Assessing the effect of human pharmaceuticals (carbamazepine, diclofenac and ibuprofen) on the marine clam Ruditapes philippinarum: An integrative and multibiomarker approach

Unravelling biochemical responses in the species Mytilus galloprovincialis exposed to the antineoplastics ifosfamide and cisplatin under different temperature scenarios

This study investigates the chronic impact of two of the most widely consumed antineoplastic drugs, Ifosfamide (IF) and Cisplatin (CDDP), on the bivalve species Mytilus galloprovincialis under current (17 °C) and predicted warming conditions (21 °C). Accompanying the expected increase in worldwide cancer incidence, antineoplastics detection in the aquatic environment is also expected to rise. Mussels were exposed to varying concentrations of IF (10, 100, 500 ng/L) and CDDP (10, 100, 1000 ng/L) for 28 days. Biochemical analyses focused on metabolic, antioxidant and biotransformation capacities, cellular damage, and neurotoxicity. Results showed temperature-dependent variations in biochemical responses. Metabolic capacity remained stable in mussels exposed to IF, while CDDP exposure increased it at 1000 ng/L for both temperatures. Antioxidant enzyme activities were unaffected by IF, but CDDP activated them, particularly at 21 °C. Biotransformation capacity was unchanged by IF but enhanced by CDDP. Nevertheless, cellular damage occurred at CDDP concentrations above 100 ng/L, regardless of temperature. Integrated biomarker responses highlighted CDDP's greater impact, emphasizing the critical role of temperature in shaping organismal responses and underscoring the complexity of environmental stressor interactions.

Integrated biomarker-based ecological risks assessment of tadpole responses to tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate, tris(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate, and their combined environmental exposure

Tris (2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) and tris (1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCPP) are common chlorinated organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) used in industry. They have been frequently detected together in aquatic environments and associated with various hazardous effects. However, the ecological risks of prolonged exposure to these OPFRs at environmentally relevant concentrations in non-model aquatic organisms remain unexplored. This study investigated the effects of long-term exposure (up to 25 days) to TCEP and TCPP on metamorphosis, hepatic antioxidants, and endocrine function in Polypedates megacephalus tadpoles. Exposure concentrations were set at 3, 30, and 90 μg/L for each substance, conducted independently and in equal-concentration combinations, with a control group included for comparison. The integrated biomarker response (IBR) method developed an optimal linear model for predicting the overall ecological risks of TCEP and TCPP to tadpoles in potential distribution areas of Polypedates species. Results showed that: (1) Exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of TCEP and TCPP elicited variable adverse effects on tadpole metamorphosis time, hepatic antioxidant enzyme activity and related gene expression, and endocrine-related gene expression, with their combined exposure exacerbating these effects. (2) The IBR value of TCEP was consistently greater than that of TCPP at each concentration, with an additive effect observed under their combined exposure. (3) The ecological risk of tadpoles exposed to the combined presence of TCEP and TCPP was highest in China's Taihu Lake and Vietnam's Hanoi than in other distribution locations. In summary, prolonged exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of TCEP and TCPP presents potential ecological risks to amphibian tadpoles, offering insights for the development of policies and strategies to control TCEP and TCPP pollution in aquatic ecosystems. Furthermore, the methodology employed in establishing the IBR prediction model provides a methodological framework for assessing the overall ecological risks of multiple OPFRs.

Transcriptional and biochemical changes in mouse liver following exposure to a metal/drug cocktail. Attenuating effect of a selenium-enriched diet

Real-life pollution usually involves simultaneous co-exposure to different chemicals. Metals and drugs are frequently and abundantly released into the environment, where they interact and bioaccumulate. Few studies analyze potential interactions between metals and pharmaceuticals in these mixtures, although their joint effects cannot be inferred from their individual properties. We have previously demonstrated that the mixture (PC) of the metals Cd and Hg, the metalloid As and the pharmaceuticals diclofenac (DCF) and flumequine (FLQ) impairs hepatic proteostasis. To gain a deeper vision of how PC affects mouse liver homeostasis, we evaluated here the effects of PC exposure upon some biochemical and morphometric parameters, and on the transcriptional profiles of selected group of genes. We found that exposure to PC caused oxidative damage that exceeded the antioxidant capacity of cells. The excessive oxidative stress response resulted in an overabundance of reducing equivalents, which hindered the metabolism and transport of metabolites, including cholesterol and bile acids, between organs. These processes have been linked to metabolic and inflammatory disorders, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, our findings suggest that unintended exposure to mixtures of environmental pollutants may underlie the etiology of many human diseases. Fortunately, we also found that a diet enriched with selenium mitigated the harmful effects of this combination of toxicants.

Toxicological study on ibuprofen and selenium in freshwater mussel Lamellidens marginalis and exploring the microbial cytochrome through modelling and quantum mechanics approaches for its toxicity degradation in contaminated environment

Toxicological stress in aquatic organisms is caused by the discharge of hundreds of toxic pollutants and contaminants among which the current study concentrates on the toxic effect of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug ibuprofen (IBF) and the trace element selenium (Se). In this study, IBF and Se toxicity on freshwater mussel Lamellidens marginalis was studied for 14 days, and in silico predictions for their degradation were made using Molecular modelling and Quantum Mechanical approaches. The degrading propensity of cytochrome c oxidase proteins from Trametes verticillatus and Thauera selenatis (Turkey tail fungi and Gram-negative bacteria) is examined into atom level. The results of molecular modelling study indicate that ionic interactions occur in the T. selenatis-HEME bound complex by Se interacting directly with HEME, and in the T. versicolor-HEME bound complex by IBF bound to a nearby region of HEME. Experimental and theoretical findings suggest that, the toxicological effects of Se and IBF pollution can be reduced by bioremediation with special emphasis on T. versicolor, and T. selenatis, which can effectively interact with Se and IBF present in the environment and degrade them. Besides, this is the first time in freshwater mussel L. marginalis that ibuprofen and selenium toxicity have been studied utilizing both experimental and computational methodologies for their bioremediation study.

Mytilus galloprovincialis: A valuable bioindicator species for understanding the effects of diclofenac under warming conditions

Drugs are chemical compounds used to treat and improve organic dysfunctions caused by diseases. These include analgesics, antibiotics, antidepressants, and antineoplastics. They can enter aquatic environments through wastewater streams, where their physico-chemical properties allow metabolites to distribute and accumulate. Current climate change and associated extreme weather events may significantly impact these substances' toxicity and aquatic organisms' sensitivity. Among the chemicals present in aquatic environments is the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac (DIC), which the EU monitors due to its concentration levels. This study investigated the influence of temperature (control at 17 °C vs. 21 °C) on the effects of DIC (0 μg/L vs. 1 μg/L) in the mussel species Mytilus galloprovincialis. Significant results were observed between 17 and 21 °C. Organisms exposed to the higher temperature showed a decrease in several parameters, including metabolic capacity and detoxification, particularly with prolonged exposure. However, in some parameters, after 21 days, the M. galloprovincialis showed no differences from the control, indicating adaptation to the stress. The results of this study confirm that DIC concentrations in the environment, particularly when combined with increased temperatures, can produce oxidative stress and adversely affect M. galloprovincialis biochemical and physiological performance. This study also validates this species as a bioindicator for assessing environmental contamination with DIC. Beyond its direct impact on aquatic organisms, the presence of pharmaceuticals like DIC in the environment highlights the interconnectedness of human, animal, and ecosystem health, underscoring the One Health approach to understanding and mitigating environmental pollution.

Biochemical basis of resistance to multiple contaminations in the native and invasive populations of Dreissena polymorpha

The zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas, 1771) is an invasive species and a valuable bioindicator in the inland waters. Nevertheless, the biochemical reasons for the unique competitiveness of zebra mussels are not clear. This study aimed to compare the native and invasive populations of D. polymorpha in their ability to withstand the same multiple environmental challenges (i.e. chemical: microplastics and caffeine; physical: temperatures). The specimens from the invasive population in west Ukraine (Tn) and native population at lower streams of river Dnipro (south Ukraine, Kh) were sampled in the August of 2021 y. Molluscs from both populations were treated simultaneously with microplastics (MP, 1 mg L-1, pore size 2 μm); caffeine (Caf, 20.0 μg L-1) at 18 °C, elevated temperature (25 °C) and MP and Caf combinations at 18 °C and 25 °C for 14 days. Untreated molluscs exposed at 18 °C represented control groups. A set of the 20 markers of oxidative stress, biotransformation, detoxification and apoptosis were assayed in the total soft tissues. From the two controls, Kh-group indicated lower stressful impact. However, both populations increased caspase-3 and GST activities and lysosomal instability in most exposures, and cholinesterase and phenoloxidase activities under the heating and combine exposures, indicating the remarkable properties to respond to new challenges and synergistic effect of mixtures. Inter-population differences were related to the metallothionein, cathepsin D, cytochrome P540 and oxidative stress responses that reflect population-dependent adverse outcome pathways. The discriminant analysis separated two populations with a substantially lesser magnitude of responses in the invasive population as a sign of higher resistance.

Intrinsic and extrinsic pathways of apoptosis induced by multiple antibiotics residues and ocean acidification in hemocytes of scallop Argopecten irradians irradians: An interactionist perspective

The increasing prevalence of antibiotics in seawater across global coastal areas, coupled with the ocean acidification induced by climate change, present a multifaceted challenge to marine ecosystems, particularly impacting the key physiological processes of marine organisms. Apoptosis is a critical adaptive response essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and defending against environmental threats. In this study, bay scallops Argopecten irradians irradians were exposed to multiple antibiotics (sulfamethoxazole, tetracycline, oxytetracycline, norfloxacin, and erythromycin, each at a concentration of 1 μg/L) combined with/without acidic seawater (pH 7.6) for 35 days. The single and interactive effects of the two stressors on apoptosis and the underlying mechanisms in hemocytes of A. irradians irradians were determined through flow cytometry analysis, comet assay, oxidative stress biomarkers analysis, and transcriptome analysis. Results showed that apoptosis could be triggered by either AM exposure or OA exposure, but through different pathways. Exposure to AM leads to mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative damage, which in turn triggers apoptosis via a series of cellular events in both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. Conversely, while OA exposure similarly induced apoptosis, its effects are comparatively subdued and are predominantly mediated through the intrinsic pathway. Additionally, the synergistic effects of AM and OA exposure induced pronounced mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative damages in the hemocytes of A. irradians irradians. Despite the evident cellular distress and the potential initiation of apoptotic pathways, the actual execution of apoptosis appears to be restrained, which might be attributed to an energy deficit within the hemocytes. Our findings underscore the constrained tolerance capacity of A. irradians irradians when faced with multiple environmental stressors, and shed light on the ecotoxicity of antibiotic pollution in the ocean under prospective climate change scenarios.

Toxicological effects of diclofenac on signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus) as related to weakly acidic and basic water pH

The widespread use and continuous discharge of pharmaceuticals to environmental waters can lead to potential toxicity to aquatic biota. Pharmaceuticals and their metabolites are often complex organic and environmentally persistent compounds that are bioactive at low doses. This study aimed to investigate the effects of diclofenac (DCF) on the antioxidant defence system and neurotoxicity biomarkers in signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus) under weakly acidic and basic conditions. Crayfish were exposed to 200 µg/L of DCF at pH 6 and 8 for 96 h and subsequently underwent the depuration phase for 96 h. Gills, hepatopancreas, and muscle were sampled after the exposure and depuration phases to assess the toxicological biomarker responses of DCF in crayfish by evaluating lipid peroxidation (LPO) levels, activities of antioxidant enzymes and acetylcholinesterase. After the exposure phase, the hemolymph DCF concentration was detected one order higher at pH 6 than at pH 8. The DCF was subsequently fully eliminated from the hemolymph during the depuration phase. Our results showed that DCF caused alteration in the activities of six of the seven tested biomarkers in at least one crayfish tissue. Although exposure to DCF caused imbalances in the detoxification system on multiple tissue levels, it was regenerated to a balanced state after the depuration phase. Integrated biomarker response (IBRv2) showed that the highest toxicological response to DCF exposure was elicited in the gills, whereas the hepatopancreas was the highest-responding tissue after the depuration phase. Exposure to DCF at pH 6 caused higher toxicological effects than at pH 8; however, crayfish antioxidant mechanisms recovered more quickly at pH 6 than at pH 8 after the depuration phase. Our results showed that water pH influenced the toxicological effects of DCF, an ionisable compound in crayfish.

Comparative subcellular responses to pharmaceutical exposures in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis: An in vitro study

Pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) have raised concerns in the last decade due to their increased consumption and inadequate elimination during discharge, resulting in their introduction into water systems and potential significant threats to non-target organisms. However, few studies have investigated the sublethal impacts of PhAC exposure on marine invertebrates. Thus, the present study aimed to assess tissue-specific responses in Mytilus galloprovincialis to sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS), salicylic acid (SA), and caffeine (CAF) (4.0 mg/L, 4.0 mg/L and 2.0 μg/L, respectively). Short-term in vitro exposures with mussel digestive gland and gill tissues were conducted and biochemical responses related to antioxidant and detoxification capacity, cellular damage and neurotoxicity were assessed. The present results clearly showed significant differences in tissue sensitivity and biochemical responses to the contaminants tested. This study highlights the suitability of filter-feeder species as valuable model organisms for studying the sublethal effects of unintended environmental exposures to PhACs.

Diclofenac eco-geno-toxicity in freshwater algae, rotifers and crustaceans

This study assessed the eco-genotoxic impact of diclofenac (DCF) in sentinel species of the freshwater ecosystem. DCF residues are found in freshwater from few ng/L to tens of μg/L due to the inability of conventional wastewater treatment plants to ensure removal efficiency of the drug. An ample body of literature reports on the acute toxicity of DCF in non-target organisms without addressing potential chronic long-term effects on organisms at actual, environmental concentrations. Herein, assessment for acute and chronic toxicity was performed on organisms in vivo exposed to DCF, specifically on the green alga Raphidocelis subcapitata, the rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus and the crustacean Ceriodaphnia dubia. Furthermore, potential DNA damage and expression of antioxidant genes (MnSOD, Cu/ZnSOD and CAT) were evaluated in crustacean neonates. The toxicological risk of DCF was assessed as well as its. GENOTOXIC RISK: The acute toxicity was observed at concentrations far from those of environmental concern. Rotifers and crustaceans were much more chronically sensitive than the algae to DCF, observing besides, the median effect concentrations at tens of μg/L. In crustaceans, DNA damage was noted at units of μg/L, revealing concentrations of environmental concern. The dysregulated activity of SOD and CAT also showed the ability of DCF to provoke oxidative stress. On assessment of environmental risk, the chronic Risk Quotient (RQ) was above the threshold value of 1. Nevertheless, the genotoxic RQ was significantly greater than the chronic RQ, thus, the need of regulatory bodies to acknowledge the genotoxic impact as an environmental risk factor. To our knowledge, this study is the first investigation to perform environmental genotoxic risk assessment of DCF.

A multibiomarker approach to assess the ecotoxicological effects of diclofenac on Asian clam Corbicula fluminea (O. F. Müller, 1774)

Diclofenac (DCF), one of the most current and widely used nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), has been frequently detected in aquatic environments worldwide. However, the ecotoxicological effects of DCF on freshwater invertebrates remain largely unknown. In the present study, Corbicula fluminea were exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of DCF (0, 2, 20, and 200 μg/L) for 28 days, and the potential adverse effects of DCF on siphoning behavior, antioxidant responses, and apoptosis were investigated. Our results showed that the siphon efficiencies of clams were significantly suppressed under DCF stress. DCF exerted neurotoxicity via reducing the activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in gills and digestive gland of C. fluminea. Exposure to DCF induced antioxidant stress and increased malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in both gills and digestive gland of C. fluminea. Transcriptional alterations of apoptosis-related genes indicated that DCF might induce apoptosis by triggering mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. These findings can improve our understanding of the ecological risk of DCF in freshwater ecosystems.

Single and combined effects of caffeine and salicylic acid on mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis: Changes at histomorphological, molecular and biochemical levels

Caffeine (CAF) and salicylic acid (SA) are frequently detected in waterbody, though information on their biological impact is poor. This work assesses the effects of CAF (5ng/L to 10µg/L) and SA (0.05µg/L to 100µg/L) alone and combined as CAF+SA (5ng/L+0.05µg/L to 10µg/L+100µg/L) on mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis under 12-days exposure by histomorphology of digestive gland and oxidative stress defense at molecular and biochemical levels. Besides evaluating tissue accumulation, absence of histomorphological damage and haemocyte infiltration highlighted activation of defensive mechanisms. Up-regulation of Cu/Zn-sod, Mn-sod, cat and gst combined with increased catalase and glutathione S-transferase activity were found in CAF-exposed mussels, while SA reduced ROS production and mitochondrial activity. CAF+SA exposure induced differential responses, and the integrated biomarker response (IBR) revealed more pronounced effects of SA than CAF. These results enlarge knowledge on pharmaceuticals impact on non-target organisms, emphasizing the need for proper environmental risk assessment.

The impact of pharmaceutical pollutants on daphnids - A metabolomic approach

Pharmaceuticals have been classified as emerging contaminants in the aquatic ecosystem, mainly due to their increased use and improper disposal. A significant range of pharmaceutical compounds and their metabolites have been globally detected in surface waters and pose detrimental effects to non-target organisms. Monitoring pharmaceutical water pollution relies on the analytical approaches for their detection, however, such approaches are limited by their sensitivity limit and coverage of the wide range pharmaceutical compounds. This lack of realism in risk assessment is bypassed with effect-based methods, which are complemented by chemical screening and impact modelling, and are able to provide mechanistic insight for pollution. Focusing on the freshwater ecosystem, in this study we evaluated the acute effects on daphnids for three distinct groups of pharmaceuticals; antibiotics, estrogens, and a range of commonly encountered environmentally relevant pharmaceutical pollutants. Combining several endpoints such as mortality, biochemical (enzyme activities) and holistic (metabolomics) we discovered distinct patterns in biological responses. In this study, changes in enzymes of metabolism e.g. phosphatases and lipase, as well as the detoxification enzyme, glutathione-S-transferase, were recorded following acute exposure to the selected pharmaceuticals. A targeted analysis of the hydrophilic profile of daphnids revealed mainly the up-regulation of metabolites following metformin, gabapentin, amoxicillin, trimethoprim and β-estradiol. Whereas gemfibrozil, sulfamethoxazole and oestrone exposure resulted in the down-regulation of majority of metabolites.

Effects of nanoplastics on clam Ruditapes philippinarum at environmentally realistic concentrations: Toxicokinetics, toxicity, and gut microbiota

Nanoplastics are ubiquitous in marine environments, understanding to what extent nanoplastics accumulate in bivalves and the adverse effects derived from their retention is imperative for evaluating the detrimental effects in the benthic ecosystem. Here, using palladium-doped polystyrene nanoplastics (139.5 nm, 43.8 mV), we quantitatively determined nanoplastic accumulation in Ruditapes philippinarum and investigated its toxic effects by combining physiological damage assessments with a toxicokinetic model and 16 S rRNA sequencing. After a 14 days exposure, significant nanoplastic accumulation was observed, up to 17.2 and 137.9 mg·kg^-1 for the environmentally realistic (0.02 mg·L^-1) and ecologically (2 mg·L^-1) relevant groups, respectively. Ecologically relevant nanoplastic concentrations evidently attenuated the total antioxidant capacity and stimulated excessive reactive oxygen species, which elicited lipid peroxidation, apoptosis, and pathological damage. The modeled uptake (k₁) and elimination (k₂) rate constants (from physiologically based pharmacokinetic model) were significantly negatively correlated with short-term toxicity. Although no obvious toxic effects were found, environmentally realistic exposures notably altered the intestinal microbial community structure. This work increases our understanding of how the accumulation of nanoplastics influences their toxic effects in terms of the toxicokinetics and gut microbiota, providing further evidence of their potential environmental risks.

Acute and Transgenerational Effects of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs on Daphnia magna

Pharmaceuticals pose a great threat to organisms inhabiting the aquatic environment. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are major pharmaceutical pollutants with a significant presence in freshwater ecosystems. In this study, the impact of indomethacin and ibuprofen, two of the most commonly prescribed NSAIDs, was assessed on Daphnia magna. Toxicity was assessed as the immobilization of animals and used to determine non-lethal exposure concentrations. Feeding was assessed as a phenotypic endpoint and key enzymes were used as molecular endpoints of physiology. Feeding was decreased in mixture exposures for five-day-old daphnids and neonates. Furthermore, animals were exposed to NSAIDs and their mixture in chronic and transgenerational scenarios revealing changes in key enzyme activities. Alkaline and acid phosphatases, lipase, peptidase, β-galactosidase, and glutathione-S-transferase were shown to have significant changes in the first generation at the first and third week of exposure, and these were enhanced in the second generation. On the other hand, the third recovery generation did not exhibit these changes, and animals were able to recover from the induced changes and revert back to the control levels. Overall, our study points towards transgenerational exposures as more impactful laboratory studies to understand pharmaceutical stressors with a combination of molecular and phenotypic markers of physiology.

The growth, biochemical composition, and antioxidant response of Microcystis and Chlorella are influenced by Ibuprofen

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like ibuprofen (IBU) are extensively used, causing substantial amounts to end up in aquatic ecosystems. Unfortunately, little research has been done on how these medications influence the physiology of phytoplankton. This study aimed to investigate the toxicological and physiological effects of IBU on the cyanobacteria Microcystis aeruginosa LE3 and Microcystis aeruginosa EAWAG 198, and the chlorophyte Chlorella sorokiniana. Exponential growth phase cultures were exposed to IBU at 10 to 10,000 μg/L for 96 h. The medium effect concentrations revealed varied sensitivity to IBU in the order Chlorella sorokiniana > Microcystis aeruginosa LE3 > Microcystis aeruginosa EAWAG 198. The drug caused a significant difference from control in cell density and chlorophyll-a of the three strains, except for chlorophyll-a in M. aeruginosa EAWAG 198 cultures where a significant difference occurred at 100 μg/L. The cell density of M. aeruginosa LE3 cultures exposed to 10 μg/L IBU increased 24 h post-exposure. Increasing concentrations of IBU induced higher total microcystins content of the Microcystis aeruginosa. Intracellular hydrogen peroxide content, peroxidase, and glutathione S-transferase activities, and lipid peroxidation increased as a function of IBU exposure. Total lipid, carbohydrate, and protein content of Chlorella sorokiniana were stimulated following IBU exposure. We conclude that the increasing presence of IBU in aquatic ecosystems could significantly alter the population dynamics of the investigated and other phytoplankton species.

Time- and dose-dependent biological effects of a sub-chronic exposure to realistic doses of salicylic acid in the gills of mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis

Among nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) commonly found in seawater and wastewater, salicylic acid (SA) represents one of the most persistent and hazardous compounds for aquatic organisms. This study was therefore designed to elucidate the biological effects of SA in mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. During a sub-chronic exposure (12 days), mussels were exposed to five realistic concentrations of SA (C1: 0.05 μg/L; C2: 0.5 μg/L; C3: 5 μg/L; C4: 50 μg/L; C5: 100 μg/L) and gills, selected as the target organ, were collected at different time points (T3: 3 days; T5: 5 days; T12: 12 days). Exposure to SA induced no histological alterations in mussel gills, despite a relevant hemocyte infiltration was observed throughout the exposure as a defensive response to SA. Temporal modulation of glutathione S-transferase (GST), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities suggested the occurrence of antioxidant and detoxifying responses against SA exposure, while lipid peroxidation (LPO), except for a partial increase at T3, was prevented. Inhibition of the cholinergic system was also reported by reduced acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, mainly at T12. Overall, findings from this study contribute to enlarge the current knowledge on the cytotoxicity of SA, on non-target aquatic organisms, and might for the enhancement of new ecopharmacovigilance programs and optimization of the efficacy of wastewater treatment plants for mitigation of pharmaceutical pollution in coastal areas.

Comprehensive assessment of the ecological risk of exposure to triphenyl phosphate in a bioindicator tadpole

The toxicity of triphenyl phosphate (TPhP) to aquatic organisms in surface waters has been demonstrated; However, an understanding of toxicity profiles of TPhP in amphibians is limited. Therefore, the adverse effects and threshold concentrations of TPhP on metamorphosis, growth, locomotion, and hepatic antioxidants of Gosner stage 25 Polypedates megacephalus tadpoles under long-term (35 d) exposure to six TPhP concentrations until complete metamorphosis were assessed. Additionally, the overall effect of using integrated multiple biomarkers were determined to demonstrate the potential ecological risks of waterborne TPhP at environmentally relevant concentrations in amphibian tadpoles. With increasing TPhP concentrations, physical parameters (snout-vent length, body mass, condition factor, and hepatic somatic index), jumping distance, hepatic catalase, and superoxide dismutase activities decreased, whereas metamorphosis time and malondialdehyde content increased. The threshold concentration of TPhP that affected the tadpole biomarker, except for metamorphosis rate and jumping distance, was 50-400 μg/L. Furthermore, the standardized scores of the examined integrated biomarkers in the six TPhP concentrations were visualized using radar plots and calculated as the integrated biomarker responses (IBRs). The varying TPhP concentrations had different scores in the radar plots, and the threshold for affecting the IBR value was 10 μg/L, which was close to the TPhP concentration in surface waters. Additionally, IBR values were strongly positively correlated with the TPhP concentrations. These findings indicate that environmentally relevant exposure to waterborne TPhP can pose an ecological risk to amphibian tadpoles. This study can serve as a reference and assist in the formulation of relevant policies and strategies to control TPhP pollution in water bodies.

Updated knowledge, partitioning and ecological risk of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in global aquatic environments

Over the last few decades, the occurrence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in aquatic environments has generated increasing public concern. In this review, data on the presence of PPCPs in environmental compartments from the past few years (2014-2022) are summarized by carrying out a critical survey of the partitioning among water, sediment, and aquatic organisms. From the available articles on PPCP occurrence in the environment, in Web of Science and Scopus databases, 185 articles were evaluated. Diclofenac, carbamazepine, caffeine, ibuprofen, ciprofloxacin, and sulfamethoxazole were reported to occur in 85% of the studies in at least one of the mentioned matrices. Risk assessment showed a moderate to high environmental risk for these compounds worldwide. Moreover, bioconcentration factors showed that sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim can bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms, while ciprofloxacin and triclosan present bioaccumulation potential. Regarding spatial distribution, the Asian and European continents presented most studies on the occurrence and effects of PPCPs on the environment, while Africa and Asia are the most contaminated continents. In addition, the impact of COVID-19 on environmental contamination by PPCPs is discussed.

Impacts of microplastics and carbamazepine on the shell formation of thick-shell mussels and the underlying mechanisms of action

Forming calcareous exoskeletons is crucial for the health and survival of calcifiers such as bivalves. However, the impacts of waterborne emergent pollutants on this important process remain largely unknown. In this study, the effects of two types of emergent pollutants, microplastics (MPs) and carbamazepine (CBZ), which are ubiquitously present in ocean environments, on shell formation were assessed in the thick-shell mussel (Mytilus coruscus) with a shell regeneration experiment. In addition, their impacts on the in vivo contents of ATP, Ca²⁺, carbonic anhydrase (CA), and bone morphogenetic protein receptor type-2 (BMPR2), the activity of phosphofructokinase (PFK) and Ca²⁺-ATPase, and the expression of shell-formation related genes were analyzed. The data collected demonstrated that shell regeneration after mechanical injury was significantly arrested by CBZ and/or MPs. Besides, all the physiological and molecular parameters investigated were markedly suppressed by these two pollutants. Furthermore, synergistic impacts on most of the parameters examined were observed between CBZ and MPs. Our results indicate that these two pollutants may disrupt shell formation by constraining the availability of raw materials and energy, inhibiting the formation of the organic shell matrix, and interfering with the regulation of crystallization, which may have far-reaching impacts on the health of marine calcifiers.

Health effects and risks associated with the occurrence of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in marine organisms and seafood

Pharmaceuticals and their metabolites are continuously invading the marine environment due to their input from the land such as their disposal into the drains and sewers which is mostly followed by their transfer into wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Their incomplete removal in WWTPs introduces pharmaceuticals into oceans and surface water. To date, various pharmaceuticals and their metabolites have been detected in marine environment. Their occurrence in marine organisms raises concerns regarding toxic effects and development of drug resistant genes. Therefore, it is crucial to review the health effects and risks associated with the presence of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in marine organisms and seafood. This is an important study area which is related to the availability of seafood and its quality. Hence, this study provides a critical review of the information available in literature which relates to the occurrence and toxic effects of pharmaceuticals in marine organisms and seafood. This was initiated through conducting a literature search focussing on articles investigating the occurrence and effects of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in marine organisms and seafood. In general, most studies on the monitoring of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in marine environment are conducted in well developed countries such as Europe while research in developing countries is still limited. Pharmaceuticals present in freshwater are mostly found in seawater and marine organisms. Furthermore, the toxicity caused by different pharmaceutical mixtures was observed to be more severe than that of individual compounds.

Long-term stability of diclofenac and 4-hydroxydiclofenac in the seawater and sediment microenvironments: Evaluation of biotic and abiotic factors

Studies in recent years have shown that significant amounts of diclofenac (DCF) and its metabolites are present in marine coastal waters. Their continuous flow into the environment may be associated with numerous negative effects on both fauna and flora. Although more and more is known about the effects of pharmaceuticals on marine ecosystems, there are still many issues that have not received enough attention, but are essential for risk assessment, such as long term stability. Furthermore, interaction of pharmaceuticals with sediments, which are inhabited by rich microbial, meiofaunal and macrobenthic communities need investigation. Therefore, we undertook an analysis of the stability of DCF and its metabolite, 4-hydroxy diclofenac, in seawater and sediment collected from the brackish environment of Puck Bay. Our 29-day experiment was designed to gain a better understanding of the fate of these compounds under experimental conditions same as near the seafloor. Diclofenac concentration decreased by 31.5% and 20.4% in the tanks with sediment and autoclaved sediment, respectively during 29-day long experiment. In contrast, the concentration of 4-OH diclofenac decreased by 76.5% and 90.2% in sediment and autoclaved sediment, respectively. The concentration decrease of both compounds in the sediment tanks resulted from their sorption in the sediment and biodegradation. Obtained results show that marine sediments favour DCF and 4-OH DCF removal from the water column.

Comparison of cellular mechanisms induced by pharmaceutical exposure to caffeine and its combination with salicylic acid in mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis

Urban and hospital-sourced pharmaceuticals are continuously discharged into aquatic environments, threatening biota. To date, their impact as single compounds has been widely investigated, whereas few information exists on their effects as mixtures. We assessed the time-dependent biological impact induced by environmental concentrations of caffeine alone (CAF; 5 ng/L to 10 µg/L) and its combination with salicylic acid (CAF+SA; 5 ng/L+0.05 µg/L to 10 µg/L+100 µg/L) on gills of mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis during a 12-day exposure. Although no histological alteration was observed in mussel gills, haemocyte infiltration was noticed at T12 following CAF+SA exposure, as confirmed by flow cytometry with increased hyalinocytes. Both the treatments induced lipid peroxidation and cholinergic neurotoxicity, which the antioxidant system was unable to counteract. We have highlighted the biological risks posed by pharmaceuticals on biota under environmental scenarios, contributing to the enhancement of ecopharmacovigilance programmes and amelioration of the efficacy of wastewater treatment plants.

Understanding the bioaccumulation of pharmaceutical active compounds by clams Ruditapes decussatus exposed to a UWWTP discharge

Twenty-four pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) were evaluated in the soft tissues of clams Ruditappes decussatus exposed along a 1.5-km dispersal gradient of the treated effluent from an urban wastewater treatment plant discharging in Ria Formosa, and compared with those in the marine waters and discharged effluents. The clams were exposed for 1 month, in June-July 2016, 2017 and 2018. PhACs were quantified by high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry after the quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe (QuEChERS) method (clams) or solid-phase extraction (water samples). The most representative PhACs in the effluents and receiving waters (regardless of the tidal dilution effect) were diclofenac, carbamazepine and caffeine (on average ≤ 2 μg/L) and only caffeine exhibited significant inter-annual differences, with higher values in 2017. In turn, the most bioaccumulated PhACs in clams were caffeine (0.54-27 ng/g wet weight, significantly higher in 2016) and acetaminophen (0.37-3.7 ng/g wet weight, significant lower in 2016). A multivariate principal component analysis showed (i) PhAC bioaccumulation primarily depended on biotic factors (clams length and weight), (ii) PhAC physicochemical properties Log K_ow, pKa and water solubility interplaying with water abiotic variables were more relevant for explaining data variability in water than the physical dilution/tidal mixing, (iii) this process, reflected by the salinity gradient, had a tertiary role in data variation, responsible for spatial discrimination of marine waters. This study provides a better understanding of PhACs bioaccumulation by clams Ruditapes decussatus in real environmental conditions, under the influence of urban treated effluent dispersal in Ria Formosa coastal lagoon, a major producer of bivalves, ultimately disentangling key factors of PhAC bioaccumulation.

Long-term exposure to environmental diclofenac concentrations impairs growth and induces molecular changes in Lymnaea stagnalis freshwater snails

As pharmaceutical substances are highly used in human and veterinary medicine and subsequently released in the environment, they represent emerging contaminants in the aquatic compartment. Diclofenac (DCF) is one of the most commonly detected pharmaceuticals in water and little research has been focused on its long-term effects on freshwater invertebrates. In this study, we assessed the chronic impacts of DCF on the freshwater gastropod Lymnaea stagnalis using life history, behavioral and molecular approaches. These organisms were exposed from the embryo to the adult stage to three environmentally relevant DCF concentrations (0.1, 2 and 10 μg/L). The results indicated that DCF impaired shell growth and feeding behavior at the juvenile stage, yet no impacts on hatching, locomotion and response to light stress were noted. The molecular findings (metabolomics and transcriptomic) suggested that DCF may disturb the immune system, energy metabolism, osmoregulation and redox balance. In addition, prostaglandin synthesis could potentially be inhibited by DCF exposure. The molecular findings revealed signs of reproduction impairment but this trend was not confirmed by the physiological tests. Combined omics tools provided complementary information and enabled us to gain further insight into DCF effects in freshwater organisms.

Effects of carbamazepine in aquatic biota

Carbamazepine (CBZ) is one of the most common pharmaceuticals found in the aquatic environment. Here, we reviewed studies in aquatic animals highlighting that CBZ affected ROS homeostasis but also the neuroendocrine system, cell viability, immunity, reproduction, feeding behavior and growth. Notably, the acetylcholinesterase activity was modified by concentrations of the order of ng L^-1 CBZ. At ≥10 μg L^-1, data pointed that CBZ triggered the production of ROS, modifying the activity of antioxidant enzymes and produced a significant cellular stress at concentrations ≥100 μg L^-1. However, the response appeared species-, organ- and time-dependent, and was impacted by different experimental conditions and the origin of animals. In this context, this review discusses the available data and proposes future research priorities.

Detoxification and recovery after cadmium exposure in the freshwater crab Sinopotamon henanense

Cadmium (Cd) is a common pollutant in the aquatic environment, which puts the health and safety of aquatic organisms and humans at risk. In the present study, the freshwater crab Sinopotamon henanense was exposed to Cd (0, 50, 100, and 500 μg·L^-1) for 14 d (0-14th d), followed by 21 d (14-35th d) of depuration. The changes in Cd bioaccumulation, microstructure, biomacromolecules (polysaccharides, neutral lipids, DNA and total proteins), and biochemical parameters (SOD, CAT, GR, TrxR, MDA and AChE) in the gills and hepatopancreas were tested. The injured microstructure, activated antioxidant system, increased MDA, and inhibited AChE of the gills and hepatopancreas responded with progressive bioaccumulation of Cd. Meanwhile, the polysaccharides and neutral lipids in the hepatopancreas reduced and DNA synthesis enhanced. During depuration, more than 58.80 ± 8.53% and 13.84 ± 12.11% of Cd was excreted from the gills and hepatopancreas, respectively. Recovery of microstructure and biomacromolecules as well as alleviated oxidative damage and neurotoxicity were also found in these two organs. Additionally, based on PCA, I_his, GR and MDA were identified as the optimal biomarkers indicating the health status of crabs. In conclusion, S. henanense could resist Cd stress through antioxidant defence and self-detoxification.

Integrated multi-biomarker responses of juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) to an environmentally relevant pharmaceutical mixture

Pharmaceuticals are emerging pollutants of concern for aquatic ecosystems where they are occurring in complex mixtures. In the present study, the chronic toxicity of an environmentally relevant pharmaceutical mixture on juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) was investigated. Five pharmaceuticals (paracetamol, carbamazepine, diclofenac, naproxen and irbesartan) were selected based on their detection frequency and concentration levels in the Meuse river (Belgium). Fish were exposed for 42 days to three different concentrations of the mixture, the median one detected in the Meuse river, 10-times and 100-times this concentration. Effects on the nervous, immune, antioxidant, and detoxification systems were evaluated throughout the exposure period and their response standardized using the Integrated Biomarker Response (IBRv2) index. IBRv2 scores increased over time in the fish exposed to the highest concentration. After 42 days, fish exposed to the highest concentration displayed significantly higher levels in lysozyme activity (p < 0.01). The mixture also caused significant changes in brain serotonin turnover (p < 0.05). In short, our results indicate that the subchronic waterborne exposure to a pharmaceutical mixture commonly occurring in freshwater ecosystems may affect the neuroendocrine and immune systems of juvenile rainbow trout.

Sublethal diclofenac induced oxidative stress, neurotoxicity, molecular responses and alters energy metabolism proteins in Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus

Reports have shown that residues of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites can pose toxicological threats to organisms living in aquatic ecosystem. Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, was exposed at 0.17, 0.34, and 0.68 mg L^-1 of diclofenac up to 60 days in a renewal static bioassay system. Antioxidant enzymes reactions, molecular responses, activities of energy metabolism proteins, and the neurotoxic potentials of the drug in the brain and fish muscle were evaluated. Antioxidant enzyme activities such as superoxide dismutase, glutathione-S-transferase, and also fructose 1, 6 bisphosphatase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase as well as the levels of lipid peroxidation and protein carbonyl were elevated, while glutathione peroxidase, total reduced glutathione, and acetylcholinesterase in the brain and muscles of the treated groups were significantly inhibited in a dose-dependent association. Expression of superoxide dismutase (sod), catalase (cat), and heat shock proteins (hsp 70) genes in brain and muscle tissues was up-regulated. Continuous treatment with sublethal diclofenac for a long time can induce oxidative imbalance, cause neurotoxicity, and alter the expression of genes related to stress in Nile tilapia, suggesting the use of these biomarkers in monitoring the adverse effects the pharmaceuticals could cause to organisms in aquatic ecosystem for possible mitigation.

Proteomic changes in the solitary ascidian Herdmania momus following exposure to the anticonvulsant medication carbamazepine

The increasing use of pharmaceuticals in human and veterinary medicine, along with their poor removal rates at wastewater treatment facilities is resulting in the chronic release of pharmaceutically-active compounds (PhACs) into the marine environment, where they pose a threat to non-target organisms. A useful approach, as applied in the current study for assessing the effects of PhACs on non-target organisms, is the proteomic approach: the large-scale study of an organism's proteins. Using 'shotgun' proteomics, we identified differentially-expressed proteins based on peptide fragments in the solitary ascidian, Herdmania momus, following a 14-day laboratory experimental exposure to the PhAC carbamazepine (CBZ), an anticonvulsant and antidepressant medication, frequently detected in the aquatic environment. Individuals were exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations: 5 or 10 µg/L of CBZ, in addition to a control treatment. Out of 199 identified proteins, 24 were differentially expressed (12%) between the treatment groups, and thus can potentially be developed as biomarkers for CBZ contamination. Ascidians' phylogenetic position within the closest sister group to vertebrates presents an advantage in examining the pathological effects of PhACs on vertebrate-related organs and systems. Together with the world-wide distribution of some model ascidian species, and their ability to flourish in pristine and polluted sites, they provide a promising tool through which to study the extent and effects of PhAC contamination on marine organisms.

Characterization of a fatty acid-binding protein from the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas): pharmaceutical and toxicological implications

Pharmaceuticals and their metabolites constitute a class of xenobiotics commonly found in aquatic environments which may cause toxic effects in aquatic organisms. Several different lipophilic molecules, including some pharmaceuticals, can bind to fatty acid-binding proteins (FABPs), a group of evolutionarily related cytoplasmic proteins that belong to the intracellular lipid-binding protein (iLBP) family. An oyster FABP genome-wide investigation was not available until a recent study on gene organization, protein structure, and phylogeny of Crassostrea gigas iLBPs. Higher transcript levels of the C. gigas FABP2 gene were found after exposure to sewage and pharmaceuticals. Because of its relevance as a potential biomarker of aquatic contamination, in this study, recombinant FABP2 from C. gigas (CgFABP2) was successfully cloned, expressed, and purified, and in vitro and in silico assays were performed using lipids and pharmaceuticals. This is the first characterization of a protein from the iLBP family in C. gigas. Homology modeling and molecular docking were used to evaluate the binding affinities of natural ligands (palmitic, oleic, and arachidonic acids) and pharmaceuticals (ibuprofen, sodium diclofenac, and acetaminophen). Among the tested fatty acids, CgFABP2 showed preference for palmitic acid. The selected pharmaceuticals presented a biphasic-binding mode, suggesting a different binding affinity with a preference for diclofenac. Therefore, the approach using circular dichroism and in silico data might be useful for ligand-binding screening in an invertebrate model organism.

Effects of the Fragrance Galaxolide on the Biomarker Responses of the Clam Ruditapes philippinarum

The musk fragrance Galaxolide® (HHCB) is widely used in personal care and household products. Its large use leads to a continuous release of the compound into aquatic environments. Although some studies on the presence of HHCB in ecosystems and biota have been conducted, limited data about its effects on organism biomarkers are available. This study aimed at investigating both cellular and biochemical effects of HHCB in the clam Ruditapes philippinarum. Mussels were exposed for 7, 14 and 21 days to 100 ng/L and 500 ng/L of HHCB in seawater, and the effects on haemocyte parameters and antioxidant enzyme activities in the gills and digestive gland were evaluated. In addition, the neurotoxic potential of HHCB and its capacity to cause oxidative damage to proteins were assessed. Overall, our results demonstrated that exposure to HHCB was able to induce changes in biomarker responses of mussels, mainly at the cellular level.

Galaxolide and tonalide modulate neuroendocrine activity in marine species from two taxonomic groups

Galaxolide (HHCB) and tonalide (AHTN) are polycyclic musk compounds (PMCs) used in household and personal care products that have been included on the list as emerging contaminants of environmental concern due to their ubiquity in aquatic and terrestrial environments. There still exists a dearth of information on the neurotoxicity and endocrine disrupting effects of these contaminants, especially for marine and estuarine species. Here, we assessed the neuroendocrine effects of HHCB and AHTN using adult clams, Ruditapes philippinarum, and yolk-sac larvae of sheepshead minnow, Cyprinodon variegatus. The clams were treated with concentrations (0.005-50 μg/L) of each compound for 21 days. Meanwhile, sheepshead minnow larvae were exposed to 0.5, 5 and 50 μg/L of HHCB and AHTN for 3 days. Enzyme activities related to neurotoxicity (acetylcholinesterase - AChE), neuroendocrine function (cyclooxygenase - COX), and energy reserves (total lipids - TL) were assessed in R. philippinarum. Gene expression levels of cyp19 and vtg1 were measured in C. variegatus using qPCR. Our results indicated induction of AChE and COX in the clams exposed to HHCB while AHTN exposure significantly inhibited AChE and COX. Gene expression of cyp19 and vtg1 in yolk-sac C. variegatus larvae exposed to 50 μg/L AHTN was significantly downregulated versus the control. The results of this study demonstrate that HHCB and AHTN might pose neurotoxic and endocrine disrupting effects in coastal ecosystems.

Oxidative stress biomarkers, biochemical responses and Na+ -K+ -ATPase activities in Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus exposed to diclofenac

The residues and metabolites from pharmaceuticals have been noted to cause adverse effects to both target and non-target aquatic organisms. The sublethal effects of diclofenac at 0.17, 0.34 and 0.68 mg L^-1 on oxidative stress biomarkers, biochemical responses and Na⁺ -K⁺ -ATPase activities in the gill tissue of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus were investigated for 60 days. Elevated levels of some serum biochemical parameters including protein, glutamic oxalacetic transaminase, glucose, glutamic pyruvic transaminase, lactate dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase and also some catalysts of gluconeogenic enzymes such as glucose-6-phosphatase, fructose 1, 6 bisphosphatase in the fish liver, increase as the concentration of the diclofenac increased. The reactions of glutathione-S-transferase, catalase, lipid peroxidation, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, carbonyl protein and reduced glutathione were elevated (p < 0.05) while the activities of Na⁺ -K⁺ -ATPase was significantly reduced (p < 0.05) in fish gill, indicating an adaptive response strategies to mitigate the impact of the drug on the exposed fish. Chronic exposure to sublethal diclofenac can induce oxidative stress and modulates serum biochemical indexes of O. niloticus, suggesting the need for close monitoring of the drug and their metabolites in aquatic environment considering the possible potential adverse effects it may cause even to non-target organisms.

Common and particular biochemical responses of Unio tumidus to herbicide, pharmaceuticals and their combined exposure with heating

The priority list of freshwater pollutants is increasingly amended by pharmaceuticals. Their impact on the aquatic biota can be modulated by the presence of typical pollutants, like pesticides, and/or abnormal heating. The aim of this study was to elucidate potentially hazardous impact of combined environmental factors on the freshwater mussels by analyzing various sets of biochemical markers. We treated the bivalve molluscs of Unio tumidus with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac (Dc, 2 nM), calcium antagonist and antihypertensive drug nifedipine (Nf, 2 nM) or organophosphonate glyphosate-based herbicide Roundup MAX (Rn, 79 nM of glyphosate) at 18 °C as well as with the mixture of these substances at 18 °C (Mix) or 25 °C (MixT) during 14 days. The concentrations used were correspondent to the environmentally relevant levels. The biomarkers of stress and toxicity were evaluated in digestive gland, except the lysosomal membrane stability measured in hemocytes. Exposures caused an oxidative stress due to the decreased SOD and GST activities and GSH/GSSG ratio, increased levels of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances and protein carbonyls (with some exceptions). Dc increased cathepsin D activity in lysosomes. Nf increased lysosomal membrane stability and caspase-3 activity. Rn caused a dramatic distortion of metallo-thiolome due to increased levels of GSH and metallothionein-related thiols (MTSH) as well as depletion of Zn, Cu and Cd in the composition of metallothioneins, and decreased Zn/Cu molar ratio in the tissue. The particular toxicity of Rn was also attested by decreased lysosomal membrane stability and cholinesterase activity. Canonical discriminant analysis separated Rn-, Mix- and MixT-groups from the joint set of C-, Dc- and Nf-groups. Generally, compound-specific effects were expressed in U. tumidus responses to the mixtures, but in MixT-group some effects were particular or extremely strong. Multi-marker approach and integrative analysis proved to be a useful tool for understanding possible future risks to freshwater mussels under a combination of xenobiotics and warming climate.

Can ocean warming alter sub-lethal effects of antiepileptic and antihistaminic pharmaceuticals in marine bivalves?

The negative effects induced in marine organisms by Climate Change related abiotic factors consequences, namely ocean warming, are well-known. However, few works studied the combined impacts of ocean warming and contaminants, as pharmaceutical drugs. Carbamazepine (CBZ) and cetirizine (CTZ) occur in the marine environment, showing negative effects in marine organisms. This study aimed to evaluate the impacts of ocean warming on the effects of CBZ and CTZ, when acting individually and combined (drug vs drug), in the edible clam Ruditapes philippinarum. For that, drugs concentration, bioconcentration factors and biochemical parameters, related with clam's metabolic capacity and oxidative stress, were evaluated after 28 days exposure to environmentally relevant scenarios of these stressors. The results showed limited impacts of the drugs (single and combined) at control and warming condition. Indeed, it appeared that warming improved the oxidative status of contaminated clams (higher reduced to oxidized glutathione ratio, lower lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation levels), especially when both drugs were combined. This may result from clam's defence mechanisms activation and reduced metabolic capacity that, respectively, increased elimination and limited production of reactive oxygen species. At low stress levels, defence mechanisms were not activated which resulted into oxidative stress. The present findings highlighted that under higher stress levels clams may be able to activate defence strategies that were sufficient to avoid cellular damages and loss of redox homeostasis. Nevertheless, low concentrations were tested in the present study and the observed responses may greatly change under increased pollution levels or temperatures. Further research on this topic is needed since marine heat waves are increasing in frequency and intensity and pollution levels of some pharmaceuticals are also increasing in coastal systems.

Effects of Carbamazepine in Bivalves: A Review

Carbamazepine (CBZ) is among the ten most frequent pharmaceuticals that occur in the aquatic systems, with known effects on inhabiting organisms, including bivalves. Bivalves are important species in coastal ecosystems, often exhibiting a dominant biomass within invertebrate communities. These organisms play a major role in the functioning of the ecosystem and particularly in food webs (as suspension-feeders) and represent a significant fraction of the fisheries resource. They also have strong interactions with the environment, water and sediment and are considered good bioindicator species. The present paper reviews the known literature on the impacts of CBZ in biological endpoints of marine bivalves exposed to environmentally and non-environmentally relevant concentrations, highlighting differences in terms of biological responses, associated with exposure period, concentrations tested, and species used. Overall, the literature available showed that CBZ induces individual and sub-individual effects in marine bivalves (adults and life stages) and the most common effect reported was the induction of oxidative stress.

Environmental pharmaceuticals and climate change: The case study of carbamazepine in M. galloprovincialis under ocean acidification scenario

Contaminants of emerging concern and ocean changes are key environmental stressors for marine species with possibly synergistic, but still unexplored, deleterious effects. In the present study the influence of a simulated ocean acidification scenario (pH = 7.6) was investigated on metabolism and sub-lethal effects of carbamazepine, CBZ (1 µg/L), chosen as one of the most widely diffused pharmaceuticals in marine organisms. A multidisciplinary approach was applied on mussels, M. galloprovincialis, integrating measurement of drug bioaccumulation with changes in the whole transcriptome, responsiveness of various biochemical and cellular biomarkers including immunological parameters, lipid and oxidative metabolism, onset of genotoxic effects. Chemical analyses revealed a limited influence of hypercapnia on accumulation and excretion of CBZ, while a complex network of biological responses was observed in gene expression profile and functional changes at cellular level. The modulation of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) pathway suggested similarities with the Mechanism of Action known for vertebrates: immune responses, cellular homeostasis and oxidative system represented the processes targeted by combined stressors. The overall elaboration of results through a quantitative Weight of Evidence model, revealed clearly increased cellular hazard due to interactions of CBZ with acidification compared to single stressors.

Biomarker Responses of the Clam Ruditapes decussatus Exposed to a Complex Mixture of Environmental Stressors under the Influence of an Urban Wastewater-Treatment Plant

To evaluate the potential impact of an urban wastewater-treatment plant on Ria Formosa coastal lagoon, a sentinel species, the clam Ruditapes decussatus, was exposed along a gradient of the effluent's dispersal for 1 mo. Three exposure sites were selected to study the responses of 3 biomarkers: electron transport system, acetylcholinesterase, and lipid peroxidation. As complementary data, morphometric measurements, condition index, and lipid and protein content were considered together with in situ physicochemical characterization of the sites (temperature, salinity, pH, and dissolved oxygen). Electron transport system activity levels were between 35.7 and 50.5 nmol O₂ /min g protein, acetylcholinesterase activity levels ranged from 2.6 to 3.8 nmol/min g protein, and lipid peroxidation ranged from 174.7 to 246.4 nmol malondialdehyde/g protein. The exposure sites shaped the response not only of biomarkers but also of "health" parameters (protein, lipids, and condition index). Lipid peroxidation was the most responsive biomarker also associated with electron transport system, especially at the closest site to the urban wastewater-treatment plant. Because of the presence of complex mixtures of contaminants in urban effluents, biomarker responses can provide valuable information in environmental assessment. However, it is vital to identify all biological and ecological factors induced by the natural life cycle of clams. Abiotic factors can mask or overlap the response of biomarkers and should be considered in a multibiomarker approach. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:272-283. © 2020 SETAC.

Toxicological effects and bioaccumulation of fullerene C60 (FC60) in the marine bivalve Ruditapes philippinarum

Fullerene C₆₀ (FC₆₀), with its unique physical properties, has been used in many applications in recent decades. The increased likelihood of direct release into the environment has raised interest in understanding the biological effects of FC₆₀ to aquatic organisms. Nowadays, only few studies have analysed FC₆₀ effects and bioaccumulation in marine organisms following in vivo exposure. To provide new data about FC₆₀ toxicity, Ruditapes philippinarum was selected as target species to assess potential adverse effects of the contaminant. Clams were exposed for 1, 3 and 7 days to predicted environmental concentrations of FC₆₀ (1 and 10 μg/L) and cellular and biochemical responses were evaluated in clams' gills, digestive gland and haemolymph. The FC₆₀ content in gills and digestive gland was determined in all experimental conditions after 7 days of exposure. Results showed an increase in oxidative stress. In particular, a significant modulation in antioxidant enzyme activities, and changes in glutathione S-transferase activity were observed in gills. Moreover, damage to lipids and proteins was detected in FC₆₀-treated (10 µg/L) clams. In digestive gland, slighter variations in antioxidant enzyme activities and damage to molecules were detected. CAT activity was significantly affected throughout the exposure, whereas damage to lipids was evident only at the end of exposure. FC₆₀ accumulation was revealed in both gills and digestive gland, with values up to twelve-fold higher in the latter. Interestingly, haemolymph parameters were slightly affected by FC₆₀ compared to the other tissues investigated. Indeed, only Single Cell Gel Electrophoresis and Neutral Red uptake assays showed increased values in FC₆₀-exposed clams. Moreover, volume and diameter of haemocytes, haemocyte proliferation, and micronucleus assay highlighted significant variations in treated clams, but only in the first phases of exposure, and no changes were detected after 7 days. Our results suggested clam gills as the target tissue for FC₆₀ toxicity under the exposure conditions tested: the high damage detected to lipids and proteins could contribute to long-term problems for the organism.

Genotoxicity and Oxidative Stress Evaluations in Juvenile African Catfish Clarias gariepinus Exposed to NPK Fertilizer

Juvenile African Catfish (also known as Sharptooth Catfish) Clarias gariepinus were exposed to 2.26, 4.52, and 11.30 mg/L NPK (15-15-15) fertilizer for 21 d followed by 7 d of recovery to assess the genotoxic effects of the fertilizer in erythrocytes. Biomarkers of oxidative stress were evaluated in the liver and gill tissues. The fertilizer induced micronuclei formation with maximum effects on day 7 in erythrocytes of individuals that were exposed to 4.52 and 11.30 mg/L NPK, and on day 14 in individuals exposed to 2.26 mg/L of the same fertilizer. The lipid peroxidation, glutathione reductase, and reduced glutathione values in the exposed fish increased, while the values of catalase, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase decreased. There were mixed trends in the recovery patterns after the 7-d withdrawal from the fertilizer. Careful use of the fertilizer in the field is recommended to avoid toxicological effects on nontarget organisms.

Human pharmaceuticals in marine mussels: Evidence of sneaky environmental hazard along Italian coasts

Despite the increasing interest for pharmaceuticals in the marine environment, their accumulation in wild organisms and consequent environmental hazards are still poorly known. The Mediterranean Sea is highly challenged by the density of coastal populations, large consumption of pharmaceuticals and their often limited removal by Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs). In this respect, the present study aims to provide the first large-scale survey on the distribution of such contaminants of emerging concern in native mussels, Mytilus galloprovincialis from Italian coasts. Organisms were collected from 14 sites representative of relatively unpolluted marine waters along the Adriatic and Tyrrhenian Sea and analysed for 9 common pharmaceuticals including Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs: Diclofenac DIC, Ibuprofen IBU, Ketoprofen KET and Nimesulide NIM), the analgesic Acetaminophen AMP, the antiepileptic Carbamazepine CBZ, the antihypertensive Valsartan VAL, the anxiolytic Lormetazepam LOR and the antidepressant Paroxetine PAR. Results indicated the widespread occurrence of the majority of pharmaceuticals in mussel tissues: CBZ was measured in >90% of analysed samples, followed by VAL (>50%), PAR (>40%), and DIC (>30%), while only AMP and KET were never detected. Heterogeneous tissue concentrations ranged from a few units up to hundreds of ng/g (d.w.), while seasonal and interannual variability, investigated over 4 years, did not highlight any clear temporal trend. Limited differences obtained between the Adriatic and Tyrrhenian Sea, as well as coastal versus off-shore sampling sites, suggest that analysed levels of pharmaceuticals in mussels tissues should be considered as baseline concentrations for organisms collected in unpolluted areas of the Mediterranean. This study provided the first unambiguous evidence of the widespread occurrence of pharmaceuticals in marine mussels from Italian coasts, giving novel insights on the potential ecotoxicological hazard from such compounds in marine species.

Toxic effects of NSAIDs in non-target species: A review from the perspective of the aquatic environment

The presence of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment, both in marine and freshwater reservoirs, is a major concern of global environmental protection. Among the drugs that are most commonly used, NSAIDs tend to dominate. Currently, being aware of the problem caused by drug contamination, it is extremely important to evaluate the scale and the full spectrum of its consequences, from short-term to long-term effects. The influence on non-target aquatic animals can take place at many levels, and the effects can be seen both in behaviour and physiology, but also in genetic alterations or reproduction disorders, affecting the development of entire populations. This review summarises all the advances made to estimate the impact of NSAIDs on aquatic animals. Multicellular animals from all trophic levels, inhabiting both inland waters, seas and oceans, have been considered. Particular attention has been paid to chronic studies, conducted at low, environmentally-relevant concentrations, to estimate the real effects of the present pollution. The number of such studies has indeed increased in recent years, allowing for a better insight into the possible consequences of pharmaceutical pollution. It should be stressed, however, that our knowledge is still limited to a few model species, while there are many groups of organisms completely unexplored regarding the effects of drugs. Therefore, the main aim of this paper was to summarise the current state of knowledge on the toxicity of NSAIDs in aquatic animals, also identifying important gaps and major issues requiring further analysis.

Can salicylic acid modulate biochemical, physiological and population alterations in a macrophyte species under chemical stress by diclofenac?

Salicylic acid (SA) is a pharmaceutical drug that may exert toxic effects by its own; however, simultaneous exposure of plants to SA and to other substances, often results in the significant changes in the patterns of toxic response/resistance to these other sources of chemical stress. Thus, the aim of this work was to investigate the capacity of SA of modulating Lemna minor responses co-exposed to the pharmaceutical drug, diclofenac - DCF. To attain this objective, L. minor was exposed for 7 days, to DCF alone, and to combinations of DCF with SA. After exposure, biochemical, physiological and population endpoints were analyzed as follows: catalase (CAT) and glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) activities, pigments content (chlorophyll a (Chl a), b (Chl b) and total (TChl), carotenoids (Car) and [Chl a]/[Chl b] and [TChl]/[Car] ratios), and growth specific rate, fresh weight and root length. Single exposures to DCF were capable of causing effects in all analyzed endpoints. However, co-exposure of DCF with SA partially reverted these effects. Finally, we may suggest that SA is capable to prevent the toxicity of DCF in macrophytes, by modulating the toxic response of exposed plants.

Potential of environmental concentrations of the musks galaxolide and tonalide to induce oxidative stress and genotoxicity in the marine environment

Polycyclic musk compounds have been identified in environmental matrices (water, sediment and air) and in biological tissues in the last decade, yet only minimal attention has been paid to their chronic toxicity in the marine environment. In the present research, the clams Ruditapes philippinarum were exposed to 0.005, 0.05, 0.5, 5 and 50 μg/L of the fragrances Galaxolide® (HHCB) and Tonalide® (AHTN) for 21 days. A battery of biomarkers related with xenobiotics biotransformation (EROD and GST), oxidative stress (GPx, GR and LPO) and genotoxicity (DNA damage) were measured in digestive gland tissues. HHCB and AHTN significantly (p < 0.05) induced EROD and GST enzymatic activities at environmental concentrations. Both fragrances also induced GPx activity. All concentrations of both compounds induced an increase of LPO and DNA damage on day 21. Although these substances have been reported as not acutely toxic, this study shows that they might induce oxidative stress and genotoxicity in marine organisms.

Anti-inflammatory drugs in the marine environment: Bioconcentration, metabolism and sub-lethal effects in marine bivalves

Pharmaceuticals such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have been found in the marine environment. Although there is a large body of evidence that pharmaceutical drugs exert negative impacts on aquatic organisms, especially in the freshwater compartment, only limited studies are available on bioconcentration and the effects of NSAIDs on marine organisms. Bivalves have a high ecological and socio-economic value and are considered good bioindicator species in ecotoxicology and risk assessment programs. Therefore, this review summarizes current knowledge on the bioconcentration and the effects of three widely used NSAIDs, diclofenac, ibuprofen and paracetamol, in marine bivalves exposed under laboratory conditions. These pharmaceutical drugs were chosen based on their environmental occurrence both in frequency and concentration that may warrant their inclusion in the European Union Watch List. It has been highlighted that ambient concentrations may result in negative effects on wild bivalves after long-term exposures. Also, higher trophic level organisms may be more impacted due to food-chain transfer (e.g., humans are shellfish consumers). Overall, the three selected NSAIDs were reported to bioconcentrate in marine bivalves, with recognized effects at different life-stages. Immune responses were the main target of a long-term exposure to the drugs. The studies selected support the inclusion of diclofenac on the European Union Watch List and highlight the importance of extending research for ibuprofen and paracetamol due to their demonstrated negative effects on marine bivalves exposed to environmental realistic concentrations, under laboratory conditions.

Feeding regimes modulate biomarkers responsiveness in mussels treated with diclofenac

This study investigated the role of the feeding regime on cellular (lysosomal membrane impairment), oxidative (superoxides and nitric oxides generation, as well as lipid peroxidation) and genotoxic (nuclear abnormalities) biomarkers measured in hemocytes of mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis treated with diclofenac (DCF). Specifically, unfed mussels, or mussels fed ad libitum with algal species Tisochrysis lutea or Tetraselmis suecica (Tiso/DCF- and Tetra/DCF- treated mussels, respectively) were exposed to DCF (20 μgL^-1) for 4 days. The results showed that biomarkers' responsiveness against DCF, were more pronounced in unfed and Tetra/DCF-, rather than Tiso/DCF- treated mussel hemocytes, thus revealing food deprivation, changes in mussel feeding/filtration rate and digestion processes, as potent factors of mussels' immune efficiency and response against DCF. Those findings could provide valuable data for the optimization of mussels' feeding regime during laboratory studies, in order to assess reliably the effects of emerging contaminants on non-target sentinel organisms, such as mussels.

Occurrence, interactive effects and ecological risk of diclofenac in environmental compartments and biota - a review

Diclofenac, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug has turned into a contaminant of emerging concern; hence, it was included in the previous Watch List of the EU Water Framework Directive. This review paper aims to highlight the metabolism of diclofenac at different trophic levels, its occurrence, ecological risks, and interactive effects in the water cycle and biota over the past two decades. Increased exposure to diclofenac not only raises health concerns for vultures, aquatic organisms, and higher plants but also causes serious threats to mammals. The ubiquitous nature of diclofenac in surface water (river, lake canal, estuary, and sea) is compared with drinking water, groundwater, and wastewater effluent in the environment. This comprehensive survey from previous studies suggests the fate of diclofenac in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and may predict its persistence in the environment. This review offers evidence of fragmentary available data for the water environment, soil, sediment, and biota worldwide and supports the need for further data to address the risks associated with the presence of diclofenac in the environment. Finally, we suggest that the presence of diclofenac and its metabolites in the environment may represent a high risk because of their synergistic interactions with existing contaminants, leading to the development of drug-resistant strains and the formation of newly emerging pollutants.

Chronic Toxicological Effects of Carbamazepine on Daphnia magna Straus: Effects on Reproduction Traits, Body Length, and Intrinsic Growth

In recent years, pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) that remain in the environment have become increasingly important. Carbamazepine (CBZ) is a widely used antiepileptic drug that has a potential impact on the environment due to its Physico-chemical properties, which are rarely eliminated in conventional water treatment. Daphnia magna Straus (DMS) is a fundamental link of aquatic ecosystem chain. The influence of CBZ toxicity on DMS can effectively reflect the effects of CBZ toxicity on the aquatic environment. In this study, DMS was used as a subject to assess the chronic effects of CBZ exposure. It was found that after 21 days of CBZ exposure, the breeding frequency, the total number of eggs laid, body length, and intrinsic growth rate of DMS decreased with increasing CBZ concentrations. Maximum reductions of 69% in fecundity and 60% in fertility were observed at 0.5 mg/L CBZ, while a maximum reduction of 60% in body length was observed at 0.001 mg/L CBZ concentration. The integrated biomarker response version 2 (IBRv2) analysis suggests that with the increase in CBZ concentration, the overall negative effect of CBZ on DMS was enhanced.