Exxon Valdez to Deepwater Horizon: comparable toxicity of both crude oils to fish early life stages

Long-term effects of an early-life exposure of fathead minnows to sediments containing bitumen. Part II: Behaviour, reproduction, and gonad histopathology

The oil sands area of northern Alberta has river sediments that contain natural bitumen. Eggs and fish in these rivers may be exposed to bitumen-related chemicals early in life. This paper assesses a short embryo-larval fish exposure to oil sands sediment and follows the fish behaviour as they mature in clean water and examines their breeding success as adults (5 months afterwards). The three different oil sands river sediments tested were: a sediment collected outside of the bitumen deposit (tested at 3 g/L, Reference sediment from upstream Steepbank River site), and two sediments collected within the deposit (each tested at low (1 g/L) and high (3 g/L) concentrations). The sediments within the bitumen deposit were from the Ells and Steepbank (Stp) Rivers, and both contained significant total PAHs (>170 ng/g wet weight sediment) and alkylated PAHs (>4480 ng/g). Fish were exposed to these sediments for 21 days (as eggs and larval fish), and then transferred permanently to clean water to mature and breed. There was a significant decrease in the number of egg clutches produced by fish exposed early in life to Stp downstream high sediment (compared to Reference sediment). There was also a decrease in overall cumulative egg production, with fish from Stp downstream high sediment producing just over 1000 eggs in total while fish exposed to Ref sediment produced nearly 6900 eggs. The fish with reduced egg production were also less social than expected as they matured, and they had a lower % of early vitellogenic eggs in their ovaries. Overall, the exposure shows that a single, brief exposure during early life stages to natural bitumen can affect fish in adulthood. Naturally occurring bitumen-derived PAHs can reduce fish reproductive output by complex mechanisms, measurable as lower ovary maturity and changes in social behaviour.

Water-accommodated fractions of crude oil and its mixture with chemical dispersant impairs oxidase stress and energy metabolism disorders in Oryzias melastigma embryos

In this study, marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma) embryos were exposed to different concentrations of water-accommodated fractions (WAFs) and chemically enhanced water-accommodated fractions (CEWAFs) of Oman crude oil for 14 d by semi-static exposure methods. The effects on growth and development and energy metabolism process were evaluated. Results showed that embryo survival and hatchability were decreased in a dose-dependent manner with an increase in the concentration of petroleum hydrocarbon compounds, whereas the malformation exhibited a dose-dependent increase. Compared to the control, the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) content and Na+-K+-ATPase (NKA) activities of embryos exposed to both WAFs and CEWAFs were reduced, while intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and NADH oxidase (NOX) activities were increased. Our study demonstrated that exposure to crude oil dispersed by chemical dispersant affected the growth and development of marine medaka embryos, caused oxidative stress while produced a series of malformations in the body and dysregulation in energy metabolism. In comparison, the toxic effects of chemically dispersed crude oil might be more severe than the oil itself in the equivalent diluted concentration treatment solution. These would provide more valuable and reliable reference data for the use of chemical dispersants in oil spills.

Water-accommodated fractions of heavy and light oils impact DNA integrity, embryonic development, and immune system of Japanese medaka at early life stages

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous contaminants generally found in complex mixtures. PAHs are known to cause pleiotropic effects on living organisms, including developmental defects, mutagenicity, carcinogenicity and immunotoxicity, and endocrine disruptions. The main goal of this study is to evaluate the toxicity of water-accommodated fractions (WAFs) of oils in two life stages of the Japanese medaka, larvae and juveniles. The deleterious effects of an acute exposure of 48 h to two WAFs from Arabian light crude oil (LO) and refined oil from Erika (HO) were analyzed in both stages. Relevant endpoints, including ethoxy resorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity, DNA damage (Comet assay), photomotor response, and sensitivity to nervous necrosis virus (NNV) infection, were investigated. Larvae exposed to both oil WAFs displayed a significant induction of EROD activity, DNA damage, and developmental anomalies, but no behavioral changes. Deleterious effects were significantly increased following exposure to 1 and 10 μg/L of LO WAFs and 10 μg/L of HO WAFs. Larval infection to NNV induced fish mortality and sharply reduced reaction to light stimulation. Co-exposure to WAFs and NNV increased the mortality rate, suggesting an impact of WAFs on fish defense capacities. WAF toxicity on juveniles was only observed following the NNV challenge, with a higher sensitivity to HO WAFs than to LO WAFs. This study highlighted that environmentally realistic exposure to oil WAFs containing different compositions and concentrations of oil generated high adverse effects, especially in the larval stage. This kind of multi-marker approach is particularly relevant to characterize the toxicity fingerprint of environmental mixtures of hydrocarbons and PAHs.

Time dependence of aldehyde and ketone oxocarboxylic acid photoproduct generation from crude oil-seawater systems under solar irradiation

Aldehyde and ketone oxocarboxylic acid photoproducts were semi-quantitated in the aqueous phase after subjecting Macondo (MC252) crude oil-seawater systems to simulated solar irradiation. Electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) was applied after derivatizing the samples with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH). Oil-seawater was irradiated at 27.0 °C using a solar simulator for 1 to 18 h. Following irradiation, the aqueous phase was treated with DNPH to generate aldehyde-DNPH and ketone-DNPH derivatives. Solid-phase extraction enriched the samples before analyzing them using (-) ESI-MS/MS. Precursor and product ion spectra were used to select carboxylic acid-containing aldehydes and ketones and provide semi-quantitation using surrogate standards and an internal standard. Loss of m/z 44 (CO2) in the product ion spectra further confirmed the carboxylic acid character. Near-linear increases in photoproduct concentration in the aqueous phase were observed over the 18 h irradiation period. Among the aldehyde and ketone oxocarboxylic acid photoproducts studied, photoproduction rates ranged from 0.6 - 69 µmol/h·m2 of oil surface. Despite some fluctuations, a general trend of lower production rate with higher molecular weight was observed. These results demonstrate the near-linear dependence of photoproduction on irradiance and provide ranges of rates that can be applied to modeling aldehyde and ketone oxocarboxylic acid photoproduction in ocean spills. STATEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT: Crude oil on seawater degrades when exposed to sunlight. Oxygenated molecules are produced, including carboxylic acid-containing aldehydes and ketones. The formation of these photoproducts from oil films behaves linearly with solar exposure time. These photoproducts are more soluble than the original oil molecules, allowing them to have increased bioavailability and potentially increased toxicity. The rate of formation of these species when oil is exposed to sunlight determines their environmental impact.

3-Methyl-phenanthrene (3-MP) disrupts the electrical and contractile activity of the heart of the polar fish, navaga cod (Eleginus nawaga)

Alkylated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are abundant in crude oil and are enriched during petroleum refinement but knowledge of their cardiotoxicity remains limited. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are considered the main hazardous components in crude oil and the tricyclic PAH phenanthrene has been singled out for its direct effects on cardiac tissue in mammals and fish. Here we test the impact of the monomethylated phenanthrene, 3-methylphenanthrene (3-MP), on the contractile and electrical function of the atrium and ventricle of a polar fish, the navaga cod (Eleginus nawaga). Using patch-clamp electrophysiology in atrial and ventricular cardiomyocytes we show that 3-MP is a potent inhibitor of the delayed rectifier current IKr (IC50 = 0.25 μM) and prolongs ventricular action potential duration. Unlike the parent compound phenanthrene, 3-MP did not reduce the amplitude of the L-type Ca2+ current (ICa) but it accelerated current inactivation thus reducing charge transfer across the myocyte membrane and compromising pressure development of the whole heart. 3-MP was a potent inhibitor (IC50 = 4.7 μM) of the sodium current (INa), slowing the upstroke of the action potential in isolated cells, slowing conduction velocity across the atrium measured with optical mapping, and increasing atrio-ventricular delay in a working whole heart preparation. Together, these findings reveal the strong cardiotoxic potential of this phenanthrene derivative on the fish heart. As 3-MP and other alkylated phenanthrenes comprise a large fraction of the PAHs in crude oil mixtures, these findings are worrisome for Arctic species facing increasing incidence of spills and leaks from the petroleum industry. 3-MP is also a major component of polluted air but is not routinely measured. This is also of concern if the hearts of humans and other terrestrial animals respond to this PAH in a similar manner to fish.

Structure-activity relationships for alkyl-phenanthrenes support two independent but interacting synergistic models for PAC mixture potency

Multiple lines of evidence at whole animal, cellular and molecular levels implicate polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) with three rings as drivers of crude oil toxicity to developing fish. Phenanthrene (P0) and its alkylated homologs (C1- through C4-phenanthrenes) comprise the most prominent subfraction of tricyclic PACs in crude oils. Among this family, P0 has been studied intensively, with more limited detail available for the C4-phenanthrene 1-methyl-7-isopropyl-phenanthrene (1-M,7-IP, or retene). While both compounds are cardiotoxic, P0 impacts embryonic cardiac function and development through direct blockade of K+ and Ca2+ currents that regulate cardiomyocyte contractions. In contrast, 1-M,7-IP dysregulates aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) activation in developing ventricular cardiomyocytes. Although no other compounds have been assessed in detail across the larger family of alkylated phenanthrenes, increasing alkylation might be expected to shift phenanthrene family member activity from K+/Ca2+ ion current blockade to AHR activation. Using embryos of two distantly related fish species, zebrafish and Atlantic haddock, we tested 14 alkyl-phenanthrenes in both acute and latent developmental cardiotoxicity assays. All compounds were cardiotoxic, and effects were resolved into impacts on multiple, highly specific aspects of heart development or function. Craniofacial defects were clearly linked to developmental cardiotoxicity. Based on these findings, we suggest a novel framework to delineate the developmental toxicity of petrogenic PAC mixtures in fish, which incorporates multi-mechanistic pathways that produce interactive synergism at the organ level. In addition, relationships among measured embryo tissue concentrations, cytochrome P4501A mRNA induction, and cardiotoxic responses suggest a two-compartment toxicokinetic model that independently predicts high potency of PAC mixtures through classical metabolic synergism. These two modes of synergism, specific to the sub-fraction of phenanthrenes, are sufficient to explain the high embryotoxic potency of crude oils, independent of as-yet unmeasured compounds in these complex environmental mixtures.

Tricyclic hydrocarbon fluorene attenuates ventricular ionic currents and pressure development in the navaga cod

The release of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) into the environment due to oil and diesel fuel spills is a serious threat to Arctic fish populations. PAHs produce multiple toxic effects in fish, but disturbance of electrical and contractile activity of the heart seems to be the most negative effect. Our study focused on the effects of fluorene, a tricyclic PAH resembling the well-investigated tricyclic phenanthrene, on major ionic currents and action potential (AP) waveform in isolated ventricular myocytes and on contractile activity in isolated whole hearts of polar navaga cod (Eleginus nawaga). Among the studied currents, the repolarizing rapid delayed rectifier K+ current IKr demonstrated the highest sensitivity to fluorene with IC50 of 0.54 μM. The depolarizing inward currents, INa and ICaL, were inhibited with 10 μM fluorene by 20.2 ± 2.8 % and 27.9 ± 8.4 %, respectively, thereby being much less sensitive to fluorene than IKr. Inward rectifier IK1 current was insensitive to fluorene (up to 10 μM). While 3 μM fluorene prolonged APs, 10 μM also slowed the AP upstroke. Resting membrane potential was not affected by any tested concentrations. In isolated heart experiments 10 μM fluorene caused modest depression of ventricular contractile activity. Thus, we have demonstrated that fluorene, a tricyclic PAH present in high quantities in crude oil, strongly impacts electrical activity with only slight effects on contractile activity in the heart of the polar fish, the navaga cod.

Recommendations for advancing media preparation methods used to assess aquatic hazards of oils and spill response agents

Laboratory preparation of aqueous test media is a critical step in developing toxicity information needed for oil spill response decision-making. Multiple methods have been used to prepare physically and chemically dispersed oils which influence test outcome, interpretation, and utility for hazard assessment and modeling. This paper aims to review media preparation strategies, highlight advantages and limitations, provide recommendations for improvement, and promote the standardization of methods to better inform assessment and modeling. A benefit of media preparation methods for oil that rely on low to moderate mixing energy coupled with a variable dilution design is that the dissolved oil composition of the water accommodation fraction (WAF) stock is consistent across diluted treatments.  Further, analyses that support exposure confirmation maybe reduced and reflect dissolved oil exposures that are bioavailable and amenable to toxicity modeling.  Variable loading tests provide a range of dissolved oil compositions that require analytical verification at each oil loading. Regardless of test design, a preliminary study is recommended to optimize WAF mixing and settling times to achieve equilibrium between oil and test media. Variable dilution tests involving chemical dispersants (CEWAF) or high energy mixing (HEWAF) can increase dissolved oil exposures in treatment dilutions due to droplet dissolution when compared to WAFs. In contrast, HEWAF/CEWAFs generated using variable oil loadings are expected to provide dissolved oil exposures more comparable to WAFs. Preparation methods that provide droplet oil exposures should be environmentally relevant and informed by oil droplet concentrations, compositions, sizes, and exposure durations characteristic of field spill scenarios. Oil droplet generators and passive dosing techniques offer advantages for delivering controlled constant or dynamic dissolved exposures and larger volumes of test media for toxicity testing. Adoption of proposed guidance for improving media preparation methods will provide greater comparability and utility of toxicity testing in oil spill response and assessment.

Recommendations for the advancement of oil-in-water media and source oil characterization in aquatic toxicity test studies

During toxicity testing, chemical analyses of oil and exposure media samples are needed to allow comparison of results between different tests as well as to assist with identification of the drivers and mechanisms for the toxic effects observed. However, to maximize the ability to compare results between different laboratories and biota, it has long been recognized that guidelines for standard protocols were needed. In 2005, the Chemical Response to Oil Spills: Ecological Effects Research Forum (CROSERF) protocol was developed with existing common analytical methods that described a standard method for reproducible preparation of exposure media as well as recommended specific analytical methods and analyte lists for comparative toxicity testing. At the time, the primary purpose for the data collected was to inform oil spill response and contingency planning. Since then, with improvements in both analytical equipment and methods, the use of toxicity data has expanded to include their integration into fate and effect models that aim to extend the applicability of lab-based study results to make predictions for field system-level impacts. This paper focuses on providing a summary of current chemical analyses for characterization of oil and exposure media used during aquatic toxicity testing and makes recommendations for the minimum analyses needed to allow for interpretation and modeling purposes.

Setting the stage to advance oil toxicity testing: Overview of knowledge gaps, and recommendations

The Chemical Response to Oil Spills: Ecological Effects Research Forum created a standardized protocol for comparing the in vivo toxicity of physically dispersed oil to chemically dispersed oil to support science-based decision making on the use of dispersants in the early 2000s. Since then, the protocol has been frequently modified to incorporate advances in technology; enable the study of unconventional and heavier oils; and provide data for use in a more diverse manner to cover the growing needs of the oil spill science community. Unfortunately, for many of these lab-based oil toxicity studies consideration was not given to the influence of modifications to the protocol on media chemistry, resulting toxicity and limitations for the use of resulting data in other contexts (e.g., risk assessments, models). To address these issues, a working group of international oil spill experts from academia, industry, government, and private organizations was convened under the Multi-Partner Research Initiative of Canada's Oceans Protection Plan to review publications using the CROSERF protocol since its inception to support their goal of coming to consensus on the key elements required within a "modernized CROSERF protocol".

Crude oil exposure of early life stages of Atlantic haddock suggests threshold levels for developmental toxicity as low as 0.1 μg total polyaromatic hydrocarbon (TPAH)/L

Atlantic haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) embryos bind dispersed crude oil droplets to the eggshell and are consequently highly susceptible to toxicity from spilled oil. We established thresholds for developmental toxicity and identified any potential long-term or latent adverse effects that could impair the growth and survival of individuals. Embryos were exposed to oil for eight days (10, 80 and 300 μg oil/L, equivalent to 0.1, 0.8 and 3.0 μg TPAH/L). Acute and delayed mortality were observed at embryonic, larval, and juvenile stages with IC₅₀ = 2.2, 0.39, and 0.27 μg TPAH/L, respectively. Exposure to 0.1 μg TPAH/L had no negative effect on growth or survival. However, yolk sac larvae showed significant reduction in the outgrowth (ballooning) of the cardiac ventricle in the absence of other extracardiac morphological defects. Due to this propensity for latent sublethal developmental toxicity, we recommend an effect threshold of 0.1 μg TPAH/L for risk assessment models.

Post-Formation of Oil Particle Aggregates: Breakup and Biodegradation

Spilled oil slicks are likely to break into droplets in the subtidal and intertidal zones of seashores due to wave energy. The nonliving suspended fine particles in coastal ecosystems can interact with the dispersed oil droplets, resulting in the formation of Oil Particle Aggregates (OPAs). Many investigations assumed that these aggregates will settle due to the particles' high density. Recent studies, however, reported that some particles penetrate the oil droplets, which results in further breakup while forming smaller OPAs that remain suspended in the water column. Here, we investigated the interaction of crude oil droplets with intertidal and subtidal sediments, as well as artificial pure kaolinite, in natural seawater. Results showed that the interaction between oil droplets and intertidal sediments was not particularly stable, with an Oil Trapping Efficiency (OTE) < 25%. When using subtidal sediments, OTE reached 56%. With artificial kaolinite, OPA formation and breakup were more significant (OTE reaching up to 67%) and occurred faster (within 12 h). Oil chemistry analysis showed that the biodegradation of oil in seawater (half-life of 485 h) was significantly enhanced with the addition of sediments, with half-lives of 305, 265, and 150 h when adding intertidal sediments, subtidal sediments, and pure kaolinite, respectively. Such results reveal how the sediments' shape and size affect the various oil-sediment interaction mechanisms, and the subsequent impact on the microbial degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons. Future studies should consider investigating the application of fine (several microns) and sharp (elongated-sheeted) sediments as a nondestructive and nontoxic technique for dispersing marine oil spills.

Recommendations for improving the reporting and communication of aquatic toxicity studies for oil spill planning, response, and environmental assessment

Standardized oil toxicity testing is important to ensure comparability of study results, and to generate information to support oil spill planning, response, and environmental assessments. Outcomes from toxicity tests are useful in the development, improvement and validation of effects models, and new or revised knowledge could be integrated into existing databases and related tools. To foster transparency, facilitate repeatability and maximize use and impact, outcomes from toxicity tests need to be clearly reported and communicated. This work is part of a series of reviews to support the modernization of the "Chemical Response to Oil Spills: Ecological Effects Research Forum" protocols focusing on technological advances and best toxicity testing practices. Thus, the primary motivation of the present work is to provide guidance and encourage detailed documentation of aquatic toxicity studies. Specific recommendations are provided regarding key reporting elements (i.e., experimental design, test substance and properties, test species and response endpoints, media preparation, exposure conditions, chemical characterization, reporting metric corresponding to the response endpoint, data quality standards, and statistical methods, and raw data), which along with a proposed checklist can be used to assess the completeness of reporting elements or to guide study conduct. When preparing journal publications, authors are encouraged to take advantage of the Supplementary Material section to enhance dissemination and access to key data and information that can be used by multiple end-users, including decision-makers, scientific support staff and modelers. Improving reporting, science communication, and access to critical information enable users to assess the reliability and relevance of study outcomes and increase incorporation of results gleaned from toxicity testing into tools and applications that support oil spill response decisions. Furthermore, improved reporting could be beneficial for audiences outside the oil spill response community, including peer reviewers, journal editors, aquatic toxicologists, researchers in other disciplines, and the public.

The Zebrafish (Danio rerio) Embryo Model as a Tool to Assess Drinking Water Treatment Efficacy for Freshwater Impacted by Crude Oil Spill

Traditional approaches toward evaluating oil spill mitigation effectiveness in drinking water supplies using analytical chemistry can overlook residual hydrocarbons and treatment byproducts of unknown toxicity. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) were used to address this limitation by evaluating the reduction in toxicity to fish exposed to laboratory solutions of dissolved crude oil constituents treated with 3 mg/L ozone (O₃ ) with or without a peroxone-based advanced oxidation process using 0.5 M H₂ O₂ /M O₃ or 1 M H₂ O₂ /M O₃ . Crude oil water mixtures (OWMs) were generated using three mixing protocols-orbital (OWM-Orb), rapid (OWM-Rap), and impeller (OWM-Imp) and contained dissolved total aromatic concentrations of 106-1019 µg/L. In a first experiment, embryos were exposed at 24 h post fertilization (hpf) to OWM-Orb or OWM-Rap diluted to 25%-50% of full-strength samples and in a second experiment, to untreated or treated OWM-Imp mixtures at 50% dilutions. Toxicity profiles included body length, pericardial area, and swim bladder inflation, and these varied depending on the OWM preparation, with OWM-Rap resulting in the most toxicity, followed by OWM-Imp and then OWM-Orb. Zebrafish exposed to a 50% dilution of OWM-Imp resulted in 6% shorter body length, 83% increased pericardial area, and no swim bladder inflation, but exposure to a 50% dilution of OWM-Imp treated with O₃ alone or with 0.5 M H₂ O₂ /M O₃ resulted in normal zebrafish development and average total aromatic destruction of 54%-57%. Additional aromatic removal occurred with O₃  + 1 M H₂ O₂ /M O₃ but without further attenuation of toxicity to zebrafish. This study demonstrates using zebrafish as an additional evaluation component for modeling the effectiveness of freshwater oil spill treatment methods. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:2822-2834. © 2022 SETAC.

An annual profile of the impacts of simulated oil spills on the Northeast Arctic cod and haddock fisheries

We simulate the combined natural and pollutant-induced survival of early life stages of NEA cod and haddock, and the impact on the adult populations in response to the time of a major oil spill in a single year. Our simulations reveal how dynamic ocean processes, controlling both oil transport and fate and the frequency of interactions of oil with drifting fish eggs and larvae, mediate the magnitude of population losses due to an oil spill. The largest impacts on fish early life stages occurred for spills initiated in Feb-Mar, concomitant with the initial rise in marine productivity and the earliest phase of the spawning season. The reproductive health of the adult fish populations was maintained in all scenarios. The study demonstrates the application of a simulation system that provides managers with information for the planning of development activities and for the protection of fisheries resources from potential impacts.

The Influence of Oil-in-Water Preparations on the Toxicity of Crude Oil to Marine Invertebrates and Fish Following Short-Term Pulse and Continuous Exposures

Following an oil spill, accurate assessments of the ecological risks of exposure to compounds within petroleum are required, as is knowledge regarding how those risks may change with the use of chemical dispersants. Laboratory toxicity tests are frequently used to assess these risks, but differences in the methods for preparation of oil-in-water solutions may confound interpretation, as may differences in exposure time to those solutions. In the present study, we used recently developed modifications of standardized ecotoxicity tests with copepods (Acartia sinjiensis), sea urchins (Heliocidaris tuberculata), and fish embryos (Seriola lalandi) to assess their response to crude oil solutions and assessed whether the oil-in-water preparation method changed the results. We created a water-accommodated fraction, a chemically enhanced water-accommodated fraction, and a high-energy water-accommodated fraction (HEWAF) using standard approaches using two different dispersants, Corexit 9500 and Slickgone NS. We found that toxicity was best related to total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (TPAH) concentrations in solution, regardless of the preparation method used, and that the HEWAF was the most toxic because it dispersed the highest quantity of oil into solution. The TPAH composition in water did not vary appreciably with different preparation methods. For copepods and sea urchins, we also found that at least some of the toxic response could be attributed to the chemical oil dispersant. We did not observe the characteristic cardiac deformities that have been previously reported in fish embryos, most likely due to the use of unweathered oil, and, as a consequence, the high proportion of naphthalenes relative to cardiotoxic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon in the overall composition. The present study highlights the need to characterize both the TPAH composition and concentration in test solutions when assessing oil toxicity. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:2580-2594. © 2022 SETAC.

Recent advances of biosurfactant for waste and pollution bioremediation: Substitutions of petroleum-based surfactants

Biosurfactant is one of the emerging compounds in the industrial sector that behaves similarly with their synthetic counterparts, as they can reduce surface and interfacial tension between two fluids. Their unique properties also enable biosurfactant molecules to be able to clump together to form micelles that can capture targeted molecules within a solution. Biosurfactants are compared with synthetic surfactants on various applications for which the results shows that biosurfactants are fully capable of replacing synthetic surfactants in applications including enhanced oil recovery and wastewater treatment applications. Biosurfactants are able to be used in different applications as well since they are less toxic than synthetic surfactants. These applications include bioremediation on oil spills in the marine environment and bioremediation for contaminated soil and water, as well as a different approach on the pharmaceutical applications. The future of biosurfactants in the pharmaceutical industry and petroleum industry as well as challenges faced for implementing biosurfactants into large-scale applications are also discussed at the end of this review.

Biliary Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Metabolite Equivalents Measured in Fish and Subtidal Invertebrates Following the Refugio Beach Oil Spill

Monterey formation crude oil spilled from an onshore pipeline and entered the surf zone near Refugio State Beach, Santa Barbara County, CA, USA on 19 May 2015. Exposure to nearshore fish was evaluated by measuring biliary polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) metabolite concentrations in surfperch (Embiotocidae), collected near the release point, at a lesser oiled area, Gaviota State Beach, and near the Coal Oil Point oil seep, Campus Point, at both four days and approximately one year after the oil spill. Three to four weeks after the spill, fish, invertebrates, and kelp were collected near the same three sites for PAH analysis of edible tissues to support the fishery closure assessment. Additionally, thirteen days after the spill, vegetation, and invertebrate tissue samples from the seafloor near Refugio State Beach were analyzed for PAHs. In surfperch bile, mean naphthalene, phenanthrene and benzo(a)pyrene metabolite equivalents were significantly higher at Refugio State Beach, compared to Gaviota State Beach or Campus Point in 2015. One year later, there was no significant difference between the three sites. Spatial and depth zone patterns of PAH tissue concentrations from composited invertebrate, vegetation and fish showed highest concentrations were measured in invertebrates collected near Refugio State Beach. Overall, results show elevated PAH levels in nearshore organisms and provide a useful reference for potential PAH exposures in fish and subtidal invertebrates following a large nearshore oil spill.

Transcriptomic responses and apoptosis in larval red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) co-exposed to crude oil and ultraviolet (UV) radiation

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation can significantly increase the toxicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in crude oil to early life stage (ELS) fishes through photo-induced /photo-enhanced toxicity. However, little is known about the sub-lethal effects and mechanisms of photo-induced PAH toxicity in ELS fishes. The present study investigated apoptosis and global transcriptomic effects in larval red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) (24-72 h post-fertilization) following co-exposure to oil (0.29-0.30 μg/L ∑PAH₅₀) and UV. Apoptosis was quantified using the TUNEL assay, and transcriptomic effects were assessed using RNA sequencing analysis. Apoptotic fluorescence was greatest in the eyes and skin following 24 and 48 h co-exposure to oil and UV, indicating photo-induced toxicity. Consistent with these phenotypic responses, pathways associated with phototransduction, eye development, and dermatological disease were among the top predicted pathways impacted. The present study is the first to provide global transcriptomic analysis of UV and oil co-exposure in an ELS fish.

Ionic Liquid and Tween-80 Mixture as an Effective Dispersant for Oil Spills: Toxicity, Biodegradability, and Optimization

Chemical dispersants are used extensively for oil spill remediation. Most of these dispersants are composed of a mixture of surfactants and organic solvents, which raises concerns about aquatic toxicity and environmental impact. In this study, the toxicity and biodegradability of an oil spill dispersant composed of the surface-active ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium lauroyl sarcosinate [Bmim][Lausar] and Tween-80 were investigated. In addition, important environmental factors including salinity, temperature, and wave-mixing energy were optimized to obtain maximum dispersion effectiveness. The acute toxicity against zebrafish (Danio rerio) showed that the developed dispersant was practically non-toxic with a median lethal dose of more than 100 mg L^-1 after 96 h. The dispersant also demonstrated outstanding biodegradability of 66% after 28 days. A model was developed using a response surface methodology that efficiently (R ² = 0.992) related the salinity, temperature, and wave-mixing energy of seawater to dispersion effectiveness. The system was then optimized, and a high dispersion effectiveness of 89.70% was obtained with an experimental error of less than 2%. Our findings suggest that the surface-active ionic liquid and Tween-80 mixture could be a viable alternative to toxic chemical dispersants for oil spill remediation.

Screening of the Toxicity of Polystyrene Nano- and Microplastics Alone and in Combination with Benzo(a)pyrene in Brine Shrimp Larvae and Zebrafish Embryos

The occurrence of nanoplastics (NPs) and microplastics (MPs) in aquatic ecosystems and their capacity to sorb hydrophobic pollutants is nowadays an issue of great concern. This study aimed to assess the potential bioavailability and acute toxicity of polystyrene (PS) NPs (50 and 500 nm) and of MPs (4.5 µm), alone and with sorbed benzo(a)pyrene (B(a)P), in the embryo/larval stages of brine shrimps and zebrafish. Exposure to pristine plastics up to 50.1 mg PS/L did not cause significant impact on brine shrimp survival, while some treatments of plastics-B(a)P and all concentrations of B(a)P (0.1–10 mg/L) resulted acutely toxic. In zebrafish, only the highest concentrations of MPs-B(a)P and B(a)P caused a significant increase of malformation prevalence. Ingestion of NPs was observed by 24–48 h of exposure in the two organisms (from 0.069 to 6.87 mg PS/L). In brine shrimps, NPs were observed over the body surface and within the digestive tract, associated with feces. In zebrafish, NPs were localized in the eyes, yolk sac, and tail at 72 h, showing their capacity to translocate and spread into the embryo. MP ingestion was only demonstrated for brine shrimps. In zebrafish embryos exposed to plastics-B(a)P, B(a)P appeared in the yolk sac of the embryos. The presence of B(a)P was also noticeable in brine shrimps exposed to 500 nm NPs-B(a)P. In conclusion, NPs entered and spread into the zebrafish embryo and PS NPs, and MPs were successful vectors of B(a)P to brine shrimp and zebrafish embryos. Particle size played a significant role in explaining the toxicity of plastics–B(a)P. Our study provides support for the idea that plastics may pose a risk to aquatic organisms when combined with persistent organic pollutants such as B(a)P.

Relationship between miR-203a inhibition and oil-induced toxicity in early life stage zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Dysregulation of microRNA (miRNA, miR) by environmental stressors influences the transcription of mRNA which may impair organism development and/or lead to adverse physiological outcomes. Early studies evaluating the effects of oil on developmental toxicity in early life stages of fish showed that reductions in expression of miR-203a were associated with enhanced expression of downstream mRNAs that predicted altered eye development, cardiovascular disease, and improper fin development. To better understand the effects of miR-203a inhibition as an outcome of oil-induced toxicity in early life stage (ELS) fish, embryonic zebrafish were injected with an miR-203a inhibitor or treated with 3.5 µM phenanthrene (Phe) as a positive control for morphological alterations of cardiovascular and eye development caused by oil. Embryos treated with Phe had diminished levels of miR-203a at 7 and 72 h after injection. Embryos treated with the miR-203a inhibitor and Phe exhibited a reduced heart rate by 48 h post fertilization (hpf), with an increased incidence of developmental deformities (including pericardial edema, altered eye development, and spinal deformities) and reduced caudal fin length by 72 hpf. There were significant reductions in lens and eye diameters in 120 hpf miR-203a-inhibitor and Phe-treated fish, as well as a significantly reduced number of eye saccades, determined by an optokinetic response (OKR) behavioral assay. The expression of vegfa, which is an important activator during neovascularization, was significantly upregulated in embryos receiving miR-203a inhibitor injections by 7 and 72 hpf with increased trends in vegfa expression in 72 hpf larvae treated with Phe. There were decreasing trends in crx, neurod1, and pde6h expression by 72 hpf in miR-203a inhibitor and Phe treatments, which are involved in photoreceptor function in developing eyes and regulated by miR-203a. These results suggest that an inhibition of miR-203a in ELS fish exhibits an oil-induced toxic response that is consistent with Phe treatment and specifically impacts retinal, cardiac, and fin development in ELS fish.

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miR-203a inhibitor-injected zebrafish exhibited an oil-induced toxic response.

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Inhibition of miR-203a impaired retinal, cardiac, and fin development in zebrafish.

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miR-203a inhibition validated previously predicted transcriptomic pathways.

Assessing the exposure risk of large pelagic fish to oil spills scenarios in the deep waters of the Gulf of Mexico

Exposure risk is assessed based on modeling suitable habitat of large pelagic fish and oil spill scenarios originating at three wells located in the western GM's deep waters. Since the fate of the oil depends on the oceanographic conditions present during the accident, as well as the magnitude and duration of the spill, which are not known a priori, the scenarios used are a statistical representation of the area in which oil spilled from the well could be found, given all possible outcomes. The ecological vulnerability assessment identified a subset of bony fish with low-medium vulnerability and elasmobranchs with medium-high vulnerability. The oiling probability and exposure risk of both bony fish and elasmobranchs hotspots vary by well analyzed. Thus, these results provide essential information for a risk management plan for the assessed species and others with economic or conservation importance distributed in the GM and worldwide.

Morphological and cardiac alterations after crude oil exposure in the early-life stages of the tropical gar (Atractosteus tropicus)

Fish development can be affected by environmental pollutants such as crude oil (anthropogenic or natural sources), causing alterations especially in cardiac function and morphology. Most such studies have focused on saltwater species, whereas studies in freshwater fishes are scant. The objective of the current study was to evaluate the effects of crude oil exposure (as 0, 5, 10, 15, or 20% high-energy water accommodated fractions, HEWAF) on cardiac function and edema formation during two early periods of development (embryo and eleuteroembryo, 48 h each) individually using the tropical gar Atractosteus tropicus as a model. Embryos did not exhibit alterations in body mass, total length, condition factor, and cardiac function as a function of oil. In contrast, eleuteroembryos proved to be more sensitive and exhibited increased body mass, total length, and condition factor, decreased heart rate and phenotypic alterations such as cardiac dysmorphia (tubular hearts) and spine curvature at high concentrations of HEWAF. Moreover, edema formation was observed in both stages This study shows different functional responses of A. tropicus after crude oil exposure and provides useful information of the developmental impacts of these compounds on the early life stages of freshwater tropical fishes.

The developing zebrafish kidney is impaired by Deepwater Horizon crude oil early-life stage exposure: A molecular to whole-organism perspective

Crude oil is known to induce developmental defects in teleost fish exposed during early life stages (ELSs). While most studies in recent years have focused on cardiac endpoints, evidence from whole-animal transcriptomic analyses and studies with individual polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) indicate that the developing kidney (i.e., pronephros) is also at risk. Considering the role of the pronephros in osmoregulation, and the common observance of edema in oil-exposed ELS fish, surprisingly little is known regarding the effects of oil exposure on pronephros development and function. Using zebrafish (Danio rerio) ELSs, we assessed the transcriptional and morphological responses to two dilutions of high-energy water accommodated fractions (HEWAF) of oil from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill using a combination of qPCR and whole-mount in situ hybridization (WM-ISH) of candidate genes involved in pronephros development and function, and immunohistochemistry (WM-IHC). To assess potential functional impacts on the pronephros, three 24 h osmotic challenges (2 hypo-osmotic, 1 near iso-osmotic) were implemented at two developmental time points (48 and 96 h post fertilization; hpf) following exposure to HEWAF. Changes in transcript expression level and location specific to different regions of the pronephros were observed by qPCR and WM-ISH. Further, pronephros morphology was altered in crude oil exposed larvae, characterized by failed glomerulus and neck segment formation, and straightening of the pronephric tubules. The osmotic challenges at 96 hpf greatly exacerbated edema in both HEWAF-exposed groups regardless of osmolarity. By contrast, larvae at 48 hpf exhibited no edema prior to the osmotic challenge, but previous HEWAF exposure elicited a concentration-response increase in edema at hypo-osmotic conditions that appeared to have been largely alleviated under near iso-osmotic conditions. In summary, ELS HEWAF exposure impaired proper pronephros development in zebrafish, which coupled with cardiotoxic effects, most likely reduced or inhibited pronephros fluid clearance capacity and increased edema formation.

Oil induced cardiac effects in embryonic sheepshead minnows, Cyprinodon variegatus

Following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in April 2010, much research has been conducted on the cardiotoxic effects of oil on fish. Sensitive life history stages, such as the embryonic period, have been targeted to elucidate the effects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) on the developing cardiovascular systems of fish. However, much of this research has focused on rapidly developing pelagic species, with little emphasis on estuarine species with longer embryological periods. Moreover, previous studies have used heart rate as the primary endpoint to measure cardiac performance in embryos and larvae; an endpoint that on its own may overlook impairment in cardiac performance. This study aims to fill these knowledge gaps and provide a more holistic approach for assessing the effects of PAHs on cardiac function by exposing sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus) embryos to two oil doses (150 and 300 μg/L tPAH nominally) throughout embryonic development and measuring cardiac responses through the identification of cardiotoxic phenotypes (pericardial edema) as well as calculation of cardiac output at 4 days post fertilization. Results of this study show significant increases in pericardial edema at both oil doses relative to controls as well as significantly reduced cardiac output - driven by reductions in ventricular stroke volume. This study is one of the first to assess cardiac output in embryonic fish exposed to oil and methods described here allow for more physiologically relevant measures of cardiac performance in early life stages through established and non-invasive measures.

Exposure of zebrafish larvae to water accommodated fractions of weathered crude oil alters steroid hormone concentrations with minimal effect on cholesterol

Crude oil has multiple toxic effects in fish, particularly during their early life stages. Recent transcriptomics studies have highlighted a potential effect on cholesterol homeostasis and biosynthesis, but have not investigated effects on steroid hormones, which are biosynthetically downstream metabolites of cholesterol. We exposed zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos and larvae to 3 concentrations of a high energy water accommodated fraction (HEWAF) of crude oil and measured effects on cholesterol and steroid hormones at 48 and 96 h post fertilization (hpf). HEWAF exposure caused a small decrease in cholesterol at 96 hpf but not 48 hpf. HEWAF-exposed larvae had higher levels of androstenedione, testosterone, estradiol, cortisol, corticosterone, and progesterone at 96 hpf compared to controls, while effects at 48 hpf were more modest or not present. 2-Methoxyestradiol was lower following HEWAF exposure at both time points. Dihydrotestosterone was elevated in one HEWAF concentration at 48 hpf only. Our results suggest that hormone imbalance may be an important toxic effect of oil HEWAF exposure despite no major effect on their biosynthetic precursor cholesterol.

Exposure to Deepwater Horizon crude oil increases free cholesterol in larval red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus)

The 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill impacted over 2100 km of shoreline along the northern Gulf of Mexico, which coincided with the spawning season of many coastal species, including red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus). Red drum develop rapidly and are sensitive to crude oil exposure during the embryonic and larval periods. This study investigates the predictions from recent transcriptomic studies that cholesterol biosynthetic processes are impacted by oil exposure in fish early life stages. We found that red drum larvae exposed for 72 h to ΣPAH₅₀ 3.55-15.45 µg L^-1 exhibited significantly increased pericardial area, a cardiotoxicity metric, but the expression of several genes targeted in the cholesterol synthesis pathway was not affected. However, whole-mount staining revealed significant increases in free cholesterol throughout the larval body (ΣPAH₅₀ 4.71-16.15 µg L^-1), and total cholesterol followed an increasing trend (ΣPAH₅₀ 3.55-15.45 µg L^-1). Cholesterol plays a critical role in fish embryo development and ion channel function. Therefore, the disruption of cholesterol homeostasis, as observed here, could play a role in the oil toxicity phenotype observed across many fish species.

miR133b Microinjection during Early Development Targets Transcripts of Cardiomyocyte Ion Channels and Induces Oil-like Cardiotoxicity in Zebrafish (Danio rerio) Embryos

Previous studies have shown that altered expression of a family of small noncoding RNAs (microRNAs, or miRs) regulates the expression of downstream mRNAs and is associated with diseases and developmental disorders. miR133b is highly expressed in mammalian cardiac and skeletal muscle, and aberrant expression is associated with cardiac disorders and electrophysiological changes in cardiomyocytes. Similarly, cardiac dysfunction has been observed in early life-stage mahi-mahi (Coryphaena hippurus) exposed to crude oil, a phenotype that has been associated with an upregulation of miR133b as well as subsequent downregulation of a delayed rectifier potassium channel (I_Kr) and calcium signaling genes that are important for proper heart development during embryogenesis. To examine the potential role of miR133b in oil-induced early life-stage cardiotoxicity in fish, cleavage-stage zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos were either (1) microinjected with ∼3 nL of negative control miR (75 μM) or miR133b (75 μM) or (2) exposed to a treatment solution containing 5 μM benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), a model polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, as a positive control. At 72 h post fertilization (hpf), miR133b-injected fish exhibited BaP-like cardiovascular malformations, including a significantly increased pericardial area relative to negative control miR-injected embryos, as well as a significantly reduced eye area. qPCR revealed that miR133b microinjection decreased the abundance of cardiac-specific I_Kr kcnh6 at 5 hpf, which may contribute to action potential elongation in oil-exposed cardiomyocytes. Additionally, ryanodine receptor 2, a crucial calcium receptor in the sarcoplasmic reticulum, was also downregulated by miR133b. These results indicate that an oil-induced increase in miR133b may contribute to cardiac abnormalities in oil-exposed fish by targeting cardiac-specific genes essential for proper heart development.

Transporter-interfering chemicals inhibit P-glycoprotein of yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares)

Marine pollutants bioaccumulate at high trophic levels of marine food webs and are transferred to humans through consumption of apex species. Yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) are marine predators, and one of largest commercial fisheries in the world. Previous studies have shown that yellowfin tuna can accumulate high levels of persistent organic pollutants, including Transporter Interfering Chemicals (TICs), which are chemicals shown to bind to mammalian xenobiotic transporters and interfere with their function. Here, we examined the extent to which these same compounds might interfere with the activity of the yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) ortholog of this transporter. To accomplish this goal we identified, expressed, and functionally assayed tuna ABCB1. The results demonstrated a common mode of vertebrate ABCB1 interaction with TICs that predicts effects across these species, based on high conservation of specific interacting residues. Importantly several TICs showed potent inhibition of Ta-ABCB1, such as the organochlorine pesticides Endrin (EC₅₀ = 1.2 ± 0.2 μM) and Mirex (EC₅₀ = 2.3 ± 0.9 μM). However, unlike the effects observed on mouse ABCB1, low concentrations of the organochlorine pesticide TICs p,p'-DDT and its metabolite p,p'-DDD co-stimulated verapamil-induced Ta-ABCB1 ATPase activity possibly suggesting a low transport activity for these ligands in tuna. These results provide a mechanistic basis for understanding the potential vulnerability of tuna to these ubquitous pollutants.

Embryotoxicity and Physiological Compensation in Chicken Embryos Exposed to Crude Oil

Terrestrial, marine, or aquatic oil spills can directly or indirectly contaminate bird eggs. We hypothesized that chicken embryos exposed to crude oil can physiologically compensate to mitigate the potentially toxic effect of lower doses of oil. Embryos exposed to 0, 1, 3, or 5 µL of oil on embryonic days 4 and 10 were initially analyzed for mortality. All oil doses decreased day 4 embryo survival, but only the 2 highest oil doses lowered survival when applied on day 10. Thus, day 15 embryos treated with 1, 3, and 5 µL of source oil on day 10 had arterialized blood analyzed. The hematological variables hematocrit, red blood cell concentration ([RBC]), and hemoglobin concentration increased in response to 1 µL, were unchanged by 3 µL, and decreased by 5 µL of oil treatment. No changes occurred in arterialized blood gas variables (partial pressure of O₂ [PO₂ ], pH, bicarbonate concentration) for 1 and 3 µL embryos, but 5 µL of oil decreased PO₂ and caused metabolic acidosis. Increased blood lactate in embryos treated with 3 and 5 µL of oil was correlated with decreased hematocrit and [RBC] and increased body mass, the latter likely reflecting edema. We conclude that embryos in middle development physiologically compensated for negative effects of lower doses of crude oil but that higher doses of oil were harmful to the embryos at all developmental stages. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:2347-2358. © 2021 SETAC.

Effects of short-duration oil exposure on bay anchovy (Anchoa mitchilli) embryos and larvae: mortality, malformation, and foraging

The Deepwater Horizon oil spill highlighted the need to understand the effects of oil exposure on marine eggs and larvae. To determine how short-duration exposure impacts the survivability of early life stages of the bay anchovy, Anchoa mitchilli, embryos and larvae ≤ 3-days-post-hatch (dph) were exposed to high-energy water accommodated fractions of weathered crude oil for 2 or 6 h. Lethal and sublethal effects of short-duration oil exposure were observed, including crippling malformations and altered optimal swimming and foraging behavior of larvae without malformation. The probability of mortality for larvae exposed as embryos (37.37 and 77.31 µg L^-1 total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or 'TPAH'), assessed 48 h after exposure, increased from 0.06 to 0.15 (2 h) and 0.10-0.23 (6 h) relative to unoiled controls. When exposed as 1-dph larvae (8.80-37.37 µg L^-1 TPAH) and assessed 24 h after exposure, the probabilities increased from 0.20 to 0.76 (2 h) and 0.28-0.99 (6 h). Among surviving larvae, probabilities of yolk-sac, finfold, notochord, and cranio-facial malformations increased with exposure concentration, duration, and time after exposure by up to 0.07 immediately following exposure of 1-dph larvae and 0.55 24 h after exposure. When assessed 48 h after exposure as embryos, the probability of larval malformation reached 0.43. First-feeding (3-dph) foraging behavior was altered immediately and 24 h after 2 h exposures (8.80-77.31 µg L^-1 TPAH). Time spent in motion and swim speed increased with exposure concentration by up to 331% and 189%, respectively. The number of bursts min^-1 increased by 293% immediately and 152% 24 h after exposure. Burst distance decreased by 201%. Pause duration and burst speed decreased by 391% and 250% immediately and 124% and 109% 24 h after exposure. No effects were found for burst duration or tortuosity. Our results suggest potential cascading effects on fitness and trophic interactions.

Environmental modulators of diluted bitumen effects in juvenile pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha)

Recent and potential expansions in the transportation of diluted bitumen (dilbit) through marine terminals in coastal regions of British Columbia require the examination of potential risks to estuarine species such as Pacific salmon. The estuarine habitat of out-migrated pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) exhibits dynamic temperature and salinity regimes, possibly modifying dilbit exposure, bioavailability and/or its effects. To examine dilbit toxicity and its modification by environmental stressors, juvenile pinks were subchronically exposed for 3 months to the water-accommodated fraction (WAF) of Cold Lake Blend dilbit (winter) in seawater at three salinities (7, 14, and 28‰ [temperature 12.5 °C]) and three temperatures (8.5, 12.5, and 16.5 °C [salinity of 28‰]). Temperature and salinity alone did not affect any measured endpoints in control fish. Dilbit exposure induced higher mortality at high (16.5 °C) and low temperatures (8.5 °C) as well as at higher salinity (28‰) in fish exposed to the highest dilution of WAF [total polycyclic aromatic compounds (TPAC) = 128.9 μg/L]. A concentration-dependent reduction of growth was evident in fish exposed to the medium (TPAC = 97.3 μg/L) and high dilution of WAF at higher temperatures (12.5 and 16.5 °C) and high salinity (28‰). At 28‰, swimming performance (U_burst) was decreased in fish exposed to the highest concentration of dilbit at all 3 temperatures. Gill Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase activity, white muscle lactate, glycogen, and triglyceride concentrations were altered by dilbit exposure and modified by temperature and salinity. In addition, gene expression associated with phase I biotransformation, energy metabolism, mitochondrial activity, and inflammation showed significant upregulation with exposure and temperature stress. Dilbit exposure at PAC concentrations in the ppb range, affected pink salmon at the molecular, biochemical, and whole organism level; effects that were exacerbated by environmental temperature and salinity.

Effects of Phenanthrene Exposure on Cholesterol Homeostasis and Cardiotoxicity in Zebrafish Embryos

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are pervasive pollutants in aquatic ecosystems, and developing fish embryos are especially sensitive to PAH exposure. Exposure to crude oil or phenanthrene (a reference PAH found in oil) produces an array of gross morphological abnormalities in developing fish embryos, including cardiotoxicity. Recently, studies utilizing transcriptomic analyses in several oil-exposed fish embryos found significant changes in the abundance of transcripts involved in cholesterol biosynthesis. Given the vital role of cholesterol availability in embryonic heart development, we hypothesized that cholesterol dysregulation in early development contributes to phenanthrene-induced cardiotoxicity. We exposed zebrafish embryos to 12 or 15 µM phenanthrene from 6 to 72 h post fertilization (hpf) and demonstrated that, in conjunction with pericardial edema and bradycardia, several genes (fdft1 and hmgcra) in the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway were significantly altered. When embryos were pretreated with a cholesterol solution from 6 to 24 hpf followed by exposure to phenanthrene from 24 to 48 hpf, the effects of phenanthrene on heart rate were partially mitigated. Despite changes in gene expression, whole-mount in situ staining of cholesterol was not significantly affected in embryos exposed to phenanthrene ranging in stage from 24 to 72 hpf. However, the 2-dimensional yolk area was significantly increased with phenanthrene exposure at 72 hpf, suggesting that lipid transport from the yolk to the developing embryo was impaired. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:1586-1595. © 2021 SETAC.

Low-level embryonic crude oil exposure disrupts ventricular ballooning and subsequent trabeculation in Pacific herring

There is a growing awareness that transient, sublethal embryonic exposure to crude oils cause subtle but important forms of delayed toxicity in fish. While the precise mechanisms for this loss of individual fitness are not well understood, they involve the disruption of early cardiogenesis and a subsequent pathological remodeling of the heart much later in juveniles. This developmental cardiotoxicity is attributable, in turn, to the inhibitory actions of crude oil-derived mixtures of polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) on specific ion channels and other proteins that collectively drive the rhythmic contractions of heart muscle cells via excitation-contraction coupling. Here we exposed Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi) embryos to oiled gravel effluent yielding ΣPAC concentrations as low as ~ 1 μg/L (64 ng/g in tissues). Upon hatching in clean seawater, and following the depuration of tissue PACs (as evidenced by basal levels of cyp1a gene expression), the ventricles of larval herring hearts showed a concentration-dependent reduction in posterior growth (ballooning). This was followed weeks later in feeding larvae by abnormal trabeculation, or formation of the finger-like projections of interior spongy myocardium, and months later with hypertrophy (overgrowth) of the spongy myocardium in early juveniles. Given that heart muscle cell differentiation and migration are driven by Ca²⁺-dependent intracellular signaling, the observed disruption of ventricular morphogenesis was likely a secondary (downstream) consequence of reduced calcium cycling and contractility in embryonic cardiomyocytes. We propose defective trabeculation as a promising phenotypic anchor for novel morphometric indicators of latent cardiac injury in oil-exposed herring, including an abnormal persistence of cardiac jelly in the ventricle wall and cardiomyocyte hyperproliferation. At a corresponding molecular level, quantitative expression assays in the present study also support biomarker roles for genes known to be involved in muscle contractility (atp2a2, myl7, myh7), cardiomyocyte precursor fate (nkx2.5) and ventricular trabeculation (nrg2, and hbegfa). Overall, our findings reinforce both proximal and indirect roles for dysregulated intracellular calcium cycling in the canonical fish early life stage crude oil toxicity syndrome. More work on Ca²⁺-mediated cellular dynamics and transcription in developing cardiomyocytes is needed. Nevertheless, the highly specific actions of ΣPAC mixtures on the heart at low, parts-per-billion tissue concentrations directly contravene classical assumptions of baseline (i.e., non-specific) crude oil toxicity.

Comparing the effects of unconventional and conventional crude oil exposures on zebrafish and their progeny using behavioral and genetic markers

Diluted bitumen, also known as dilbit, is transported by rail and pipeline across Canada and the United States. Due to the fewer number of studies characterizing the toxicity of dilbit, a dilbit spill poses an unknown risk to freshwater aquatic ecosystems. In the following study, we compared the impact of early-life exposure to conventional and unconventional crude oils on the optomotor behavior, reproductive success, and transgenerational differences in gene expression in zebrafish and their progeny. For exposures, water accommodated fractions (WAFs) of crude oil were generated using a 1:1000 oil to water ratio for 3 different crudes; mixed sweet blend (MSB), medium sour composite (MSC) and dilbit. All three oils generated unique volatile organic compound (VOC) and polycyclic aromatic compound (PAC) profiles. Of the WAFs tested, only dilbit decreased the eye size of 2 dpf larvae, and only MSB exposed larvae had an altered behavioral response to a visual simulation of a predator. Early-life exposure to crude oil had no lasting impact on reproductive success of adult fish; however, each oil had unique impacts on the basal gene expression of the somatically exposed offspring. In this study, the biological effects differed between each of the oils tested, which implied chemical composition plays a critical role in determining the sublethal toxicity of conventional and unconventional crude oils in freshwater ecosystems.

Stage-dependent and regioselective toxicity of 2- and 6-hydroxychrysene during Japanese medaka embryogenesis

Exposure to oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (oxy-PAHs) at critical developmental time-points in fish models impairs red blood cell concentrations in a regioselective manner, with 2-hydroxychrysene being more potent than 6-hydroxychrysene. To better characterize this phenomenon, embryos of Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) were exposed to 2- or 6-hydroxychrysene (0.5, 2, or 5 μM) from 4 h-post-fertilization (hpf) to 7 d-post-fertilization. Following exposure, hemoglobin concentrations were quantified by staining fixed embryos with o-dianisidine (a hemoglobin-specific dye) and stained embryos were imaged using brightfield microscopy. Exposure to 2-hydroxychrysene resulted in a concentration-dependent decrease in hemoglobin relative to vehicle-exposed embryos, while only the highest concentration of 6-hydroxychrysene resulted in a significant decrease in hemoglobin. All tested concentrations of 2-hydroxychrysene also caused significant mortality (12.2 % ± 2.94, 38.9 % ± 14.4, 85.6 % ± 11.3), whereas mortality was not observed following exposure to 6-hydroxychrysene. Therefore, treatment of embryos with 2-hydroxychrysene at various developmental stages and durations was subsequently conducted to identify key developmental landmarks that may be targeted by 2-hydroxychrysene. A sensitive window of developmental toxicity to 2-hydroxychrysene was found between 52-100 hpf, with a 24 h exposure to 10 μM 2-hydroxychrysene resulting in significant anemia and mortality. Since exposure to 2-hydroxychrysene from 52 to 100 hpf, a window that includes liver morphogenesis in medaka, resulted in the highest magnitude of toxicity, liver development and function may have a role in 2-hydroxychrysene developmental toxicity.

Combined effects of crude oil exposure and warming on eggs and larvae of an arctic forage fish

Climate change, along with environmental pollution, can act synergistically on an organism to amplify adverse effects of exposure. The Arctic is undergoing profound climatic change and an increase in human activity, resulting in a heightened risk of accidental oil spills. Embryos and larvae of polar cod (Boreogadus saida), a key Arctic forage fish species, were exposed to low levels of crude oil concurrently with a 2.3 °C increase in water temperature. Here we show synergistic adverse effects of increased temperature and crude oil exposure on early life stages documented by an increased prevalence of malformations and mortality in exposed larvae. The combined effects of these stressors were most prevalent in the first feeding larval stages despite embryonic exposure, highlighting potential long-term consequences of exposure for survival, growth, and reproduction. Our findings suggest that a warmer Arctic with greater human activity will adversely impact early life stages of this circumpolar forage fish.

Comparative toxicity assessment of in situ burn residues to initial and dispersed heavy fuel oil using zebrafish embryos as test organisms

In situ burning (ISB) is discussed to be one of the most suitable response strategies to combat oil spills in extreme conditions. After burning, a highly viscous and sticky residue is left and may over time pose a risk of exposing aquatic biota to toxic oil compounds. Scientific information about the impact of burn residues on the environment is scarce. In this context, a comprehensive ISB field experiment with approx. 1000L IFO 180 was conducted in a fjord in Greenland. The present study investigated the toxicity of collected ISB residues to early life stages of zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a model for potentially exposed pelagic organisms. The toxicity of ISB residues on zebrafish embryos was compared with the toxicity of the initial (unweathered) IFO 180 and chemically dispersed IFO 180. Morphological malformations, hatching success, swimming behavior, and biomarkers for exposure (CYP1A activity, AChE inhibition) were evaluated in order to cover the toxic response on different biological organization levels. Across all endpoints, ISB residues did not induce greater toxicity in zebrafish embryos compared with the initial oil. The application of a chemical dispersant increased the acute toxicity most likely due to a higher bioavailability of dissolved and particulate oil components. The results provide insight into the adverse effects of ISB residues on sensitive life stages of fish in comparison with chemical dispersant application.

Phenotypic and transcriptomic consequences in zebrafish early-life stages following exposure to crude oil and chemical dispersant at sublethal concentrations

To further understand the underlying mechanisms involved in the developmental toxicity of crude oil and chemically dispersed crude oil on fish early-life stages (ELS), zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos were exposed to GM-2 chemical dispersant (DISP), low-energy water-accommodated fractions (LEWAF), and chemically enhanced WAF (CEWAF) of Merey crude oil at sublethal concentrations for 120 h. We employed the General Morphology Score (GMS) and General Teratogenic Score (GTS) systems in conjunction with high-throughput RNA-Seq analysis to evaluate the phenotypic and transcriptomic responses in zebrafish ELS. Results showed that ΣPAHs concentrations in LEWAF and CEWAF solutions were 507.63 ± 80.95 ng·L^-1 and 4039.51 ± 241.26 ng·L^-1, respectively. The GMS and GTS values indicated that CEWAF exposure caused more severe developmental delay and higher frequencies of teratogenic effects than LEWAF exposure. Moreover, no significant change in heart rate was observed in LEWAF treatment, while CEWAF exposure caused a significant reduction in heart rate. LEWAF and CEWAF exposure exhibited an overt change in eye area, with a reduction of 4.0% and 25.3% (relative to the control), respectively. Additionally, no obvious impact on phenotypic development was observed in zebrafish embryo-larvae following DISP exposure. Significant changes in gene expression were detected in LEWAF and CEWAF treatments, with a total of 957 and 2062 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), respectively, while DISP exposure altered only 91 DEGs. Functional enrichment analysis revealed that LEWAF and CEWAF exposure caused significant perturbations in the pathways associated with phototransduction, retinol metabolism, metabolism of xenobiotics by cytochrome P450, and immune response-related pathways. Our results provide more valid evidence to corroborate the previous suggestion that ocular impairment is an equal or possibly more sensitive biomarker than cardiotoxicity in fish ELS exposed to oil-derived PAHs. All these findings could gain further mechanistic insights into the effects of crude oil and chemical dispersant on fish ELS.

Molecular Comparison of Solid-Phase Extraction and Liquid/Liquid Extraction of Water-Soluble Petroleum Compounds Produced through Photodegradation and Biodegradation by FT-ICR Mass Spectrometry

We apply two widely used extraction techniques, liquid/liquid extraction and solid-phase extraction with styrene-divinylbenzene polymer with a proprietary nonpolar surface priority pollutant (PPL) to water-soluble compounds generated through photodegradation and biodegradation of petroleum. We compare the molecular composition of bio- and photodegraded water-soluble organic (WSO) acids by 21 T negative-ion electrospray ionization Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR MS). We highlight the compositional differences between the two extraction techniques for abiotic and biotic degradation processes and identify known toxic species (naphthenic acids) produced through hydrocarbon biodegradation identified by liquid/liquid extraction (LLE) that are not detected with solid-phase extraction (SPE) of the same sample. Photodegraded WSO compounds extracted by SPE-PPL correspond to species with higher O/C ratio and carbon number compared to LLE extracted compounds. Naphthenic acids, a recalcitrant class of nonaromatic carboxylic acids and known acute toxicants formed through biodegradation of oil, are detected in LLE extracts (up to C₃₀ and double-bond equivalents, DBE < 3) but are not detected in SPE-PPL extracts. This suggests that LLE and SPE-PPL retain different water-soluble oil species based on the dominant type of oil weathering process.

Carbon nanofiber based superhydrophobic foam composite for high performance oil/water separation

Oil spill has now been a serious environmental issue, threatening the aquatic ecosystems and even human living environment. It is still challenging to develop absorbents for efficient oil/water emulsion separation and clean-up of viscous crude oil. Here, we propose a facile method to fabricate flexible and superhydrophobic foam composites for high efficiency oil/water separation under different complex environment. Carbon nanofibers (CNFs) with a hollow structure are decorated uniformly onto the skeleton of the polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) foam with a strong interfacial adhesion. CNFs could not only enhance the surface roughness and thus the hydrophobicity but also be served as numerous capillary tubes, improving the oil adsorption and oil/water separation performance. More importantly, the CNFs network with a strong light absorption endows the foam with superior photo-thermal conversion capability. The obtained foam composite possesses excellent corrosion resistance and can adsorb various kinds of oil with different densities. The foam composite is able to separate the oil from the emulsion with a relatively high separation efficiency. The material surface temperature is able to quickly increase under the light irradiation, which can significantly reduce the oil viscosity and hence achieve the rapid clean-up of the crude oil floating on water surface.

Effects of crude oil vapors on the cardiovascular flow of embryonic Gulf killifish

Direct contact with toxicants in crude oil during embryogenesis causes cardiovascular defects, but the effects of exposure to airborne volatile organic compounds released from spilled oil are not well understood. The effects of crude oil-derived airborne toxicants on peripheral blood flow were examined in Gulf killifish (Fundulus grandis) since this model completes embryogenesis in the air. Particle image velocimetry was used to measure in vivo blood flow in intersegmental arteries of control and oil-exposed embryos. Significant effects in oil-exposed embryos included increased pulse rate, reduced mean blood flow speed and volumetric flow rate, and decreased pulsatility, demonstrating that normal-appearing oil-exposed embryos retain underlying cardiovascular defects. Further, hematocrit moderately increased in oil-exposed embryos. This study highlights the potential for fine-scale physiological measurement techniques to better understand the sub-lethal effects of oil exposure and demonstrates the efficacy of Gulf killifish as a unique teleost model for aerial toxicant exposure studies.

Investigating the Potential Toxicity of Hydraulic Fracturing Flowback and Produced Water Spills to Aquatic Animals in Freshwater Environments: A North American Perspective

Unconventional methods of oil and natural gas extraction have been a growing part of North America's energy sector for the past 20-30 years. Technologies such as horizontal hydraulic fracturing have facilitated the exploitation of geologic reserves that were previously resistant to standard drilling approaches. However, the environmental risks associated with hydraulic fracturing are relatively understudied. One such hazard is the wastewater by-product of hydraulic fracturing processes: flowback and produced water (FPW). During FPW production, transport, and storage, there are many potential pathways for environmental exposure. In the current review, toxicological hazards associated with FPW surface water contamination events and potential effects on freshwater biota are assessed. This review contains an extensive survey of chemicals commonly associated with FPW samples from shale formations across North America and median 50% lethal concentration values (LC₅₀) of corresponding chemicals for many freshwater organisms. We identify the characteristics of FPW which may have the greatest potential to be drivers of toxicity to freshwater organisms. Notably, components associated with salinity, the organic fraction, and metal species are reviewed. Additionally, we examine the current state of FPW production in North America and identify the most significant obstacles impeding proper risk assessment development when environmental contamination events of this wastewater occur. Findings within this study will serve to catalyze further work on areas currently lacking in FPW research, including expanded whole effluent testing, repeated and chronic FPW exposure studies, and toxicity identification evaluations.

Fate and Fathead Minnow Embryotoxicity of Weathering Crude Oil in a Pilot-Scale Spill Tank

For several years now, the Natural Resources Canada research facility at CanmetENERGY Devon (AB, Canada) has been performing experiments in a pilot-scale spill tank using 1200 L of river water to examine the physical and chemical behaviors of various crude oil/water mixtures under varying water temperature regimes. Because oil toxicity can be modulated by weathering of the petroleum products, the present study aimed to assess changes in fish embryotoxicity to mixed sweet blend crude oil as it weathered at air and water temperatures of 14 °C and 15 °C, respectively, for 28 d. The physicochemical behavior of the oil was also monitored. Water samples were taken from the spill tank 5 times during the 28-d experiment on days 1, 6, 14, 21, and 28 and were used to perform toxicity exposures using fathead minnow embryos (Pimephales promelas). For each water sampling day, newly fertilized embryos were exposed to a serial dilution of the spill tank water, noncontaminated river water (used in the spill tank), and a reconstituted water laboratory control. Embryos were raised until hatching. Although mortality was not significantly altered by the oil contamination over the time period, malformation occurrence and severity showed concentration-dependent responses to all contaminated water collected. The results suggest that days 14, 21, and 28 were the most toxic time periods for the fish embryos, which corresponded to increasing concentrations of unidentified oxidized organic compounds detected by a quadropole-time-of-flight system. The present study highlights a novel area for oil research, which could help us to better understand the toxicity associated with oil weathering for aquatic species. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:127-138. © 2020 Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Natural Resources Canada.

The effects of exposure to crude oil or PAHs on fish swim bladder development and function

The failure of the swim bladder to inflate during fish development is a common and sensitive response to exposure to petrochemicals. Here, we review potential mechanisms by which petrochemicals or their toxic components (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; PAHs) may affect swim bladder inflation, particularly during early life stages. Surface films formed by oil can cause a physical barrier to primary inflation by air gulping, and are likely important during oil spills. The act of swimming to the surface for primary inflation can be arduous for some species, and may prevent inflation if this behavior is limited by toxic effects on vision or musculature. Some studies have noted altered gene expression in the swim bladder in response to PAHs, and Cytochrome P450 1A (CYP1A) can be induced in swim bladder or rete mirabile tissue, suggesting that PAHs can have direct effects on swim bladder development. Swim bladder inflation failure can also occur secondarily to the failure of other systems; cardiovascular impairment is the best elucidated of these mechanisms, but other mechanisms might include non-inflation as a sequela of disruption to thyroid signaling or cholesterol metabolism. Failed swim bladder inflation has the potential to lead to chronic sublethal effects that are as yet unstudied.

The impact of salinity and dissolved oxygen regimes on transcriptomic immune responses to oil in early life stage Fundulus grandis

Understanding the effects of oil exposure on early life stage fish species is critical to fully assessing the environmental impacts of oil spills. Oil released from the 2010 Deepwater Horizon spill reached habitats where estuarine fish routinely spawn. In addition, estuaries are highly dynamic environments, therefore, fish in these areas are routinely exposed to varying salinity and dissolved oxygen (DO) levels, each of which are known to modulate transcriptional responses. Fish exposed to oil often display altered immune competence, and several studies have shown that Deepwater Horizon oil in particular causes modulation of various immune functions. However, few studies have directly examined how environmental parameters may affect oil-induced immunomodulation, particularly in early life stage fishes when the immune system is still developing. To this end, we examined transcriptional patterns of immune genes and pathways in Fundulus grandis larvae to various oil (0, 15 μg/L), salinity (3, 30 ppt), and DO (2.5, 6 mg/L) regimes in a fully factorial design. Our results suggest that immune pathways are generally activated in all treatment groups with the exception of the Low Salinity/No Oil/Hypoxia treatment where immune pathways are largely suppressed, and the High Salinity/No Oil/Hypoxia treatment where pathways are unchanged. The High Salinity/Oil/Hypoxia treatment had the largest number of enriched immune pathways (44 as defined by IPA and 43 as defined by ConsensusPathDB), indicating that oil under certain environmental conditions has the potential to further modulate immune-related genes, pathways, and responses in fish.

Beyond Thresholds: A Holistic Approach to Impact Assessment Is Needed to Enable Accurate Predictions of Environmental Risk from Oil Spills

The risk assessment for the environmental impact of oil spills in Australia is often conducted in part using a combination of spill mapping and toxicological thresholds derived from laboratory studies. While this process is useful in planning operational responses, such as where to position equipment stockpiles and whether to disperse oil, and can be used to identify areas near the spill site where impacts are likely to occur, it cannot accurately predict the environmental consequences of an oil spill or the ecosystem recovery times. Evidence of this disconnect between model predictions and observed impacts is the lack of a profound effect of the Deepwater Horizon wellhead blowout on recruitment to fisheries in the northern Gulf of Mexico, contrary to the predictions made in the Natural Resources Damage Assessment and despite the occurrence of impacts of the spill on marine mammals, marshes, and deep water ecosystems. The incongruity between predictions made with the current approach using threshold monitoring and impacts measured in the field results from some of the assumptions included in the oil spill models. The incorrect assumptions include that toxicity is acute, results from dissolved phase exposure, and would be readily reversible. The toxicity tests from which threshold models are derived use members of the ecosystem that are easily studied in the lab but may not represent the ecosystem as a whole. The test species are typically highly abundant plankton or planktonic life stages, and they have life histories that account for rapid changes in environmental conditions. As a consequence, these organisms recover quickly from an oil spill. The interdependence of ecosystem components, including the reliance of organisms on their microbiomes, is often overlooked. Additional research to assess these data gaps conducted using economically and ecologically relevant species, especially in Australia and other understudied areas of the world, and the use of population dynamic models, will improve the accuracy of environmental risk assessment for oil spills. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2020;16:813-830. © 2020 SETAC.

Parental transgenerational epigenetic inheritance related to dietary crude oil exposure in Danio rerio

Transgenerational inheritance from both parental lines can occur by genetic and epigenetic inheritance. Maternal effects substantially influence offspring survival and fitness. However, investigation of the paternal contribution to offspring success has been somewhat neglected. In the present study, adult zebrafish were separated into female and male groups exposed for 21 days to either a control diet or to a diet containing water accommodated fractions of crude oil. Four F1 offspring groups were obtained: (1) control (non-exposed parents), (2) paternally exposed, (3) maternally exposed and (4) dual-parent-exposed. To determine the maternal and paternal influence on their offspring, we evaluated responses from molecular to whole organismal levels in both generations. Growth rate, hypoxia resistance and heart rate did not differ among parental groups. However, global DNA methylation in heart tissue was decreased in oil-exposed fish compared with control parents. This decrease was accompanied by an upregulation of glycine N-methyltransferase. Unexpectedly, maternal, paternal and dual exposure all enhanced survival of F1 offspring raised in oiled conditions. Regardless of parental exposure, however, F1 offspring exposed to oil exhibited bradycardia. Compared with offspring from control parents, global DNA methylation was decreased in the three offspring groups derived from oil-exposed parents. However, no difference between groups was observed in gene regulation involved in methylation transfer, suggesting that the changes observed in the F1 populations may have been inherited from both parental lines. Phenotypic responses during exposure to persistent environmental stressors in F1 offspring appear to be influenced by maternal and paternal exposure, potentially benefitting offspring populations to survive in challenging environments.