in behavioural factor scores between 1 and 3 years of age, only aggression behavioural factor scores were influenced by neutering before or after puberty. Bitches neutered after puberty were less likely to have aggression factor scores that increased between 1 and 3 years of age (OR = 0.959, 90% CI = 0.924 to 0.995, p = 0.06). However, the majority of bitches scored “0” for aggression at both time points (indicating no aggression behaviours were observed), and the number of bitches for which scores increased between 1 and 3 years of age was low (before puberty = 20, after puberty = 9). This is consistent with very mild aggressive behaviours being observed in a small number of animals and is, therefore, of questionable concern. The results suggest that, for Labrador and Golden Retriever crossbreed bitches, neutering before or after puberty has little to no effect on future behaviour. It is recommended that decisions about the timing of neutering are not informed solely by impacts on behaviour, but that they also consider evidence relating to the impacts on bitch health and well-being.

Pandemic Puppies: Demographic Characteristics, Health and Early Life Experiences of Puppies Acquired during the 2020 Phase of the COVID-19 Pandemic in the UK

The UK recorded sharp rises in puppy purchasing during the 2020 phase of the COVID-19 pandemic, with many first-time dog owners purchasing puppies to improve their mental health during this challenging period. Government restrictions on movement and social interaction during the pandemic led to animal welfare concerns over puppies’ reduced time-sensitive exposures to key environmental and social stimuli during their critical developmental period. This study aimed to compare demographics, health and early-life experiences of puppies purchased and brought home < 16 weeks of age between 23 March−31 December 2020 (“Pandemic Puppies”), with dogs purchased and brought home < 16 weeks during the same date period in 2019 (“2019 puppies”). An online survey of UK-based puppy owners was conducted between 10 November and 31 December 2020 with valid responses representing 5517 puppies (Pandemic Puppies: n = 4369; 2019 puppies: n = 1148). Multivariable logistic regression modelling revealed that Pandemic Puppies were less likely to have attended puppy training classes (67.9% 2019 vs. 28.9% 2020; p < 0.001) or had visitors to their home (94.5% 2019 vs. 81.8% 2020; p < 0.001) aged < 16 weeks compared with 2019 puppies. Fewer Pandemic Puppies underwent veterinary checks prior to purchase than 2019 puppies (2019: 91.3% vs. 2020: 87.4%; p < 0.001), but more were sold with a passport (2019: 4.1% vs. 2020: 7.1%; p < 0.001). Pandemic Puppies were significantly more likely to be ‘Designer Crossbreeds’ (2019: 18.8% vs. 2020: 26.1%; p < 0.001) and less likely to be Kennel Club registered than 2019 puppies (2019: 58.2% vs. 2020: 46.2%; p < 0.001). Greater support from veterinary and animal behavioural professionals is likely needed to ameliorate the health and behavioural impacts of growing up in a pandemic upon this vulnerable population.

Case Distribution, Sources, and Breeds of Dogs Presenting to a Veterinary Behavior Clinic in the United States from 1997 to 2017

The purpose of this retrospective case study was to evaluate trends over time in case distribution, sources, and breeds of dogs presenting to the behavioral medicine service at a veterinary college referral hospital in the United States. For case distribution and sources, the available records from the behavior service (n = 1923) from 1997 to 2017 were evaluated. Breeds of dogs presenting to all services (n = 51,052) were compared to behavior cases (n = 822) from 2007 to 2016. Over twenty years, 72.2% of dogs presented for aggression, 20.1% for anxieties/fears/phobias, and 7.4% for miscellaneous behavioral problems. Dogs acquired from breeders decreased and dogs from shelters, rescues, or adopted as a stray increased over twenty years (p < 0.0001). The Herding (p = 0.0124) and Terrier (p < 0.0001) groups were overrepresented for behavior problems as compared to all other services over ten years. Variations in terminology and diagnostic approach made comparisons with earlier studies difficult, which underscores a need for a more consistent methodology in veterinary behavioral medicine. Understanding trends in sources of dogs could direct resources aimed at guiding owners when acquiring a pet dog and preventing behavioral problems. Findings related to breeds could help guide research focused on the genetic contributions to behavior.

A Review and Analysis of the National Dog Population Management Program in Chile

Free-roaming dogs are a worldwide problem, with Chile having some of the highest human-to-dog ratios in the world. In 2017, Law 21.020 was promulgated and the federal government developed a national responsible pet ownership program. The objectives of this article are to describe and discuss the dog-related components of the program, to design a tool for determining human-to-dog ratios in Chile, and to make recommendations to managers to improve the program outcomes. The overarching goal of the program was to mitigate the conflict between humans and dogs, but many of the interventions were animal-focused and the indicators did not consider the perception of the Chilean public. Using human density data and known dog populations, we found that as the human density increased, there were fewer dogs per person. Veterinary services and sterilizations were the mainstay of the program and were offered for free to citizens. Education was offered to all ages through public events, as well as municipality and organization activities. The identification of dogs was obligatory for dog owners. Enforcement was not included in the program. The recommendations are to conduct preintervention baseline data collections and to tailor interventions and indicators appropriately; to use dog population size estimates determined at the local level rather than a country-wide estimate; to replace free veterinary services with low-cost sterilization campaigns; to create sustainable plans for education; and to create enforcement teams in communities.

Emotions and Dog Bites: Could Predatory Attacks Be Triggered by Emotional States?

Simple Summary

Dog bites are a worldwide problem that have severe consequences for both the animal and the victim involved in the incident. Epidemiological studies have analyzed the victim features, the characteristics of biting dogs and the context in which attacks occur. Little is known regarding the role of emotions in predatory attacks toward humans and conspecifics in dogs. This paper aims at proposing the potential involvement of emotions for the expression of predatory motor patterns. It is suggested that the reporting of dog biting episodes needs to consider this crucial factor, which is fundamental for providing a realistic and reliable picture of the dog bite phenomenon.

Abstract

Dog biting events pose severe public health and animal welfare concerns. They result in several consequences for both humans (including physical and psychological trauma) and the dog involved in the biting episode (abandonment, relocation to shelter and euthanasia). Although numerous epidemiological studies have analyzed the different factors influencing the occurrence of such events, to date the role of emotions in the expression of predatory attacks toward humans has been scarcely investigated. This paper focuses on the influence of emotional states on triggering predatory attacks in dogs, particularly in some breeds whose aggression causes severe consequences to human victims. We suggest that a comprehensive analysis of the dog bite phenomenon should consider the emotional state of biting dogs in order to collect reliable and realistic data about bite episodes.

Development and Training for Working Dogs

Individual differences in behavior lead to wide variability in working dog suitability, and are the primary reason for rejection or early release. Behavioral suitability of a working dog is shaped by interactions with its environment during early development and specialized training. Understanding how aspects of development and training affect a working dog's performance is critical for practitioners to effectively evaluate and treat behavioral concerns in working dogs. This article provides an overview of critical aspects of puppy development that influence future behavior, and reviews important features of training that influence a dog's ability to learn and perform its designated task.

Aggressive behaviour is affected by demographic, environmental and behavioural factors in purebred dogs

Aggressive behaviour is an unwanted and serious problem in pet dogs, negatively influencing canine welfare, management and public acceptance. We aimed to identify demographic and environmental factors associated with aggressive behaviour toward people in Finnish purebred pet dogs. We collected behavioural data from 13,715 dogs with an owner-completed online questionnaire. Here we used a dataset of 9270 dogs which included 1791 dogs with frequent aggressive behaviour toward people and 7479 dogs without aggressive behaviour toward people. We studied the effect of several explanatory variables on aggressive behaviour with multiple logistic regression. Several factors increased the probability of aggressive behaviour toward people: older age, being male, fearfulness, small body size, lack of conspecific company, and being the owner's first dog. The probability of aggressive behaviour also differed between breeds. These results replicate previous studies and suggest that improvements in the owner education and breeding practices could alleviate aggressive behaviour toward people while genetic studies could reveal associated hereditary factors.

An Investigation into the Impact of Pre-Adolescent Training on Canine Behavior

Simple Summary

Current thinking about puppy training is that it should be performed as early in a dog’s life as possible to prevent the later development of behavior problems. However, no study has been performed to see if early puppy training (before 3 months of age) does present clear advantages over training at a later age, in terms of the subsequent development of adult behavior problems. This retrospective study examined the age at which adult dogs were trained as puppies and whether there were advantages of training puppies before 4 months of age or between 5 and 6 months of age. We found no difference in the age of puppy training and the subsequent development of behavior problems. Aggression, compulsive behavior, destructive behavior, and excessive barking were all reduced in dogs that had attended puppy training before 6 months of age compared to a control group of dogs that had not attended puppy training classes. Ancillary findings about the entire study population were that dogs acquired as pups at 12 weeks of age or less had reduced odds of exhibiting fear or anxiety and engaging in destructive behavior. In addition, male dogs were found to have reduced odds of developing aggressive behavior, compulsive behavior, and mounting/humping and increased odds of rolling in repulsive materials. Neutered dogs of either sex were found to have increased odds of developing fear and anxiety, increased odds of escaping/running away, exhibiting coprophagia, and rolling in repulsive materials. The odds of problematic jumping decreased with age.

Abstract

An online survey about puppy training was sent to members of the Center for Canine Behavior Studies and posted on our social media platforms. Six hundred forty-one (641) qualifying owners provided information on 1023 dogs. About half (48%) of the dogs involved in the study attended puppy training and the balance (52%) did not. The goal of the study was to find out whether puppy training at various ages (1–3 months, 4 months, 5–6 months) helped prevent behavior problems later in life (≥1 year). Attending training at 6 months of age or younger resulted in 0.71 the odds of developing aggressive behavior (95% CI: 0.53–0.97; p = 0.030), 0.64 the odds of having a compulsive behavior (95% CI: 0.45–0.92; p = 0.015), 0.60 the odds of exhibiting destructive behavior (95% CI: 0.37–0.96; p = 0.035), 0.68 the odds of excessive barking (95% CI: 0.47–0.99; p = 0.043), and 1.56 the odds of house soiling (95% CI: 1.08–2.27; p = 0.019). Ancillary findings about the entire study population were that dogs acquired at 12 weeks of age or younger were found to have 0.65 the odds of fear/anxiety (95% CI: 0.46–0.92; p = 0.016) and 0.50 the odds of exhibiting destructive behavior (95% CI: 0.31–0.79; p = 0.003). In addition, male dogs were found to have 0.68 the odds of developing aggressive behavior (95% CI: 0.53–0.88; p = 0.003), 0.66 the odds of developing compulsive behavior (95% CI: 0.49–0.88; p = 0.006), 0.37 the odds of mounting/humping (95% CI: 0.26–0.52; p < 0.001), and 1.53 the odds of rolling in repulsive materials (95% CI: 1.18–1.97; p = 0.001). Neutered dogs of either sex were found to have 3.10 the odds of fear/anxiety (95% CI: 2.05–4.72; p < 0.001), 1.97 the odds of escaping/running away (95% CI: 1.12–3.69; p = 0.025), 2.01 the odds of exhibiting coprophagia (95% CI 1.30–3.19; p = 0.002), and 1.72 the odds of rolling in repulsive materials (95% CI: 1.12–2.66; p = 0.014). The odds of problematic jumping deceased by 0.84 for each 1-year increase in age (95% CI: 0.80–0.88; p < 0.001).

Dog Tethering in Slovakia: Legal, Ethical and Behavioral Aspects and Dog Welfare Implications

Simple Summary

On the basis of legislative provisions and the behavioral needs of dogs, the authors describe the potential consequences and negative impacts of the long-term tethering of dogs. Dogs should be kept under conditions that allow them, with respect to their size, temperament, stage of their development, and degree of adaptation, to maintain good health and meet their physiological, ethological, and social needs. Despite the adoption of new legislative provisions, this issue has not yet been resolved and we are still coming across various cases involving cruelty to animals of various character and intensity. The current situation can be changed by adopting legislative regulations that explicitly define the responsibilities of owners/keepers including a ban on the tethering of dogs in order to prevent potential circumvention of the legislative rules.

Abstract

Long-term tethering of dogs, or their keeping under unsuitable conditions can result in issues related to changes in their behavior as they may not satisfy their basic needs of life. These needs are discussed in this paper, along with cases when dogs unnecessarily have to endure cruelty and pain. The unavoidable tethering of a dog must not cause trauma and must be arranged in a way that it guarantees physical comfort. Failure to meet the basic needs of an animal may result in manifestation of fear and subsequent aggressiveness. Owners of animals are responsible for their life and health, and their obligations include eliminating the possibility of them hurting themselves or other beings. The relevant adopted legislative provisions should provide protection to animals and be enforceable, which currently appears rather difficult. Controlling and observation of the legislative provisions related to the tethering of dogs raises some difficulties for animal protection inspectors. It is necessary to focus on the specificities of keeping conditions of various dog breeds and on their individual features. Based on research and the relevant Slovak legislative provisions, this paper discusses various views on the practice of tethering dogs from the point of view of public safety and the ethical consequences of permanent dog tethering. Data on dog tethering in Slovakia were evaluated based on a survey and Slovak legal rules governing this issue were analyzed along with various views of public safety and the ethical consequences of permanent dog tethering.

Environmental influences on development of executive functions in dogs

Executive functions (EFs) are a set of cognitive processes used for effortful self-regulation of behaviour. They include inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility and, in some models, attention. In humans, socioeconomic factors and life experiences shape development of EFs. Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) must often regulate their behaviour in the human environment (e.g. no jumping up on humans or chasing cats), and life experiences also probably influence the development of EFs in dogs. Research into dog cognition and behaviour has been thriving, and some methods used to explore these concepts (e.g. object-choice task, questionnaires measuring traits like distraction and aggression) are likely to be sensitive to differences in EFs, even if that is not their stated aim. Here we examine relevant studies to identify experiential factors which may influence the development of EFs in dogs living in human care. These are early experience, training, housing and stress. We conclude that the development of dogs' EFs may be negatively affected by hardships, and positively by surmountable challenges, early in life. Training methods appear important, with punishment-based methods leading to poorer dog EFs. Kennel environments seem to affect dog EFs negatively. While mild stressors might enhance the development of EFs, too much stress seems to have negative effects. Regulation of behaviour, a key outcome of EFs, is crucial for dogs' integration into human society. We should, therefore, strive to better understand how the environment shapes dogs' EFs.

"More Attention than Usual": A Thematic Analysis of Dog Ownership Experiences in the UK during the First COVID-19 Lockdown

On 23 March 2020, the UK Government imposed a nationwide lockdown as part of efforts to mitigate the impact of COVID-19. This study aimed to explore how the experience of dog ownership in the UK was impacted during this lockdown. Data for this research came from open-ended survey questions and an electronic diary completed by members of the general public and participants involved in "Generation Pup", an ongoing longitudinal cohort study of dogs. A total of 10,510 free-text entries were analysed. Three major themes emerged: spending time at home with dog(s), walking practices, and behaviour and training. Owners valued having more time than usual with their dog(s) but also recognised that spending extra time with their dog(s) may negatively impact on the dog's future ability to cope when left alone. However, very few owners provided alone time for their dog(s) during the lockdown. The opportunity to walk their dog(s) as part of their permitted daily exercise was regarded positively, but walks under the lockdown guidelines were not always felt to be adequate with respect to providing sufficient exercise and opportunities for interaction with other dogs. Owners reported observing new undesirable behaviours in their dog(s) during the lockdown, including barking and dogs being "clingy" or vocalising when briefly left alone. Based on these findings, we suggest intervention strategies to best support dog welfare that include helping dog owners to teach dogs to cope with being alone, even if owners do not need to leave their dogs alone.

'Generation Pup' - protocol for a longitudinal study of dog behaviour and health

Background

Despite extensive research, many questions remain unanswered about common problems that impact dog welfare, particularly where there are multiple contributing factors that can occur months or years before the problem becomes apparent. The Generation Pup study is the first longitudinal study of dogs that recruits pure- and mixed-breed puppies, aiming to investigate the relative influence of environmental and genetic factors on a range of health and behaviour outcomes, (including separation related behaviour, aggression to familiar/unfamiliar people or dogs and obesity). This paper describes the study protocol in detail.

Methods

Prior to commencing recruitment of puppies, the study infrastructure was developed, and subject specialists were consulted to inform data collection methodology. Questionnaire content and timepoint(s) for data collection for outcomes and potential predictors were chosen with the aim of providing the best opportunity of achieving the aims of the study, subject to time and funding constraints. Recruitment of puppies (< 16 weeks, or < 21 weeks of age if entering the United Kingdom or Republic of Ireland through quarantine) is underway. By 23 January 2020, 3726 puppies had been registered, with registration continuing until 10,000 puppies are recruited. Data collection encompasses owner-completed questionnaires issued at set timepoints throughout the dog’s life, covering aspects such as training, diet, exercise, canine behaviour, preventative health care, clinical signs and veterinary intervention. Owners can elect to submit additional data (health cards completed by veterinary professionals, canine biological samples) and/or provide consent for access to veterinary clinical notes. Incidence and breed associations will be calculated for conditions for which there is currently limited information (e.g. separation related behaviour). Multivariable statistical analysis will be conducted on a range of outcomes that occur throughout different life stages, with the aim of identifying modifiable risk factors that can be used to improve canine health and welfare.

Discussion

The Generation Pup project is designed to identify associations between early-life environment, genotypic make-up and outcomes at different life stages. Modifiable risk factors can be used to improve canine health and welfare. Research collaboration with subject specialists is welcomed and already underway within the fields of orthopaedic research, epilepsy, epigenetics and canine impulsivity.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12917-020-02730-8.

Experience has a limited effect on humans' ability to predict the outcome of social interactions in children, dogs and macaques

The ability to predict others' behaviour represents a crucial mechanism which allows individuals to react faster and more appropriately. To date, several studies have investigated humans' ability to predict conspecifics' behaviour, but little is known on our ability to predict behaviour in other species. Here, we aimed to test humans' ability to predict social behaviour in dogs, macaques and humans, and assess the role played by experience and evolution on the emergence of this ability. For this purpose, we presented participants with short videoclips of real-life social interactions in dog, child and macaque dyads, and then asked them to predict the outcome of the observed interactions (i.e. aggressive, neutral or playful). Participants were selected according to their previous species-specific experience with dogs, children and non-human primates. Our results showed a limited effect of experience on the ability to predict the outcome of social interactions, which was mainly restricted to macaques. Moreover, we found no support to the co-domestication hypothesis, in that participants were not especially skilled at predicting dog behaviour. Finally, aggressive outcomes in dogs were predicted significantly worse than playful or neutral ones. Based on our findings, we suggest possible lines for future research, like the inclusion of other primate species and the assessment of cultural factors on the ability to predict behaviour across species.

A Retrospective Analysis of Dog-Dog and Dog-Human Cases of Aggression in Northern Italy

Simple Summary

The prevention of dog bites is an important issue with multiple safety and welfare aspects. We investigated the characteristics of dog bite incidents reported to public authorities in the North of Italy with the aim of providing more data for future risk assessment and prevention tools. We found that no breeds in particular were responsible for severe or multiple bites towards either humans or dogs, but there was a trend of defensive bites towards human beings in private homes and a trend of offensive bites towards other dogs in public areas. We also found that crossbreed dogs and dogs adopted from shelters were significantly more likely to show defensive aggression towards their owners. Our findings indicate that defensive aggression towards owners is linked to fear and anxiety, and we suggest that helping owners to have a better understanding of their dogs’ welfare, behaviour and communication via educational programs is an important prevention tool.

Abstract

In this survey, a caseload of aggressive dogs (n = 170) was analysed to increase the available information about biting dog characteristics, contribute to risk evaluation and improve bite prevention tools. All dog data were collected from questionnaires completed by veterinary behaviourists in Northern Italy. All dogs were referred to them by public authorities to be evaluated and treated due to the incidence of one or more episodes of aggression. Between the two groups of human-directed and dog-directed aggressive dogs, significant associations were found: the dog-directed aggressive group inflicted significantly more severe bites (p < 0.01) and offensive aggression (p < 0.01), whereas defensive aggression was significantly more numerous in the human-directed aggression group (p < 0.01) and more significantly located in private homes (p < 0.01). No significant associations were found between the severity of bites and one or more specific breeds in either group. The prevalence of defensive bites in private homes in human-directed aggression indicate that owners’ understanding of their dogs’ behaviour and communication is fundamental to preventing aggression, and that owner education programmes are fundamental tools to reduce aggression risk factors and prevent aggression.

Canine collars: an investigation of collar type and the forces applied to a simulated neck model

BACKGROUND

Dog collars have the potential to cause harm when the dog pulls on the lead. This study aimed to determine the effects of collar type and force applied using the lead on the pressure on a simulated neck model.

METHODS

Seven collars and a slip lead were tested on a canine neck model. This consisted of a plastic cylinder 'neck', with a pressure sensor beneath the collar. A range of forces were applied to the lead representing different interactions: firm pull (40 N), strong pull (70 N) and jerk (mean force 141 N). Contact area of the collar and pressure on the neck were recorded.

RESULTS

Collars exerted a pressure of between 83 kPa and 832 kPa on the model neck. There was a significant effect of collar type (F(7)=25.69, P<0.001) and force applied (F(2)=42.60, P<0.001) on the pressure exerted on the neck. Collar type (χ(7)=64.94, P<0.001), but not force applied (χ(2)=3.20, P=0.202), affected the contact area that the pressure was exerted over.

CONCLUSION

Variation in the pressures exerted on the neck may have implications on comfort and the potential to cause injury. No single collar tested provided a pressure considered low enough to mitigate the risk of injury when pulling on the lead.

A Treatment Plan for Dogs (Canis familiaris) That Show Impaired Social Functioning towards Their Owners

Many domestic dogs are uncomfortable when humans perform trivial and benign actions that the animals perceive as threatening. A common technique for addressing canine emotional discomfort involves desensitization, where the intensity of a problematic stimulus is gradually increased while the dog remains relaxed. Desensitization requires a skillful owner and is complicated when actions of the owner are the stimuli to be desensitised. This paper introduces a behaviour modification programme for dogs with impaired social functioning in relation to the (inter)actions by their owners, consisting of (1) increasing owner knowledge and awareness regarding dog body language and perception of owner actions, (2) management of the daily life of the dog through general stress reduction and avoidance of stressful situations, and (3) behaviour modification through training. The latter component entails a non-threatening, predictable exercise in which the dog has control over any perceived threats, the introduction of the safety cue with subsequent desensitization, and engaging activities with the owner that the dog finds enjoyable. We also present a case series report to examine a selection of dogs with impaired social functioning, from signalment to outcome, when treated with the proposed behaviour modification and examine which adaptations were made to the plan according to individual dogs. Finally, we avenues for future research.

Cross-Sectional Age Differences in Canine Personality Traits; Influence of Breed, Sex, Previous Trauma, and Dog Obedience Tasks

The dog has been suggested as a possible model for personality development over the lifespan, however, we know little about how aging may shape their personality or the magnitude of age-related changes. Previously we established that aging influences multiple dog demographics, which could also affect how personality traits change across different age periods. A demographic questionnaire and the Dog Personality Questionnaire were completed for a cross-sectional sample of 1,207 adult dogs living in Hungary (M_age = 7.71, SD = 4.12), split into six different age groups. Results revealed three of the five factors showed significant age effects. Activity/Excitability decreased with age, and whilst Responsiveness to training also decreased, only dogs older than 12 years differed significantly from the other groups. Aggressiveness toward animals showed a quadratic trajectory peaking in dogs aged 6–10 years. The greatest magnitude of age-related change was detected between late senior and geriatric ages, likely caused by compensatory behavioral changes to biological aging and owner attitudes to aging. When the models were re-run including the other explanatory variables, age group was no longer significant for the Responsiveness to training trait. The amount of time spent interacting/playing with the owner partially mediated the relationship between age and this trait, implying that interventions to increase play and training motivation may alleviate the negative effects of aging on dogs' trainability. Fifteen out of 28 explanatory variables were significantly associated with at least one of the five factors [weight, breed (pure/mixed breed), sex, off-leash activity, diet, previous trauma, age of dog when arrived in the household, play, dog training activities, number of known commands and dog obedience tasks]. Similarly to humans, dogs that had previously experienced trauma scored higher in fearfulness and aggression. A higher level of basic obedience was linked to some desirable dog personality traits (lower Fearfulness and Aggression, and higher Activity/Excitability and Responsiveness to training). Regardless of the direction of this relationship, obedience is an important aspect contributing to dog personality questionnaires and the dog-owner relationship. This study is unique in that it considered a wide variety of demographic variables which are influenced by aging.

Pet dog bites in children: management and prevention

Dog bite injuries are a significant public health problem and many are sustained by children. These injuries can be complex, both physically and psychologically, and in rare cases fatal. This paper will review current evidence-based approaches to treatment, explore identified patterns in biting incidents and discuss the effectiveness of prevention strategies. Safe management of these patients requires a comprehensive approach. Physical injuries need to be accurately assessed with a high index of suspicion for underlying injuries, particularly in younger children less able to communicate. Treatment depends on severity and location, but all bites must be irrigated to reduce the risk of infection but may not always require prophylactic antibiotic use. Careful exploration of the circumstances in which the bite occurred is essential to make safeguarding decisions and prevent future bites. Reducing the incidence of paediatric dog bites requires education of both children and parents that any dog can bite, regardless of breed, and all child-dog interactions must be highly supervised. However, education alone is unlikely to prevent dog bites. Policies that support environmental changes need to be developed such as provision of pet dogs less likely to bite (or bite as severely), through breeding for temperament and appropriate socialisation. Additionally, investment in psychological support for bite victims and their families is required to reduce the long-term impacts of being bitten.