Basal salivary cortisol secretion and susceptibility to upper respiratory infection

Predictors of milk cortisol in North American women

OBJECTIVES

Human milk content varies across mother-child dyads, environments, and populations. Among the hormones in milk is cortisol, a glucocorticoid; its impact on the breastfeeding child is unknown. Milk cortisol may constitute a signal to the child's developing physiology which can shape characteristics (e.g., growth, temperament) to prevailing environmental conditions. This exploratory study evaluated the maternal, breastfeeding, and infant characteristics associated with milk cortisol.

METHODS

We evaluated archived milk specimens for cortisol using enzyme immunoassay and employed an information-theoretic approach to assess associations between milk cortisol and participant characteristics with linear regression modeling. Because we employed secondary data, information for some variables likely to impact milk cortisol variation (e.g., time of day, socioeconomic status, maternal or infant body mass index, milk energy density) was unavailable.

RESULTS

Participants were 48 lactating mothers from upstate New York, aged 21-40 years. Milk cortisol ranged from 0.098 to 1.007 μg/dL. Child age ranged from 1 to 26 months. In linear regression employing best fit modeling criteria, milk cortisol increased with child age (B: 0.069; p: .000; a 7.1% increase in milk cortisol for each month of child age), while child symptoms of illness (B: -0.398; p: .057; a 33% decrease) and consumption of complementary foods (B: -.525; p: .020; a 41% decrease) were associated with lower milk cortisol.

CONCLUSIONS

We speculate that increasing milk cortisol with child age plays a role in signaling development (e.g., as increasing independence increases risk for injury and other negative health outcomes), independent of the maternal stressors we could capture.

Risky Early Family Environment and Genetic Associations with Adult Metabolic Dysregulation

Growing up in a family environment characterized by neglectful parenting, overt conflict, and unsupportive relationships is associated with poor health in adulthood. A risky early family environment may also be associated with obesity in adulthood, likely through the activation of the HPA axis. Likewise, the GABAergic (gamma-aminobutyric acid) T>C single nucleotide polymorphism in the 1519 nucleotide position of the GABAAα6 receptor subunit gene has been associated with a predisposition to a higher body mass index and a larger waist circumference. Participants (n = 213, Mage = 30.13 years, SD = 10.85; 57.7% men) from the Pittsburgh Cold Study 3 completed a demographic questionnaire, the Risky Families Questionnaire (RFQ) and had their height, weight, and waist circumference measured during a physical exam. Participant DNA was recovered from buccal swabs and genotyped for the various allelic types of the SNP according to published protocols. In secondary data analyses, we tested the hypothesis that early family environment and GABRA6 would be positively associated with body mass index and waist circumference. We also examined diurnal cortisol as a mechanism linking both early risky family environment and GABRA6 to metabolic outcomes. The findings provide evidence that a risky early family environment may exert more influence than genetic predisposition when determining the indices of metabolic health in adulthood.

Impact of the covid-19 pandemic on the psychological status and cortisol level of multiple sclerosis patients

This study aimed to compare the changes in psychological status and cortisol level between multiple sclerosis (MS) patients and a healthy control group (HC). One hundred and fifty-five MS patients and 165 HC subjects had completed questionnaires consisting of 36-Item short health survey (SF-36), Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A), Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II), and fatigue severity score (FSS) before and after (one year from onset) COVID-19 pandemic. The salivary cortisol level was also measured again in 26 MS patients and 14 control individuals. MS patients had lower scores of mental and physical components of quality of life (MCS and PCS), but higher HAM-A, FSS, and BDII scores than HC Before and after COVID-19. There were significant changes in scores of MCS, BDI-II, HAM-A, and FSS after the COVID-19 outbreak in MS patients, but not in PCS score. In HC group, we observed significant changes in scores of MCS, BDI-II, and FSS, but not in scores of PCS and HAM-A. Compared to HC, the MS patients reported greater deterioration in the overall mental health component of their health-related quality of life, and their levels of anxiety and fatigue over the study period. The change of cortisol levels was non-significant with a small effect size.

The subcomponents of affect scale (SAS): validating a widely used affect scale

OBJECTIVE

There is a need for a brief affect scale that also encompasses different components of affect relevant for researchers interested in physiological and health outcomes. The Subcomponents of Affect Scale (SAS) meets this need. This 18-item scale has nine positive and nine negative affect items encompassing six subscales (calm, well-being, vigour, depression, anxiety, anger). Previous research using the SAS has demonstrated its predictive validity, but no work has tested its subscale structure or longitudinal validity.

DESIGN

Data from the Common Cold Project in which individuals (N = 610) completed the SAS over the course of seven days were used.

RESULTS

Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated the reliability of the subscale structure of the SAS across seven days (positive affect subscale structure: CFIs ≥ 0.98; negative affect subscale structure: CFIs ≥ 0.94 with day 6 CFI = 0.91) and tests of factorial invariance showed the scale is valid to use over time.

CONCLUSIONS

These results confirm the psychometric validity of the subscale structure of the SAS and imply that the subscales can be used longitudinally, allowing for its use in health research as well as non-health research that can benefit from its subscale structure and longitudinal capabilities.

Residual effects of short-term whole-body cold-water immersion on the cytokine profile, white blood cell count, and blood markers of stress

Background: One of the most challenging environmental extremes is immersion in cold/icy water, and consequent common assumption is that even a brief exposure to cold can lead to cold-related illnesses. The increase in the concentrations of the stress hormones cortisol, epinephrine (Epi), and norepinephrine (NE) in response to acute cold stress are thought to suppress the release of proinflammatory cytokines. No previous study has explored the residual consequences of whole-body short-term cold-water immersion (CWI; 14 °C for 10 min) on the immune response in healthy non-acclimated young adult men (aged 20-30 years).Materials and methods: In the current study, we tested the hypothesis that short-term acute whole-body CWI would induce high blood levels of cortisol, NE, and Epi, which in turn would increase circulating leukocyte numbers and delay the production of proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL-1β), and IL-6). Results: Short-term whole-body CWI produced a stressful physiological reaction, as manifested by hyperventilation and increased muscle shivering, metabolic heat production, and heart rate. CWI also induced the marked release of the stress hormones Epi, NE, and cortisol. The change in IL-6 concentration after CWI was delayed and TNF-α production was decreased, but IL-1β was not affected within 48 h after CWI. A delayed increase in neutrophil percentage and decrease in lymphocyte percentage occurred after CWI.Conclusion: These findings suggest that, even though CWI caused changes in stress and immune markers, the participants showed no predisposition to symptoms of the common cold within 48 h after CWI.

Boosting nitric oxide in stress and respiratory infection: Potential relevance for asthma and COVID-19

Nitric oxide (NO) is a ubiquitous signaling molecule that is critical for supporting a plethora of processes in biological organisms. Among these, its role in the innate immune system as a first line of defense against pathogens has received less attention. In asthma, levels of exhaled NO have been utilized as a window into airway inflammation caused by allergic processes. However, respiratory infections count among the most important triggers of disease exacerbations. Among the multitude of factors that affect NO levels are psychological processes. In particular, longer lasting states of psychological stress and depression have been shown to attenuate NO production. The novel SARS-CoV-2 virus, which has caused a pandemic, and with that, sustained levels of psychological stress globally, also adversely affects NO signaling. We review evidence on the role of NO in respiratory infection, including COVID-19, and stress, and argue that boosting NO bioavailability may be beneficial in protection from infections, thus benefitting individuals who suffer from stress in asthma or SARS-CoV-2 infection.

To stress or not to stress: Brain-behavior-immune interaction may weaken or promote the immune response to SARS-CoV-2

The COVID-19 pandemic continues to strongly affect people with health disadvantages, creating a heavy burden on medical systems and societies worldwide. Research is growing rapidly and recently revealed that stress-related factors such as socio-economic status, may also play a pivotal role. However, stress research investigating the underlying psychoneuroimmune interactions is missing. Here we address the question whether stress-associated neuroendocrine-immune mechanisms can possibly contribute to an increase in SARS-CoV-2 infections and influence the course of COVID-19 disease. Additionally, we discuss that not all forms of stress (e.g. acute versus chronic) are detrimental and that some types of stress could attenuate infection-risk and -progression. The overall aim of this review is to motivate future research efforts to clarify whether psychosocial interventions have the potential to optimize neuroendocrine-immune responses against respiratory viral infections during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic. The current state of research on different types of stress is summarized in a comprehensive narrative review to promote a psychoneuroimmune understanding of how stress and its mediators cortisol, (nor)adrenaline, neuropeptides and neurotrophins can shape the immune defense against viral diseases. Based on this understanding, we describe how people with high psychosocial stress can be identified, which behaviors and psychosocial interventions may contribute to optimal stress management, and how psychoneuroimmune knowledge can be used to improve adequate care for COVID-19 and other patients with viral infections.

[Can Stress Interact with SARS-CoV-2? A Narrative Review with a Focus on Stress-Reducing Interventions that may Improve Defence against COVID-19]

OBJECTIVE

The COVID-19 pandemic is on the rise and causes many concerns and fears in the population as well as among medical care givers. This raises the question as to how psychosocial stress associated with the pandemic can be managed, and also if certain forms of stress can contribute to an increase in infections and critical illnesses.

METHODS

Against the background of the current state of research on stress and the immune response, we provide a narrative review of studies addressing the question as to how stress can influence the immune defence against viral diseases.

RESULTS

Excessive stress can compromise the barrier function of the airways and alter neuroendocrine control of immune function, which can create a virus-permissive immune response.

DISCUSSION

Because certain forms of stress can play a role in the successful immune defence against viral respiratory disease, it is important to identify people with high psychosocial stress and to help them manage their stress. Conclusion Psychosocial measures that contribute to improved stress management may have a positive effect on the immune response against viral respiratory infections.

Biomarking Trait Resilience With Salivary Cortisol in Chinese Undergraduates

This study aimed to examine the relationship between trait resilience and salivary cortisol in a group of Chinese undergraduates. The Chinese versions of the Brief Resilience Scale and a measure of optimism, the revised Life Orientation Test were administered to 49 Chinese undergraduates who provided self-collected saliva samples six times per day (immediately after waking; 0.5, 3, 6, and 12 h thereafter; and at bedtime) over 3 consecutive weekdays. The cortisol data were aggregated across the 3 days to examine the association between resilience and components of the diurnal rhythm of cortisol using multiple regression. The results showed that higher resilience was associated with a stronger cortisol response to awakening and a steeper diurnal decline in cortisol from waking to bedtime. Resilience was positively associated with cortisol output over the course of the day but this relationship was not significant (p = 0.065). This pattern of diurnal rhythm is consistent with that typically observed in better adjusted individuals. Generated by an intensive protocol with compliance objectively monitored, these findings clearly indicate the important role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis in health and adjustment and contribute to the growing literature on resilience and cortisol in humans.

Dermatophytosis in companion animals: A review

Dermatophytosis, a zoonotic disease, is caused by fungi of three main genera, namely, Micropsorum, Trichophyton, and Epidermophyton. Specific lesions of dermatophyte infections are localized in the face, legs, and/or tail. Skin lesions in infected animals demonstrate localized alopecia, erythema, and crust, which are more commonly known as ringworm. Factors that affect dermatophytosis include the dermatophyte species; virulence factors of the agent; and the immune status, age, and sex of the host. High levels of cortisol and pro-inflammatory cytokines have also been reported to play an important role in dermatophyte infection. This review aims to explore and understand factors that affect dermatophyte infection with an emphasis on the prevalence, clinical signs, pathogenesis, immune response, and the roles of cortisol and cytokines in companion animals infected by a dermatophyte.

Ramadan Fasting and Risk of Covid-19

Almost all religions recommend periods of fasting. Many adult Muslims fast during the holy month of Ramadan each year. Ramadan fasting as a type of intermittent fasting is a non-pharmacological intervention refining the overall health. This year, Ramadan is coincided with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak making it one of the most challenging fasting periods for Muslims in the world. There is no solid direct evidence to suggest any adverse effect of Ramadan fasting during the COVID-19 pandemic in healthy individuals. However, there are exemptions in Ramadan Fasting and those at risk of health issues should not fast. COVID-19 is a new disease and there is limited studies concerning its risk factors. The purpose of this review was shedding more light on the potential mechanisms involved in influence of practice of fasting in all forms, including Ramadan fasting on the vulnerability to infection.

Sex differences in daily activity intensity and energy expenditure and their relationship to cortisol among BaYaka foragers from the Congo Basin

OBJECTIVES

The pooling of energetic resources and food sharing have been widely documented among hunter-gatherer societies. Much less is known about how the energetic costs of daily activities are distributed across individuals in such groups, including between women and men. Moreover, the metabolic physiological correlates of those activities and costs are relatively understudied.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Here, we tracked physical activity, energy expenditure (EE), and cortisol production among Congo Basin BaYaka foragers engaged in a variety of daily subsistence activities (n = 37). Given its role in energy mobilization, we measured overall daily cortisol production and short-term cortisol reactivity through saliva sampling; we measured physical activity levels and total EE via the wGT3X-bt actigraph and heart rate monitor.

RESULTS

We found that there were no sex differences in likelihood of working in common activity locations (forest, garden, house). Across the day, women spent greater percentage time in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (%MVPA) and had lower total EE than men. Females with higher EE (kCal/hr) produced greater cortisol throughout the day. Though not statistically significant, we also found that individuals with greater %MVPA had larger decreases in cortisol reactivity.

DISCUSSION

BaYaka women sustained higher levels of physical activity but incurred lower energetic costs than men, even after factoring in sex differences in body composition. Our findings suggest that the distribution of physical activity demands and costs are relevant to discussions regarding how labor is divided and community energy budgets take shape in such settings.

Stress related disorders and subsequent risk of life threatening infections: population based sibling controlled cohort study

OBJECTIVE

To assess whether severe psychiatric reactions to trauma and other adversities are associated with subsequent risk of life threatening infections.

DESIGN

Population and sibling matched cohort study.

SETTING

Swedish population.

PARTICIPANTS

144 919 individuals with stress related disorders (post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), acute stress reaction, adjustment disorder, and other stress reactions) identified from 1987 to 2013 compared with 184 612 full siblings of individuals with a diagnosed stress related disorder and 1 449 190 matched individuals without such a diagnosis from the general population.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

A first inpatient or outpatient visit with a primary diagnosis of severe infections with high mortality rates (ie, sepsis, endocarditis, and meningitis or other central nervous system infections) from the Swedish National Patient Register, and deaths from these infections or infections of any origin from the Cause of Death Register. After controlling for multiple confounders, Cox models were used to estimate hazard ratios of these life threatening infections.

RESULTS

The average age at diagnosis of a stress related disorder was 37 years (55 541, 38.3% men). During a mean follow-up of eight years, the incidence of life threatening infections per 1000 person years was 2.9 in individuals with a stress related disorder, 1.7 in siblings without a diagnosis, and 1.3 in matched individuals without a diagnosis. Compared with full siblings without a diagnosis of a stress related disorder, individuals with such a diagnosis were at increased risk of life threatening infections (hazard ratio for any stress related disorder was 1.47 (95% confidence intervals1.37 to 1.58) and for PTSD was 1.92 (1.46 to 2.52)). Corresponding estimates in the population based analysis were similar (1.58 (1.51 to 1.65) for any stress related disorder, P=0.09 for difference between sibling and population based comparison, and 1.95 (1.66 to 2.28) for PTSD, P=0.92 for difference). Stress related disorders were associated with all studied life threatening infections, with the highest relative risk observed for meningitis (sibling based analysis 1.63 (1.23 to 2.16)) and endocarditis (1.57 (1.08 to 2.30)). Younger age at diagnosis of a stress related disorder and the presence of psychiatric comorbidity, especially substance use disorders, were associated with higher hazard ratios, whereas use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in the first year after diagnosis of a stress related disorder was associated with attenuated hazard ratios.

CONCLUSION

In the Swedish population, stress related disorders were associated with a subsequent risk of life threatening infections, after controlling for familial background and physical or psychiatric comorbidities.

Physical injury, stress, and health: Protective role of dispositional optimism

Physical injuries are common occurrences that can have substantial implications for personal, emotional, and social functioning. A recent study reported higher prevalence of common illnesses and reduced health-related quality of life (HRQL) in injury victims. Based on these findings, the present study examined the role of the antibody immunoglobulin A (IgA) and the stress hormone cortisol in the association between injury and health. Additionally, the role of daily life stress and dispositional optimism in this association was examined. Thirty-seven victims of injury (e.g., fractures and burns) and 41 noninjured participants were assessed for cortisol and IgA levels and completed a battery of questionnaires assessing illness prevalence, HRQL, perceived stress, and optimism. Injured participants reported higher prevalence of illness and poorer HRQL compared with noninjured participants; however, changes in cortisol or IgA levels did not explain this increase in illness. Correlations between perceived stress and HRQL were stronger in injured participants compared with noninjured controls, indicating that injured individuals are more affected by stress. Dispositional optimism was lower in injured participants, and optimism buffered the negative effect of stress on HRQL. Accordingly, it is suggested that optimism played a protective role against the negative consequences of stress in injured individuals, thus improving HRQL.

Beetroot juice supplementation for the prevention of cold symptoms associated with stress: A proof-of-concept study

OBJECTIVES

Psychological stress has been linked to common cold symptoms. Nitric oxide (NO) is part of the first line of epithelial defense against pathogens, and beetroot juice is a source of dietary nitrate that increases NO availability. We therefore tested whether beetroot juice protects against cold symptoms in a period of sustained acute stress.

DESIGN

Seventy-six students, 16 of these with asthma, were randomly assigned to seven daily doses of beetroot juice or no supplementation control during their final exams.

METHODS

Participants completed stress ratings, a cold symptom questionnaire, and exhaled NO measurements at a low-stress period and two periods during their final exams, with one questionnaire follow-up assessment seven days after finals.

RESULTS

Beetroot juice was associated with reduced symptoms of cold and sickness during and following finals. Those with asthma showed the greatest benefits. Higher exhaled NO was concurrently and prospectively associated with reduced symptomatology.

CONCLUSION

Beetroot juice during periods of psychological stress protects against cold symptoms. Preliminary evidence suggests particular benefits in asthma, which could translate into reduced asthma exacerbations due to respiratory infections. Clinical Trial ID: NCT03159273.

Should Cushing's Syndrome be Considered as a Disease with High Cardiovascular Risk in Relevant Guidelines?

A considerable amount of data supports a 1.8-7.4-fold increased mortality associated with Cushing's syndrome (CS). This is attributed to a high occurrence of several cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors in CS [e.g. adiposity, arterial hypertension (AHT), dyslipidaemia and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)]. Therefore, practically all patients with CS have the metabolic syndrome (MetS), which represents a high CVD risk. Characteristically, despite a relatively young average age, numerous patients with CS display a 'high' or 'very high' CVD risk (i.e. risk of a major CVD event >20% in the following 10 years). Although T2DM is listed as a condition with a high CVD risk, CS is not, despite the fact that a considerable proportion of the CS population will develop T2DM or impaired glucose tolerance. CS is also regarded as a risk factor for aortic dissection in current guidelines. This review considers the evidence supporting listing CS among high CVD risk conditions.

Physical injury, health, and well-being: Role of stress perception

OBJECTIVE

Physical injuries are common occurrences that can have substantial implications for mental health and well-being. Ample studies indicated that increased levels of perceived stress is associated with increased prevalence of general health problems, as well as reduced health-related quality of life. Thus, the goal of the present study was to examine the long-lasting association between bodily injuries and general health. In addition, the role of stress perception in moderating the association between injury and general health was assessed.

METHODS

Two-hundred and forty victims of past injury and 251 non-injured participants completed a self-report health inventory questionnaire assessing illness prevalence during the six-month period prior to the study. In addition, they completed the short-form Medical Outcomes Survey (MOS SF-36) questionnaire and the Perceived Stress Scale.

RESULTS

Victims of past injuries reported higher incidences of illness, mainly upper respiratory infections and fever, compared to non-injured participants. In addition, injured participants reported poorer perceived health status, including reduced general health, physical functioning, and health beliefs. Perceived stress levels were similar in injured and non-injured participants, however, correlations between perceived stress and self-reported medical outcomes were stronger in injured participants compared to non-injured controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Past physical injuries are associated with increased incidence of general health concerns and poorer health-related well-being. Moreover, injured individuals do not report increased stress perception; however, when stressed, injured individuals are more affected and health-related quality of life is reduced. Promoting well-being in individuals who have suffered a significant injury is, thus, a clinical necessity and a pressing social priority. This study highlights the role of stress perception in the association between physical injury and health, and may assist in providing better multi-disciplinary care for the injured.

The moderating role of meaning in life in the relationship between perceived stress and diurnal cortisol

Previous studies have suggested that meaning in life may buffer the negative effects of stress. This study is the first to investigate the moderating role of meaning in life in the relationship between the perception of stress and diurnal cortisol in two independent samples of healthy adults. In study 1 (n = 172, men = 82, women = 90, age range = 21-55 years, mean age = 37.58 years), the results of moderated regression analyses revealed that there was a significant positive relationship between overall perceived stress in the past month and both diurnal cortisol levels (area-under-the-curve with respect to the ground; AUCg) and the diurnal cortisol slope (DCS) only in individuals with low levels of meaning in life conceptualized as the degree to which one engages in activities that are personally valued and important. In study 2 (n = 259, men = 125, women = 134, age range = 18-54 years, mean age = 29.06 years), we found a non-significant interaction term between meaning in life conceptualized as having goals and a sense of excitement regarding one's future and perception of stress in a model of both adjusted AUCg and DCS. The results were independent of age, sex, body mass index, education, and race. The results shed light on the importance and the complexity of the construct of meaning in life and offer a possible explanation for why some people who face stressors may be more vulnerable than others to developing stress-related health problems.

Age moderates the association between social integration and diurnal cortisol measures

Social integration is defined as the degree to which an individual participates in a broad range of social relationships. Although measures of social integration vary across studies, it is often assessed as the number of social roles (e.g., parent, friend, student, volunteer) that an individual reports actively participating in. More socially integrated individuals tend to be healthier than those less socially integrated, but the biological mechanisms through which this occurs remain unclear. One possibility is that social integration might alter the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, of which cortisol is a key product, and in turn influence a broad range of health outcomes. This study examined the association between social integration and two indices of cortisol in a community sample of 680 healthy men and women aged 18-55. Because the social roles held by younger individuals may be more numerous yet superficial than those held by older individuals, this study also tested the hypothesis that these associations could be moderated by age such that lower levels of integration would be associated with cortisol dysregulation for older but not younger individuals in our sample. Participants provided salivary cortisol samples during waking hours on three days that were used to calculate diurnal cortisol levels and slopes. Increased social integration was associated with lower cortisol AUC among older (ages 35-55) but not younger (ages 18-34) individuals in our sample. Moreover, while increased social integration was associated with steeper diurnal cortisol slopes regardless of age, this association was strongest among older individuals. Differences in health behaviors, affect, and psychological stress did not mediate these associations. The results of this study support cortisol as a candidate biological mechanism through which increased social integration is associated with better physical health among older individuals.

Exhaled nitric oxide and vascular endothelial growth factor as predictors of cold symptoms after stress

OBJECTIVE

Prior research has demonstrated that psychosocial stress is associated with respiratory infections. Immunologic, endocrine, and cardiovascular predictors of such infections have been explored with varying success. We therefore sought to study the unexplored role of airway mucosal immunity factors, nitric oxide (NO) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). NO is secreted by airway epithelial cells as part of the first line of defense against bacteria, viruses, and fungi. VEGF is expressed by mast cells in respiratory infections and recruits immune cells to infected sites, but in excess lead to vulnerability of the airway epithelium.

METHODS

In this proof-of-concept study we measured exhaled NO, exhaled breath condensate (EBC) VEGF, salivary VEGF, and salivary cortisol in 36 students undergoing final academic examinations at three occasions: a low-stress baseline during the term, an early phase of finals, and a late phase of finals. Participants also reported on cold symptoms at these time points and approximately 5 and 10days after their last academic examination.

RESULTS

Higher baseline NO was associated with fewer cold symptoms after stress, whereas higher baseline VEGF in EBC and saliva were associated with more cold symptoms after stress. Perceived stress at baseline as well as salivary VEGF and cortisol late in the finals also contributed to the prediction of later cold symptoms.

CONCLUSION

Basal levels of NO and VEGF may inform about mucosal immunocompetence and add to preventative treatments against airway infections from periods of stress in daily life.

Endocrinology, energetics, and human life history: A synthetic model

Human life histories are shaped by the allocation of metabolic energy to competing physiological domains. A model framework of the pathways of energy allocation is described and hormonal regulators of allocation along the pathways of the framework are discussed in the light of evidence from field studies of the endocrinology of human energetics. The framework is then used to generate simple models of two important life history transitions in humans, puberty and the postpartum return to full fecundity in females. The results of the models correspond very closely to observations made in the field.

Marital status as a predictor of diurnal salivary cortisol levels and slopes in a community sample of healthy adults

Married people tend to be healthier than both the previously (bereaved, divorced, and separated) and never married, but the mechanisms through which this occurs remain unclear. To this end, research has increasingly focused on how psychological stress experienced by unmarried versus married individuals may differentially impact physiological systems related to health. One key system that is modulated by stress is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, of which cortisol is a key hormonal product. Increased cortisol production and disruption of cortisol's daily rhythm have been linked to poorer health outcomes. This study examined the association between current marital status and these two indices of cortisol in a community sample of 572 healthy men and women aged 21-55. It also tested whether marriage buffers against the effect of stress (perceived stress by marital status interaction) on cortisol production. Participants provided salivary cortisol samples during waking hours on three nonconsecutive separate days to calculate diurnal cortisol levels and slopes. Married individuals had lower cortisol levels than either their never married or previously married counterparts. Differences in cortisol levels were due at least in part to currently married individuals having a more rapid decline in cortisol through the afternoon hours compared to individuals who were never married (but not those who were previously married). Furthermore, there was an interaction between perceived stress and marital status in predicting cortisol levels. Specifically, higher stress was associated with higher cortisol levels for previously married individuals but not for the married or never married. The results of this study support cortisol as one candidate mechanism accounting for the association of marital status and health.

Viral challenge reveals further evidence of skin-deep resilience in African Americans from disadvantaged backgrounds

OBJECTIVE

Studies have revealed a phenomenon called skin-deep resilience, which develops in upwardly mobile African American youth. They perform well in school, maintain good mental health, and avoid legal problems. Despite outward indications of success, they also show evidence of worse health in biomarker studies. Here we extend this research, asking whether it manifests in differential susceptibility to upper respiratory infection, and if it emerges in European Americans as well.

METHODS

The sample included 514 adults in good health, as judged by physician examination and laboratory testing. Participants completed questionnaires about lifecourse socioeconomic conditions, conscientiousness, psychosocial adjustment, and lifestyle factors. They were subsequently inoculated with a rhinovirus that causes upper respiratory infection, and monitored in quarantine for 5 days the development of illness.

RESULTS

Consistent with past work, African Americans from disadvantaged backgrounds displayed indications of skin-deep resilience. To the extent these participants were high in conscientiousness, they fared better across multiple domains of psychosocial functioning, as reflected in educational attainment, symptoms of depression, and close relationship quality (p values = .01-.04). But analyses of these participants' susceptibility to infection revealed the opposite pattern; higher conscientiousness was associated with a greater likelihood of becoming ill following inoculation (p value = .03). In European Americans, there was no evidence of skin-deep resilience; conscientiousness was associated with better psychosocial outcomes, but not infection risk.

CONCLUSIONS

These observations suggest that resilience may be a double-edged sword for African Americans from disadvantaged backgrounds. The same characteristics associated with academic success and psychological adjustment forecast increased vulnerability to health problems. (PsycINFO Database Record