Alkylphenol and alkylphenol polyethoxylates in water and wastewater: A review of options for their elimination

Interactions between dissolved organic matter with different molecular weights and nonylphenol in surface water bodies

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) has a complex composition, which can interact with various pollutants and affect the removal of pollutants. Therefore, a thorough understanding of the interaction between the encccvironmental hormone nonylphenol (NP) and DOM is crucial for environmental impact and development. In this study, the interaction was investigated by means of excitation emission matrix (EEM) fluorescence spectroscopy, UV-Vis spectroscopy, FT-IR spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and complex model analysis. The interaction between different MW DOM and NP was verified by the spectral characterization data. According to the characterization analysis, the main components of DOM in water samples were proteinoid (C1, C2, C4) with MW < 1 k Da, and their binding capacity (log Ka value) and binding site number (n) showed the maximum values (3.37, 3.24, 3.26; 0.81, 1.22, 0.52). For the humus like substance (C3) with larger molecular weight, the log Ka value and the number of binding points n increased with increasing molecular weight, and the maximum values were 3.13 and 0.31, respectively. It can be seen that low molecular weight proteins have strong binding ability and binding sites with NP, and high molecular weight humus also have strong binding ability. Overall, the interaction between DOM and NP has molecular weight dependence and heterogeneity. The purpose of this study is to deeply understand the interaction characteristics of different MW DOM with NP, and to provide theoretical support and reference for the study of the removal effects of NP pollutants.

Nonylphenol displays immunotoxicity by triggering hemocyte extracellular traps in Manila clam via ROS burst, ERK pathway and glycolysis

Nonylphenol (NP), an endocrine disruptor, has been demonstrated to be a harmful environmental contaminant and toxic to organisms. In this study, to address concerns regarding the immunotoxicity of NP, we treated clam Ruditapes philippinarum hemocytes with NP in vitro and explored the underlying mechanisms of NP-induced extracellular traps (ETs). NP could induce the formation of hemocytes ETs in a dose-dependent manner. Transcriptomics analysis revealed changes of signaling pathway involved in immunity and energy metabolism in hemocytes after NP stimulation. In this process, both reactive oxygen species (ROS) and myeloperoxidase (MPO) were up-regulated. Moreover, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway was proved to be activated in the formation of NP-induced ETs, manifested as enhanced phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) but not p38 or c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). In the presence of U0126, an ERK phosphorylation inhibitor, the NP-induced expression of NADPH oxidase enzyme (NOX) was significantly decreased, which further alleviated the ROS production and ultimately limited the release of ETs. NP exposure increased glucose uptake, along with enhanced activities of glycolysis-related enzymes such as hexokinase (HK) and pyruvate kinase (PK). After inhibiting glycolysis by the inhibitor 2-DG, the formation of NP-induced ETs was significantly suppressed. ERK could regulate mTOR signaling and the PI3K/AKT pathway, potentially directing ETs formation by orchestrating the glycolysis through the activation of key transcription factors c-Myc and HIF-1α. Collectively, the results preliminary confirm that the ERK-NOX-ROS axis and glycolysis are involved in NP-induced ETs formation, contributing to the cellular immunotoxicity in clam.

Unveiling the environmental impact of tire wear particles and the associated contaminants: A comprehensive review of environmental and health risk

This review offers a novel perspective on the environmental fate and ecotoxicological effects of tire wear particles (TWPs), ubiquitous environmental contaminants ranging in size from micrometers to millimeters (averaging 10-100 micrometers). These particles pose a growing threat due to their complex chemical composition and potential toxicity. Human exposure primarily occurs through inhalation, ingesting contaminated food and water, and dermal contact. Our review delves into the dynamic interplay between TWP composition, transformation products (TPs), and ecological impacts, highlighting the importance of considering both individual chemical effects and potential synergistic interactions. Notably, our investigation reveals that degradation products of certain chemicals, such as diphenylguanidine (DPG) and diphenylamine (DPA), can be more toxic than the parent compounds, underscoring the need to fully understand these contaminants' environmental profile. Furthermore, we explore the potential human health implications of TWPs, emphasizing the need for further research on potential respiratory, cardiovascular, and endocrine disturbances. Addressing the challenges in characterizing TWPs, assessing their environmental fate, and understanding their potential health risks requires a multidisciplinary approach. Future research should prioritize standardized TWP characterization and leachate analysis methods, conduct field studies to enhance ecological realism, and utilize advanced analytical techniques to decipher complex mixture interactions and identify key toxicants. By addressing these challenges, we can better mitigate the environmental and health risks associated with TWPs and ensure a more sustainable future.

Microbial synergies drive simultaneous biodegradation of ethoxy and alkyl chains of Nonylphenol Ethoxylate in fluidized bed reactors

The widely-used surfactant Nonylphenol Ethoxylate (NPEO) produces endocrine-disrupting compounds during biodegradation, with these byproducts being more harmful than untreated NPEO. This study investigates the effectiveness of a Fluidized Bed Reactor (FBR) in reducing the production of 4-Nonylphenol (4-NP) during the biodegradation of NPEO. Two identical FBR filled with sand were used to assess the NPEO degradation and to enhance the microbial consortia capable of breaking down the complex byproducts, ethanol and fumarate were introduced as co-substrates. Our findings demonstrate the significant potential of the FBR, especially when coupled with fumarate, for enhancing the surfactant degradation. It outperforms the efficiency achieved with ethanol as the primary electron donor, albeit with a higher rate of byproduct production. Microbial community taxonomy and metabolic prediction revealed the high abundance of Geobacter (1.51-31.71%) and Methanobacterium (1.08-13.81%) in non-conductive sand. This may hint a new metabolic interaction and expand our understanding of Direct Interspecies Electron Transfer (DIET) in bioreactors applied to micropollutants degradation. Such an intricate relationship between facultative and anaerobes working together to simultaneously biodegrade the ethoxy and alkyl chains presents a new perspective on NPEO degradation and can potentially be extended to other micropollutants.

The effect of the ageing process on the desorption of nonylphenol in black carbon-sediment systems: a kineto-mechanistic and modeling investigation

Black carbon (BC) exhibits promising potential as a sediment amendment owing to its commendable adsorption capacity for hydrophobic organic contaminants (HOCs), thereby resulting in HOC-laden sediments. Desorption kinetic studies play a crucial role in comprehending the release potential of HOCs from BC-sediment systems. Although the adsorption capacity of BC for HOCs has been found to decrease with aging, there is limited research on its impact on HOC desorption kinetics. In this study, BCs derived from agricultural waste (rice straw carbon, RC) and industrial waste (fly ash carbon, FC), respectively, were used to investigate the desorption kinetics of nonylphenol (NP). Additionally, a predictive model was established using the fitting parameters obtained from the modified two-domain model. The results showed that desorption of NP was divided into three fractions: rapid fraction (Frap), slow fraction (Fslow) and resistant fraction (Fr). BCs significantly decreased, while ageing increased the desorption amount and rate of NP. The performance of RC in controlling NP release was superior to that of FC. The predicted values calculated by the established model exhibit significant positive correlations with the measured values (p < 0.01). Additionally, the correlation analysis between sorption sites and desorption fractions revealed that the concentration of NP in the desorbing fraction was nearly equivalent to that of NP in partition sites within aged sediment/FC-sediment systems. However, the aged RC-sediment systems do not conform well to this rule. In other words, the estimation of NP release risk from sediments with a strong adsorbent would be overestimated, if Frap + Fsolw is considered equivalent to the desorbing fraction.

Endocrine disrupting chemicals in Italian drinking water systems: Insights from a three-year investigation combining chemical and effect-based tools

Drinking water quality can be compromised by endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Three phenolic compounds [bisphenol A (BPA), nonylphenol (NP), and 4-octylphenol (OP)] and three hormones [17β-estradiol (E2), estrone (E1), and 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2)] were analyzed as EDCs potentially occurring in source and drinking water from three full-scale drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) in the Romagna area (Italy) by a combined approach of HPLC-MS/MS target analysis and effect-based tests for estrogenicity and genotoxicity. The EDC removal efficiency was evaluated at different steps along the treatment process in the most advanced DWTP. NP prevailed in all samples, followed by BPA. Sporadic contamination by OP and E1/E2 appeared only in the source waters; EE2 was never detected. No estrogenic or genotoxic activity was found, except for two samples showing estrogenicity well below the effect-based trigger value suggested for drinking water safety (0.9 ng/L EEQ). BPA and NP levels were largely below the threshold value; however, increases were observed after the intermediate steps of the treatment chain. The good quality of the water relied on the last step, i.e. the activated carbon filtration. DWTPs may represent an extra source of EDCs and monitoring chemical occurrence at all steps of the process is advisable to improve efficiency.

Removal of nonylphenol ethoxylate surfactant in batch reactors: emphasis on methanogenic potential and microbial community characterization under optimized conditions

ABSTRACTNonylphenol ethoxylate (NPE) is an endocrine-disrupting chemical that has bioaccumulative, persistent and toxic characteristics in different environmental matrices and is difficult to remove in sewage treatment plants. In this study, the effects of the initial concentration of NPE (0.2 ± 0.03 - 3.0 ± 0.02 mg. L-1) and ethanol (73.9 ± 5.0-218.6 ± 10.6 mg. L-1) were investigated using factorial design. Assays were carried out in anaerobic batch reactors, using the Zinder basal medium, yeast extract (200 mg. L-1), vitamin solution and sodium bicarbonate (10% v/v). The optimal conditions were 218.56 mg.L-1 of ethanol and 1596.51 µg.L-1 of NPE, with 92% and 88% of NPE and organic matter removal, respectively, and methane yield (1689.8 ± 59.6 mmol) after 450 h of operation. In this condition, bacteria potentially involved in the degradation of this surfactant were identified in greater relative abundance, such as Acetoanaerobium (1.68%), Smithella (1.52%), Aminivibrio (0.91%), Petrimonas (0.57%) and Enterobacter (0.47%), as well as archaea Methanobacterium and Methanoregula, mainly involved in hydrogenotrophic pathway.

Neurotoxicant effects of bisphenol A, nonylphenol, and tert‑butyl phenol in the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

Worldwide production of alkyl phenols and ethoxylated alkyl phenols is high due to their broad industrial uses. It has been widely documented that they are endocrine disruptors, and it has been suggested that they could exert neurotoxic effects. However, a lack of information about the neurotoxic effects of APs and APEs prevails. In this study, the bisphenol A (BPA), 4-nonylphenol (NP), and 3‑tert-butylphenol (tertBP) effects on brain and spinal cord of Nile tilapia exposed to environmental concentrations were evaluated by assessing acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE), and carboxylesterases (CES) activities, and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) levels and their effects were evaluated by molecular docking. BPA and NP, tertBP behave as agonists and antagonists of AChE, BuChE, CES, and GABA, with notable differences among organs. However, none of these compounds or their metabolites interact with the enzymes' catalytic triad, suggesting an indirect alteration of enzymatic activities. While inhibiting these enzymes stand out hydrophobic interactions with the peripheral anion site, contacts with the inner face of the active site and blocking the mouth of the gorge of the active site, and steric hindrance in the enzyme pocket of glutamate decarboxylase (GAD). In contrast, inductions probably are by homotropic pseudo-cooperative phenomenon, where APEs behave as anchors favoring the active site to remain open and interactions that confer a conservative stabilization of the regulatory domain. Although the results of this study are complex, with notable differences between organs and toxicants, they are some of the first evidence of the neurotoxicity of alkylphenols and their ethoxylated derivatives.

Levels, distribution, sources and human exposure pathways of alkylphenol and alkylphenol ethoxylates in indoor dust in Turkiye

Environmental phenolic chemicals, due to their widespread occurrence and potent estrogenic properties, pose a risk to human exposure. The phenolic organic contaminants alkylphenols (APs) and alkylphenol polyethoxylates (APEs) are used in various household applications, and they may enter to the environment during production and use, potentially appearing in indoor dust. However, little is known about the levels of environmental phenolics in indoor environments. In this study, five of these compounds namely octylphenol (OP), 4-Octylphenol Monoethoxylate (4-OPME), 4-tert-octylphenol (4-t-OP), 4-n-nonylphenol (4-n-NP) and nonylphenol diethoxylate (di-NPE) were analyzed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in household dust samples (n = 148) collected from Ankara, the capital of Turkiye. OP and 4-OPME was not present in any of the analyzed samples. The median concentrations of the 148 settling dust samples were 35, 520, and 1910 ng g-1 dust for 4-t-OP, 4-n-NP, and di-NPE, respectively. An assessment of the human (children and adults) exposure pathway to APs and APEs, which are recognized as endocrine-disrupting chemicals found in residential dust, revealed that it was approximately 3 times higher for children than for adults at both moderate and heavy exposure levels. The association between chemical exposure, house characteristics, and family lifestyle was investigated using a multivariate logistic regression model. According to the results of this model, while the high concentrations measured for 4-t-OP were not found to be associated with any of the household parameters, high levels of 4-n-NP and di-NPE were associated with the frequency of house cleaning, repairs made during the previous year, residential type, the number of occupants, flooring materials, and the purchase of new household items within the past year. This study provides a basis for prioritizing toxicology and exposure studies for EDCs and mixtures and may offer new tools for exposure assessment in health studies.

PPCPs in coastal wastewater treatment plant effluent and uptake by Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas): Findings from a laboratory experiment

Municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent is a primary source of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) to the marine environment, as most of these compounds are not fully removed during the treatment process. Continual discharge from WWTPs into coastal areas may act as a stressor by continually exposing organisms to a suite of PPCPs. To quantify organismal exposure to PPCP mixtures, we conducted a 12-week lab experiment that exposed Pacific oysters to effluent from two Oregon coastal WWTPs of different discharge capacities (permitted as <1 million gallons/day and >1 million gallons/day; or < or >3.785 million liters/day) at a dilution of 25 %. Composite samples of weekly collected effluent and a subset of freeze-dried oysters from experiment week 12 were analyzed for PPCPs. Though challenges with food availability inhibited our ability to confidently identify effects of the contaminants on growth and fitness, the experiment allowed us to examine uptake of contaminants from effluent into an estuarine bivalve of commercial importance. We detected 30 PPCPs and three alkylphenols in effluent and 13 PPCPs and four alkylphenols in oyster tissue, indicating high rates of release from secondary treatment and significant potential for marine organism exposure to and uptake of PPCPs in rural coastal areas.

Long-Chain Alkylphenol Biodegradation Potential of Soil Ascomycota

A total of 11 ascomycete strains destructing technical nonylphenol (NP) and 4-tert-octylphenol (4-t-OP) were isolated from NP-contaminated soddy-podzolic loamy soil (Leningrad Region, Russia). The isolates proved capable of degrading NP and 4-t-OP at a high load (300 mg/L). The most efficient Fusarium solani strain 8F degraded alkylphenols (APs) both in cometabolic conditions and in the absence of additional carbon and energy sources. A decrease in APs was due to biodegradation or biotransformation by the strain and, to a minor extent, absorption by fungal cells. NP and 4-t-OP half-lives were, respectively, 3.5 and 6.4 h in cometabolic conditions and 9 and 19.7 h in the absence of additional carbon and energy sources. Amounts of the lipid peroxidation product malondialdehyde (MDA) and reduced glutathione (GSH) increased during NP and 4-t-OP biodegradation in cometabolic conditions by 1.7 and 2 times, respectively, as compared with a control. A high GSH level in F. solani 8F cells potentially implicated the metabolite in both AP biodegradation and strain resistance to oxidative stress. The study is the first to report on the NP and 4-t-OP degradation by the ascomycete F. solani in cometabolic conditions and in the absence of additional carbon and energy sources. The high AP degradation potential of soil ascomycetes was assumed to provide a basis for new environmentally safe bioremediation technologies for purification of soils and natural and waste waters contaminated with endocrine disruptors.

Recent advances in advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) for the treatment of nitro- and alkyl-phenolic compounds

The presence of phenolic compounds in the aquatic environment has posed severe risks due to their toxicity. Among the phenolic families, nitro- and alkyl-phenolic compounds have been categorized as precedence contaminants by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). Therefore, efficient treatment methods for wastewater containing nitro- and alkyl-phenolic compounds are urgently needed. Due to the advantages of creating reactive species and generating efficient degradation of hazardous contaminants in wastewater, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are well-known in the field of treating toxic contaminants. In this review paper, the recent directions in AOPs, catalysts, mechanisms, and kinetics of AOPs are comprehensively reviewed. Furthermore, the conclusion summarizes the research findings, future prospects, and opportunities for this study. The main direction of AOPs lies on the optimization of catalyst and operating parameters, with industrial applications remain as the main challenge. This review article is expected to present a summary and in-depth understanding of AOPs development; and thus, inspiring scientists to accelerate the evolution of AOPs in industrial applications.

Microbial detoxification of 3,5-xylenol via a novel process with sequential methyl oxidation by Rhodococcus sp. CHJ602

The compound 3,5-xylenol is an essential precursor used in pesticides and industrial intermediate in the disinfectants and preservatives industry. Its widespread application makes it an important source of pollution. Microbial bioremediation is more environmentally friendly than the physicochemical treatment process for removing alkylphenols from a polluted environment. However, the 3,5-xylenol-degrading bacteria is unavailable, and its degradation mechanism remains unclear. Here, a 3,5-xylenol-metabolizing bacterial strain, designated Rhodococcus sp. CHJ602, was isolated using 3,5-xylenol as the sole source of carbon and energy from a wastewater treatment factory. Results showed that strain CHJ602 maintained a high 3,5-xylenol-degrading performance under the conditions of 30.15 °C and pH 7.37. The pathway involved in 3,5-xylenol degradation by strain CHJ602 must be induced by 3,5-xylenol. Based on the identification of intermediate metabolites and enzyme activities, this bacterium could oxidize 3,5-xylenol by a novel metabolic pathway. One methyl oxidation converted 3,5-xylenol to 3-hydroxymethyl-5-methylphenol, 3-hydroxy-5-methyl benzaldehyde, and 3-hydroxy-5-methylbenzoate. After that, another methyl oxidation is converted to 5-hydroxyisophthalicate, which is metabolized by the protocatechuate pathway. It is catalyzed by a series of enzymes in strain CHJ602. In addition, toxicity bioassay result indicates that 3,5-xylenol is toxic to zebrafish and Rhodococcus sp. CHJ602 could eliminate 3,5-xylenol in water to protect zebrafish from its toxicity. The results provide insights into the bioremediation of wastewater contaminated 3,5-xylenol.

The impact of endocrine disrupting compounds and carcinogens in wastewater: Implications for breast cancer

The incidence of breast cancer is often associated with geographic variation which indicates that a person's surrounding environment can be an important etiological factor in cancer development. Environmental risk factors can include exposure to sewage- or wastewater, which consist of a complex mixture of pathogens, mutagens and carcinogens. Wastewater contains primarily carbonaceous, nitrogenous and phosphorus compounds, however it can also contain trace amounts of chemical pollutants including toxic metal cations, hydrocarbons and pesticides. More importantly, the contamination of drinking water by wastewater is a potential source of exposure to mammary carcinogens and endocrine disrupting compounds. Organic solvents and other pollutants often found in wastewater have been detected in various tissues, including breast and adipose tissues. Furthermore, these pollutants such as phenolic compounds in some detergents and plastics, as well as parabens and pesticides can mimic estrogen. High estrogen levels are a well-established risk factor for estrogen-receptor (ER) positive breast cancer. Therefore, exposure to wastewater is a risk factor for the initiation, progression and metastasis of breast cancer. Carcinogens present in wastewater can promote tumourigenesis through various mechanisms, including the formation of DNA adducts, gene mutations and oxidative stress. Lastly, the presence of endocrine disrupting compounds in wastewater can have negative implications for ER-positive breast cancers, where these molecules can activate ERα to promote cell proliferation, survival and metastasis. As such, strategies should be implemented to limit exposure, such as providing funding into treatment technologies and implementation of regulations that limit the production and use of these potentially harmful chemicals.

Fluidized Immobilized Carbon Catalytic Oxidation Reactor for Treating Domestic Wastewater

Treating wastewater and reusing it have become normal in the present era since the scarcity of fresh water prevails in many parts of the world. There are numerous techniques for treating domestic wastewater, and many have been explored to advance the ones already in use. This study is taken up to explore the new technology called fluidized immobilized carbon catalytic oxidation (FICCO). Usually, both organic and inorganic materials are present in residential wastewater. In this study, catalyst-activated carbon produced from rice husk is added to a FICCO reactor to test the effectiveness of decreasing organic contaminants in wastewater. Six FICCO models were fabricated in this research study, and tests were conducted. The effectiveness of COD and BOD removal was investigated using six FICCO models with activated carbon made from rice husk as a catalyst and presented in this paper. The FICCO reactor was also used to treat organic contaminants such as surfactants, starch, oil, and protein with rice husk as activated carbon as a catalyst. Organic pollutants used the FICCO reactor; COD removal varied from 75.6% to 92.4%, BOD removal ranged from 74.9% to 89.5% at the optimum contact time, and catalyst rice husk-activated carbon application. The optimum catalyst dosage was 12 g per 620 ml of wastewater, which is the capacity of each reactor and a substantial reduction in sludge.

Effects of 4-n-nonylphenol in liver of male and female viviparous fish (Poecilia vivipara)

4-n-Nonylphenol (NP) is one of the most toxic alkylphenols found in the environment. To evaluate the transcriptional effects of NP in the viviparous fish Poecilia vivipara, a hepatic transcriptome and qPCR analysis of genes were carried out. Guppies separated by sex were injected with two doses of NP (15 μg/g and 150 μg/g) or peanut oil (control). After 24 h, analysis of transcriptional level of Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (AhR), Estrogen Nuclear Receptor Alpha (ESR1), Pregnane X Receptor (PXR), Cytochromes P450 (CYP1A, CYP2K1 and CYP3A30), Glutathione S-transferase A3 and Mu 3 (GSTa3 and GSTMu3), SRY-Box Transcription Factor 9 (SOX9), Vitellogenin-1 (VIT), ATP Binding Cassette Subfamily C Member 1 (ABCC1), Multidrug Resistance-Associated Protein 2 (MRP2) and UDP Glucuronosyltransferase Family 1 Member A1 (UGT1A1) was evaluated. 205,046 transcripts were assembled and protein prediction resulted in 203,147 predicted peptides. In females, no significant changes were detected in the transcription of some phase I biotransformation and ABC transporter genes. AhR, PXR, GSTa3 and SOX9 genes where higher in the lower dose group (15 μg/g) compared to control. In male fish, no changes were observed in the transcript levels of the nuclear receptors, in endocrine disruption and phase I biotransformation genes. GSTa3 showed lower transcription in fish treated with both doses. ABCC1 was higher in guppies treated with the lower dose while MRP2 showed less transcripts. This short-term and low-dose exposure to NP caused changes that could serve as early indicators of deleterious processes. These results indicate P. vivipara as a good sentinel in biomonitoring programs.

Novel nonylphenol-degrading bacterial strains isolated from sewage sludge: Application in bioremediation of sludge

Nonylphenol (NP) is an anthropogenic pollutant frequently found in sewage sludge due to the insufficient degrading effectiveness of conventional WWTPs and has attracted attention as an endocrine disruptor. The aim of this study was to isolate specific NP-degrading bacteria from sewage sludge to be used in the degradation of this contaminant through bioaugmentation processes in aqueous solution and sewage sludge. Up to eight different bacterial strains were isolated, six of them not previously described as NP degraders. Bacillus safensis CN12 presented the best NP degradation in solution, and glucose used as an external carbon source increased its effect, reaching DT₅₀ degradation values (time to decline to half the initial concentration of the pollutant) of only 0.9 days and a complete degradation in <7 days. Four NP metabolites were identified throughout the biodegradation process, showing higher toxicity than the parent contaminant. In sewage sludge suspensions, the endogenous microbiota was capable of partially degrading NP, but a part remained adsorbed as bound residue. Bioaugmentation was used for the first time to remove NP from sewage sludge to obtain more environmentally friendly biosolids. However, B. safensis CN12 was not able to degrade NP due to its high adsorption on sludge, but the use of a cyclodextrin (HPBCD) as availability enhancer allowed us to extract NP and degrade it in solution. The addition of glucose as an external carbon source gave the best results since the metabolism of the sludge microbiota was activated, and HPBCD was able to remove NP from sewage sludge to the solution to be degraded by B. safensis CN12. These results indicate that B. safensis CN12 can be used to degrade NP in water and sewage sludge, but the method must be improved using consortia of B. safensis CN12 with other bacterial strains able to degrade the toxic metabolites produced.

Emerging contaminants migration from pipes used in drinking water distribution systems: a review of the scientific literature

Migration of emerging contaminants (ECs) from pipes into water is a global concern due to potential human health effects. Nevertheless, a review of migration ECs from pipes into water distribution systems is presently lacking. This paper reviews, the reported occurrence migration of ECs from pipes into water distribution systems in the world. Furthermore, the results related to ECs migration from pipes into water distribution systems, their probable sources, and their hazards are discussed. The present manuscript considered the existing reports on migration of five main categories of ECs including microplastics (MPs), bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, nonylphenol (NP), perfluoroalkyl, and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from distribution network into tap water. A focus on tap water in published literature suggests that pipes type used had an important role on levels of ECs migration in water during transport and storage of water. For comparison, tap drinking water in contact with polymer pipes had the highest mean concentrations of reviewed contaminants. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyamide (PA), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) were the most frequently detected types of microplastics (MPs) in tap water. Based on the risk assessment analysis of ECs, levels of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS), and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) were above 1, indicating a potential non-carcinogenic health risk to consumers. Finally, there are still scientific gaps on occurrence and migration of ECs from pipes used in distribution systems, and this needs more in-depth studies to evaluate their exposure hazards on human health.

Management of greywater: environmental impact, treatment, resource recovery, water recycling, and decentralization

Wastewater generated from households can be classified into greywater and blackwater. Greywater makes up a substantial portion of household wastewater. Such water consists of wastewater released from kitchen sinks, showers, laundries, and hand basins. Since the greywater is not mixed with human excreta and due to the low levels of pathogenic contamination and nitrogen, it has received more attention for recycling and reusing in recent decades. Implementing decentralized greywater treatment systems can be an effective solution to overcome water scarcity by supplying a part of water requirement, at least non-potable demand, and decreasing pollutant emissions by eliminating long-distance water transportation in remote regions, like rural and isolated areas. This review focuses on greywater management in terms of reducing environmental risks as well as the possibility of treatment. Effective management of water reclamation systems is essential for a decentralized approach and to ensure the protection of public health. In this regard, the environmental impacts of disposal or reusing the untreated greywater are discussed. Furthermore, the most appropriate technologies that can be employed for the decentralized treatment of greywaters like constructed wetlands, waste stabilization ponds, membrane systems, and electrochemical technologies are described. Finally, this review summarizes resource recovery and sustainable resource reuse.

Modelling of micropollutant fate in hybrid growth systems: model concepts, Peterson matrix, and application to a lab-scale pilot plant

Modelling the fate of micropollutants in different wastewater treatment processes is of present concern. Moreover, during the last few years, there has been an increasing interest in the development of hybrid reactors which contain both suspended biomass and biofilm. Here, a new model developed which tries to determine the fate of micropollutants in hybrid reactors such as moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR) and called the ASM-biofilm-MPs model considered the main mechanisms leading to the micropollutant removal (sorption/desorption, biodegradation, cometabolism) in hybrid reactors. This dynamic model describes the fate of micropollutants in a hybrid reactor using first-order kinetics for biotransformation and sorption/desorption equations. Also, it considered the reactions for carbon oxidation, nitrification, and denitrification in attached and suspended biomass under aerobic conditions. The mathematical model consists of three connected models for the simulation of micropollutants, suspended biomass, and biofilm. Biochemical conversions are evaluated according to the Activated Sludge Model No. 1 (ASM1) for both attached and suspended biomass. The model is applied for a laboratory MBBR, which fed with synthetic wastewater containing 4-nonylphenol (4-NP) as micropollutant, and accurately describes the experimental concentrations of COD, attached and suspended biomass, nitrogen, and 4-NP micropollutant obtained during 180 days working at different loadings. The differences between simulations and experiments in all operational periods for sCOD, NH₄-N, NO₃-N, and attached and suspended biomass concentrations were less than 15%, 10%, 10%, 5% and 5%, respectively. Finally, the contribution of adsorption and biodegradation mechanisms in the fate of 4-NP was calculated, when 4-NP concentration is set to 1 µg/L (biodegradation = 86.5%, sorption = 5%) and 50 µg/L (biodegradation = 55.9%, sorption = 34.7%).

Modeling and assessment of the transfer effectiveness in integrated bioreactor with membrane separation

Integrating a reaction process with membrane separation allows for effective product removal, favorable shifting of the reaction equilibrium, overcoming eventual inhibitory or toxic effects of the products and has the advantage of being energy and space saving. It has found a range of applications in innovative biotechnologies, generating value-added products (exopolysaccharides, antioxidants, carboxylic acids) with high potential for separation/ concentration of thermosensitive bioactive compounds, preserving their biological activity and reducing the amount of solvents and the energy for solvent recovery. Evaluating the effectiveness of such integrated systems is based on fluid dynamics and mass transfer knowledge of flowing matter close to the membrane surface – shear deformation rates and shear stress at the membrane interface, mass transfer coefficients. A Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)-based approach for assessing the effectiveness of integrated stirred tank bioreactor with submerged membrane module is compiled. It is related to the hydrodynamic optimization of the selected reactor configuration in two-phase flow, as well as to the concentration profiles and analysis of the reactor conditions in terms of reaction kinetics and mass transfer.

An overview on surfactants as pollutants of concern: Occurrence, impacts and persulfate-based remediation technologies

Surfactants are molecules that reduce interfacial energy and increase solubility of other pollutants in water. These properties make them suitable for various domestic and industrial applications, soil remediation, pesticide formulation, among others. The increase in their use and the lack of strict regulations regarding their disposal and management is a matter of concern and requires more attention since the release and distribution of these compounds into the environment can modify important water quality parameters. As a result of these changes, different toxicological effects to aquatic organisms are discussed and exposed herein. On this basis, we provide an overview of the classes of surfactants, as well as their occurrence in different aqueous matrices. In addition, existing regulations around the world regarding their concentration limit for different environments are discussed. Current research focuses on the application of conventional treatments, such as biological treatments; notwithstanding, more toxic and bioaccumulative products can be generated. Advanced Oxidation Processes are promising alternatives and have also been widely applied for the removal of surfactants. This study provides, for the first time, an overview of the application of persulfate-based processes for surfactants degradation based on recent literature findings, as well as the various factors related to the activation of the persulfate anions. This review also highlights the challenges and opportunities for future research to overcome the obstacles to the practical application of this process.

Evaluation of occurrence of organic, inorganic, and microbial contaminants in bottled drinking water and comparison with international guidelines: a worldwide review

The aim of this study was to evaluate the levels of inorganic and organic substances as well as microbial contaminants in bottled drinking water on a global scale. The findings were compared to WHO guidelines, EPA standards, European Union (EU) directive, and standards drafted by International Bottled Water Association (IBWA). Our review showed that 46% of studies focused on the organic contaminants, 25% on physicochemical parameters, 12% on trace elements, 7% on the microbial quality, and 10% on microplastics (MPs) and radionuclides elements. Overall, from the 54 studies focusing on organic contaminants (OCs) compounds, 11% of studies had higher OCs concentrations than the standard permissible limit. According to the obtained results from this review, several OCs, inorganic contaminants (IOCs), including CHCl3, CHBrCl2, DEHP, benzene, styrene, Ba, As, Hg, pb, Ag, F, NO3, and SO4 in bottled drinking water of some countries were higher than the international guidelines values that may cause risks for human health in a long period of time. Furthermore, some problematic contaminants with known or unknown health effects such as EDCs, DBP, AA, MPs, and some radionuclides (40K and 222Rn) lack maximum permissible values in bottled drinking water as stipulated by international guidelines. The risk index (HI) for OCs and IOCs (CHBrCl2, Ba, As, and Hg) was higher than 1 in adults and children, and the value of HI for CHCl3 in children was more than 1. Thus, further studies are required to have a better understanding of all contaminants levels in bottled drinking water.

Distribution patterns and transportation behavior of alkylphenol polyethoxylate degradation metabolites among river, port area, and coastal water bodies of Kaohsiung City, Taiwan

In this study, we conducted a comprehensive study of the distribution, transportation behavior and potential ecological risk of alkylphenol polyethoxylates (APnEOs) in the aquatic environments of Kaohsiung City, Taiwan because little information is available regarding the fate of APnEOs in the water bodies of a total environment. At Love River, APnEOs concentrations were much higher at upstream of interception stations L15 (27.33 ± 1.22 μg/L) and L16 (6.31 ± 0.14 μg/L) than at downstream of interception stations L1-L14 (0.69-2.54 μg/L). Additionally, the average ethoxy (EO) chain lengths of APnEOs at L15 and L16 were longer than at L1-L14. These observations were attributed to the sluice between L14 and L15 that intercepts and accumulates untreated sewage from upstream areas and to the infrastructure of the sewage system that prevents domestic sewage from flowing downstream in the river and to the Kaohsiung Port Area. At Kaohsiung Port Area, APnEO concentrations ranging from 0.63 to 6.50 μg/L were measured. The concentration range and average EO chain length of these APnEOs were similar to those of the downstream stretch of the river, which was attributed to the mixing efficiency of the Kaohsiung Port Area and Love River through tidal exchange. At Cijin Coastal Area, APnEO concentrations ranged from 0.14 to 18.77 μg/L. Notably, the APnEO concentration of surface waters was much higher than that of bottom waters. This observation was attributed to the sewage discharged from the ocean outfall buoying up to the surface instead of mixing with surrounding bottom waters. In potential ecological risk, 19 of 39 sampling points exceeded toxic equivalency of 1 μg/L, and approximately 48.7% of the sampling points would exceed the threshold. The result provides insight into the environmental implications of APnEOs contamination in aquatic environments and useful information for environmental policy and ecological risk assessments.

Annual Evaluation of 17 Oestrogenic Endocrine Disruptors and Hazard Indexes in the Douro River Estuary—The Atlantic Discharge of the Highest-Flow River of Southwestern Europe

The concentrations of seventeen endocrine disruptor compounds (EDCs) that included oestrogens, phytoestrogens, sitosterol, and banned industrial pollutants were investigated at ten sites of the Douro River estuary. Surface waters were collected during 2019. After evaluating the physicochemical data (ammonia, nitrates, nitrites and phosphates), the waters were filtrated and submitted to solid-phase extraction (SPE) to extract and pre-concentrate (4000-fold) the EDCs. The extracts were derivatized with BSTFA + 1% TMS and analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). All EDCs showed a high detection rate (97%, on average), exhibiting ubiquity in this estuary. The finding of biologically relevant amounts of oestrogens (up to 8.5 ng/L for oestradiol, E2), phytoestrogens (up to 827 ng/L for biochanin A, BIO-A) and industrial pollutants (up to 2.7 µg/L for nonylphenol di-ethoxylated, NP2EO) strongly support ongoing risks of endocrine disruption for the local aquatic wildlife. Globally, there was an E2-equivalents (E2-EQs) concentration of 25 ng/L and a hazard index (HI) of 26, which further indicates considerable potential for adverse effects on local biota. Moreover, the physicochemical data suggest direct sewage discharges. Beyond possible toxicological effects on fauna, the detected contaminants may pose risks to humans via direct contact (bathing at local fluvial beaches) or by ingestion (local fish).

Emerging contaminants of high concern for the environment: Current trends and future research

Wastewater is contaminated water that must be treated before it may be transferred into other rivers and lakes in order to prevent further groundwater pollution. Over the last decade, research has been conducted on a wide variety of contaminants, but the emerging contaminants are those caused primarily by micropollutants, endocrine disruptors (EDs), pesticides, pharmaceuticals, hormones, and toxins, as well as industrially-related synthetic dyes and dye-containing hazardous pollutants. Most emerging pollutants did not have established guidelines, but even at low concentrations they could have harmful effects on humans and aquatic organisms. In order to combat the above ecological threats, huge efforts have been done with a view to boosting the effectiveness of remediation procedures or developing new techniques for the detection, quantification and efficiency of the samples. The increase of interest in biotechnology and environmental engineering gives an opportunity for the development of more innovative ways to water treatment remediation. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of emerging sources of contaminants, detection technologies, and treatment strategies. The goal of this review is to evaluate adsorption as a method for treating emerging pollutants, as well as sophisticated and cost-effective approaches for treating emerging contaminants.

Toxicological effects of active and inert ingredients of imazethapyr formulation Verosil® against Scenedesmus vacuolatus (Chlorophyta)

Imazethapyr, a selective systemic herbicide, is widely used in agriculture and it is frequently detected in water bodies close to application areas. Like other agrochemicals, imazethapyr is commercialized in formulations containing a mixture of additives that increase the effectiveness of the active ingredient. These complex mixtures may cause adverse effects on non-target primary producers, such as microalgae, when they reach freshwater bodies. The aim of this study was to assess the effects, separately, of the formulation Verosil^®, the formulation additives, and technical-grade imazethapyr, in the acidic form or as ammonium salt, on the microalga Scenedesmus vacuolatus (Chlorophyta). Verosil^®, formulation additives, and acid imazethapyr significantly inhibited the growth of S. vacuolatus (Verosil^® > formulation additives > acid imazethapyr) and caused morphological alterations from 2 mg L^-1, 4 mg L^-1, and 60 mg L^-1 onwards, respectively. Verosil^® and formulation additives caused the most adverse effect including membrane disorganization, cytoplasm contraction, cell wall thickening, thylakoidal membrane disaggregation, and starch granule accumulation. In addition, Verosil^® and formulation additives increased the chl a/chl b ratio, indicating possible alterations in photosystems as a stress response. The carotene/chl a ratio was also increased in microalgae exposed to both Verosil^® and formulation additives, suggesting an antioxidant response to these toxic compounds. All these results support the hypothesis that the formulation additives contribute significantly to the toxicity and alterations caused by the commercial formulation Verosil^® on S. vacuolatus.

Degradation of the endocrine-disrupting 4-nonylphenol by ferrate(VI): biodegradability and toxicity evaluation

4-Nonylphenol (4-NP) is an endocrine-disrupting and persistent chemical and is partially degraded in conventional wastewater treatment processes. Ferrate(VI) can be used as an environment-friendly oxidizing agent to mediate 4-NP degradation. Thus, this paper evaluates the biodegradability of 4-NP and its degradation products after the addition of ferrate(VI). The biodegradability was examined using NP labeled with ¹⁴C as a tracer and activated sludge microorganisms as an inoculum. The addition of ferrate(VI) to the 4-NP solution spiked with the tracer resulted in no remarkable decrease in the concentration of ¹⁴C, indicating incomplete mineralization of 4-NP and formation of degradation products. The degradation products from 4-NP with Fe(VI) were estimated based on mass spectra, which detected a unique peak at m/z 223 at low intensity. Four hydrogen atoms might have been added to 4-NP by degradation with Fe(VI). In addition, the effect of ferrate(VI) concentration on the estrogenic activity of 4-NP in an aqueous solution was investigated using a yeast bioassay. The results show that estrogenic activity was significantly decreased at a mass ratio of Fe(VI) to 4-NP greater than or equal to 2.5.

Greywater characteristics, impacts, treatment, and reclamation using adsorption processes towards the circular economy

The gap between water demand and available water supply led to wastewater treatment, particularly greywater. Due to specific characteristics of grey wastewater, treatment and recycling of this type of wastewater capture global attention. This paper presents a literature review of the remediation of greywater by adsorption processes. Besides, the reclamation of the grey wastewater in the context of the circular economy is highlighted. In this regard, the characterization of various types of grey wastewater, the potential risks associated with greywater, and the properties of reclaimed water as per the regulation or guideline are summarized. These standards vary based on the application of reused water and from a country to another country. Furthermore, this review elucidates the adsorption process in terms of the type of adsorbents, modification of adsorbents and their regeneration process, adsorption isotherm, kinetics and thermodynamic of adsorption, and optimization of adsorption system. Finally, the removal of different pollutants from greywater by various adsorbents and techno-economic aspects are illustrated.

Sorption of 4-n-nonylphenol, 4-n-octylphenol, and 4-tert-octyphenol on cyclodextrin polymers

Alkylphenols are industrial pollutants commonly present in wastewater. They are difficult to eliminate by conventional treatment processes, ending up in the sludge of wastewater treatment plants. In this study, we propose to use cross-linked cyclodextrin-based polymers (ECP) as sorbents to treat three alkylphenols, namely, one nonylphenol (4-n-NP) and two octylphenols (4-n-OP and 4-tert-OP), present in aqueous solution by a batch method. The experiments were carried out with five cyclodextrin polymers (α-ECP, β-ECP, γ-ECP, α,β,γ-ECP, and HP-β-ECP). Sorption results showed that all polymers, with the exception of α-ECP, had high sorption capacities between 60 and 100% of the alkylphenols in the concentration range studied (between 25 and 100 μg/L). In all cases, HP-β-ECP has shown the highest removals, regardless of the structure of the molecule. The order obtained was HP-β-ECP >> β-ECP ~ α,β,γ-ECP >> γ-ECP > α-ECP. The 4-tert-OP compound was the best adsorbed, regardless the material and the solution studied. Sorption results also indicated that (i) the sorption efficiency decreased with the increasing of alkylphenol concentration; (ii) sodium chloride had a strong negative effect on the sorption process; and (iii) the performance remained unchanged after five sorption-regeneration cycles. The main sorption mechanism of alkylphenols occurring in ECP was the inclusion within the cyclodextrin cavities. The obtained results proved that cyclodextrin polymers could serve as efficient sorbents for the removal of alkylphenols from real effluents.

Comparison of three explorative methods for identifying building surface materials contributing pollutants to stormwater

Runoff from building and structure surfaces may contribute to the pollution of urban stormwater and, thereby, to the degradation of the receiving water quality. Various micropollutants have been found in surface runoff from buildings in the urban environment, including metals and organic micropollutants. Effective methods for identification of such pollutants and their sources are the prerequisites for the development of control measures. In this paper, three different methods for the identification of building surface materials acting as sources of metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn), nonylphenols and phthalates are presented: (i) screening of the material composition, (ii) laboratory leaching experiments with synthetic rainwater, and (iii) open-air pilot testing of material panels exposed to actual rainfall and runoff. These three methods cover a wide span of experimental aspects, including, e.g., size of material samples, resource demands, and control of influential factors. Nine materials commonly used on building and structure surfaces in the urban environment were tested: metal sheets of zinc, copper, galvanised steel, coated corrugated steel and stainless steel; and, four different roofing membranes of bitumen as well as polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The experimental results indicated that all three methods were meritorious in providing some information contributing to the identification of pollutant sources. The screening of material composition for targeted pollutants is relatively quick and inexpensive, but may fail to identify minor sources of pollutants, or may identify the substances present in the material, but not released in contact with water. Laboratory leaching was generally effective in identifying sources of substances present in surface runoff, but was unsuitable for estimating the magnitude of actual concentrations in building runoff. Open-air pilot studies of material samples (exposed area = 2 m²) were thought to provide the results corresponding well to concentrations in runoff from actual building surfaces, but required relatively large financial and labour resources. Thus, the choice of the method for pollutant identification should be based on study objectives, and some benefits may be achieved using more than one method in an integrated manner; e.g., composition screening and lab or open-air leaching of targeted materials.

Highly efficient adsorption and mechanism of alkylphenols on magnetic reduced graphene oxide

The influence of alkylphenols to environment cannot be ignored, as they are common product from chemical industries and potential threat to human health. Some alkylphenols are listed as persistent toxic substances (PTS) by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). In this study, the optimized magnetic reduced graphene oxide (MrGO) was synthesized by a facile solvothermal method, and investigated for adsorption of three typical alkylphenols. In neutral condition, MrGO showed extremely high adsorption capacity of three typical alkylphenols, 4-heptylphenol (4-HP), 4-tert-octylphenol (4-OP), and 4-nonylphenol (4-NP), which could reach 938.9 mg g^-1 (40 °C), 987.8 mg g^-1 (40 °C), and 989.7 mg g^-1 (20 °C), respectively. This study revealed that the adsorption process was a heterogeneous multi-layer physical adsorption, and the adsorption rates were related to the number of unoccupied vacancies on the adsorbent surface. From batch experiments and density functional theory (DFT) calculations, the main adsorption interactions between MrGO and alkylphenols were deduced to be π-π, hydrogen-bond, and hydrophobic interactions. What's more, the different affinities of MrGO towards different targets were further distinguished and explained in detail. The wonderful stability and recyclability of MrGO made it a promising cost-effective remediation candidate.

Environmental risks and toxicity of surfactants: overview of analysis, assessment, and remediation techniques

This work comprehensively reviewed the toxicity and risks of various surfactants and their degraded products in the environmental matrices, various analytical procedures, and remediation methods for these surfactants. The findings revealed that the elevated concentration of surfactants and their degraded products disrupt microbial dynamics and their important biogeochemical processes, hinder plant-surviving processes and their ecological niche, and retard the human organic and systemic functionalities. The enormous adverse effects of surfactants on health and the environment necessitate the need to develop, select, and advance the various analytical and assessment techniques to achieve effective identification and quantification of several surfactants in different environmental matrices. Considering the presence of surfactants in trace concentration and environmental matrices, excellent analysis can only be achieved with appropriate extraction, purification, and preconcentration. Despite these pre-treatment procedures, the chromatographic technique is the preferred analytical technique considering its advancement and shortcomings of other techniques. In the literature, the choice or selection of remediation techniques for surfactants depends largely on eco-friendliness, cost-implications, energy requirements, regeneration potential, and generated sludge composition and volume. Hence, the applications of foam fractionation, electrochemical advanced oxidation processes, thermophilic aerobic membranes reactors, and advanced adsorbents are impressive in the clean-up of the surfactants in the environment. This article presents a compendium of knowledge on environmental toxicity and risks, analytical techniques, and remediation methods of surfactants as a guide for policymakers and researchers.

LED irradiated photo-Fenton for the removal of estrogenic activity and endocrine disruptors from wastewater treatment plant effluent

The goal of this work was to evaluate the performance of the LED irradiated photo-Fenton process on the removal of (i) estrogenic activity and (ii) seven endocrine disruptors (EDs) (4-octylphenol, 4-nonylphenol, bisphenol A, estrone, 17β-estradiol, 17α-ethinylestradiol, and estriol) from real wastewater treatment plant effluent (WWTPE). EDs are a group of contaminants of emerging concern present in WWTPE and which may be recognized by hormone receptors, thus harming animal and human health. The yeast estrogenic screen test (YES) was used to quantify estrogenic activity promoted by EDs in WWTPE samples before and after photo-Fenton treatment. Tests were performed following a factorial design with different iron (20, 40, and 60 mg L^-1) and hydrogen peroxide (100, 200, and 300 mg L^-1) concentrations in a laboratory scale LED photoreactor (λ = 455 nm, 1.5 L, 1.6 × 10^-6 Einstein s^-1). EDs were analyzed by gas chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer. Control experiments consisted of Fenton process, iron only, LED irradiation only, and H₂O₂ only. Optimum experimental conditions for LED photo-Fenton resulted in 62% removal of estrogenic activity and 59% mineralization. In addition, treated WWTPE was not toxic to Aliivibrio fischeri and more than 80% of EDs were removed during LED irradiated photo-Fenton. Although Fenton process showed similar efficiency to that obtained by LED photo-Fenton, a higher volume of sludge was generated in the dark. Finally, results obtained in this study confirm the applicability of LED irradiated photo-Fenton process for improving the quality of WWTPE as an alternative to solar photo-Fenton in case solar radiation is not available, thus reducing hazards associated to WWTPE reuse or discharge.

Emerging contaminant occurrence and toxic effects on zebrafish embryos to assess the adverse effects caused by mixtures of substances in the environment

The contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) have been receiving global attention due to their worldwide presence in water bodies. The CECs could be originated from synthetic or natural sources, and they are not commonly monitored, although these substances are continuously reaching the aquatic environment. The main goal of this study was to determine the occurrence of some target CECs in São Paulo state surface water, once there is practically no information on the presence and concentration range of these substances at the studied sites. In addition, the present study aimed to assess adverse effects in the non-target fish embryo of Danio rerio (zebrafish) after exposure to surface water organic extract samples during 96 h using FET test. The CECs in surface water samples were determined by solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography coupled by mass spectrometry. A 2-year study was assessed in 7 rivers and 3 reservoirs at São Paulo state, where 25 of the 30 analyzed substances were quantified, being caffeine the substance with the highest concentration range (5.5 ng L^-1 to 69 μg L^-1) and detected in 95% of analyzed samples, followed by bisphenol A (6.5-1300 ng L^-1) and carbendazim (4.7-285 ng L^-1), found in 50% and 85% of the analyzed samples, respectively. The chemical analysis and biological test were not performed in order to show a direct relationship between concentrations and observed effects on embryos; however, the combined approach can provide a better understanding of the adverse effects caused by mixtures of substances at relevant environmental concentrations. Regarding the adverse effects, it was observed that in the samples from sites with higher anthropogenic activity in the surroundings, there was also a higher mortality rate in organisms. At the Ribeirão Pires River and Sapucaí-Guaçu River, the mortality rate during the 2-year study was 21.6% and 9.3%, respectively. The morphological abnormality rates were higher at Ribeirão Grande (21.4%) and Ribeirão Pires (29.5%) Rivers. The obtained results aim to show that even in low concentrations (ng-μg L^-1) the CECs can cause adverse effects on non-target species, and because of that, new chemical indicators would be important to monitor the water quality and protect the aquatic biota.

The Agonist Action of Alkylphenols on TRPA1 Relates to Their Effects on Membrane Lipid Order: Implications for TRPA1-Mediated Chemosensation

The Transient Receptor Potential Ankyrin 1 cation channel (TRPA1) is a broadly-tuned chemosensor expressed in nociceptive neurons. Multiple TRPA1 agonists are chemically unrelated non-electrophilic compounds, for which the mechanisms of channel activation remain unknown. Here, we assess the hypothesis that such chemicals activate TRPA1 by inducing mechanical perturbations in the plasma membrane. We characterized the activation of mouse TRPA1 by non-electrophilic alkylphenols (APs) of different carbon chain lengths in the para position of the aromatic ring. Having discarded oxidative stress and the action of electrophilic mediators as activation mechanisms, we determined whether APs induce mechanical perturbations in the plasma membrane using dyes whose fluorescence properties change upon alteration of the lipid environment. APs activated TRPA1, with potency increasing with their lipophilicity. APs increased the generalized polarization of Laurdan fluorescence and the anisotropy of the fluorescence of 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene (DPH), also according to their lipophilicity. Thus, the potency of APs for TRPA1 activation is an increasing function of their ability to induce lipid order and membrane rigidity. These results support the hypothesis that TRPA1 senses non-electrophilic compounds by detecting the mechanical alterations they produce in the plasma membrane. This may explain how structurally unrelated non-reactive compounds induce TRPA1 activation and support the role of TRPA1 as an unspecific sensor of potentially noxious compounds.

Isolation and characterization of Aeromonas sp. TXBc10 capable of high-efficiency degradation of octylphenol polyethoxylate from tannery wastewater

Octylphenol polyethoxylate (OP _n EO) is a potential endocrine-disrupting chemical. Biodegradation of OP _n EO was investigated using the bacterium Aeromonas sp. TXBc10 isolated from the influent of tannery waste treatment plant in Hunan Province, China. The bacterium was capable of utilizing OP _n EO as the sole source of carbon and energy while OP _n EO was degraded under aerobic batch culture conditions. Microbial degradation of OP _n EO was studied in batch experiments for optimization of environmental factors. The effect of initial OP _n EO concentrations on the degradation was investigated between 100 and 1000 mg·L^-1 and the results showed that the biodegradation process conformed to the first-order kinetic model. The optimum pH, temperature, salinity and size of inoculum for OP _n EO degradation by Aeromonas sp. TXBc10 was found to be 8.0°C, 30°C, 2.5% and 2.0%, respectively. The major metabolites of OP _n EO degradation were identified as short-chain octylphenol polyethoxylate without octylphenol by high-performance liquid chromatography - mass spectrometer, which indicated that sequential cleavage of single ethoxylate units to form OP _{n- 1}EC might be the transformation mechanism of strain TXBc10. Considering that strain TXBc10 exhibits prominent advantage for biodegradation of OP _n EO, it might serve as a promising candidate for in situ remediation of OP _n EO and compounds with similar structure in tannery wastewater.

Cytoprotective effect of Nigella sativa seed on 4-nonylphenol-induced renal damage in the African catfish (Clarias gariepinus)

4-Nonylphenol (4-NP) is a nephrotoxic substance that is highly prevalent in aquatic environments. Nigella sativa seed (NSS) has many biological activities and is widely used throughout the world as a medicinal product. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated the cytoprotective effect of NSS on 4-NP-induced renal damage in African catfish (Clarias gariepinus). Thirty fish were divided into five equal groups: an untreated control group and four groups that were challenged with 4-NP at a dose of 0.1 mg L^-1 of aquarium water and fed a basal diet supplemented with 0%, 1%, 2.5%, and 5% NSS, respectively, for 3 weeks. Histological, histochemical, and ultrastructural features of the kidney were then assessed as biomarkers for renal tissue damage. Our results confirmed that 4-NP was a potent cytotoxic agent for the kidney tissue and induced renal damage, with 4-NP-intoxicated fish showing necrosis in the epithelial cells of the renal corpuscles, renal proximal convoluted tubules, and intertubular hematopoietic tissue, as well as loss of or a decrease in microvilli, a decrease in mitochondria, and an increase in the lysosomes in the epithelial cells of the proximal convoluted tubules. The kidneys of 4-NP-intoxicated fish also showed increased numbers of Perls' Prussian blue-positive melanomacrophage centers and intraepithelial T-lymphocytes in the proximal convoluted tubules and plasma cells. The administration of NSS to 4-NP-challenged fish significantly minimized the cytotoxic effect of 4-NP, maintaining the normal kidney structure, with concentrations of 2.5% and 5% of feed being most effective for protecting the kidney against 4-NP-induced renal damage.

Removal of Nonylphenol Polyethylene Glycol (NPEG) with Au-TiO2 Catalysts: Kinetic and Initial Transformation Path

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of the Au-TiO2 catalyst in the degradation of nonylphenol polyethylene glycol (NPEG). In the first part of the study, the catalyst was synthesized and characterized. Initially, the catalyst (TiO2 Degussa P-25) was doped with gold precursor salts (HAuCl4) at different concentrations (5, 10, and 15%) and the photodeposition method with UV light. It was determined by diffuse reflectance (DF) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) that the photodeposition method was effective for the inclusion of gold particles on the surface. The catalyst band gap showed a reduction to 2.9 e.v (compared to TiO2 Degussa P-25), and it was observed that the gold-doped catalyst showed absorption in the visible light range 500 to 600 nm. The percentage of deposited gold was determined by energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). In the second part of the study, various NPEG degradation experiments were performed; with the catalyst that showed the best conversion percentages of NPEG, the experimental data were analyzed using UV-Vis spectrophotometry and TOC (total organic carbon). With these results, a carbon-based mass balance and reaction kinetics were generated using the Langmuir–Hinshelwood (L–H) heterogeneous catalysis model. For the estimation of the kinetic constants, the non-linear regression of the Levenger–Marquardt algorithm was used. With these results, kinetic models of the degradation of the molecule and the generation and consumption of organic intermediate products (OIPs) were generated.

Nonylphenol ethoxylates biodegradation increases estrogenicity of textile wastewater in biological treatment systems

The formation of estrogenic intermediates, i.e. nonylphenol diethoxylate (NP2EO), nonylphenol monoethoxylate (NP1EO), and nonylphenol (NP), following nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEOs) biodegradation in textile wastewater raises concerns about its endocrine disruptive activity, but the estrogenicity changes of textile wastewater throughout biological treatment processes remain unknown. In the present study, the estrogenicity of textile wastewater sampled from 10 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) were investigated using the reporter gene-based T47D-KBluc bioassay. Results showed that the estrogenicity of the textile wastewater significantly increased after either anaerobic or aerobic treatment in all WWTPs, with an average fold change of 3.21, although traditional pollutants were effectively removed. The estradiol equivalents of the effluent (ranging from 1.50 to 4.12 ng-E2/L) were generally higher than published effect based trigger values, indicating an increased risk for the receiving waters. Removal efficiency was high (84.46%) for NPEOs, but was low for NP2EO and NP1EO in the biological treatment processes. Nevertheless, NP had increased concentrations after the treatment. Bioanalytical equivalent concentration of the textile wastewater and that of NP2EO, NP1EO, and NP showed a good linear correlation, of which NP alone contributed more than 70% to the observed estrogenicity. Extending hydraulic retention time was found effective in reducing the estrogenicity as it allows relatively complete degradation of NP, which was further confirmed by running lab-scale A/O reactors fed with NP10EO. The results may extend our knowledge regarding the estrogenicity of textile wastewater and its reduction technologies used in WWTPs.