1
|
Li F, Zheng X, Wang H, Meng L, Chen M, Hui Y, Liu D, Li Y, Xie K, Zhang J, Guo G. Mediodorsal thalamus projection to medial prefrontal cortical mediates social defeat stress-induced depression-like behaviors. Neuropsychopharmacology 2024; 49:1318-1329. [PMID: 38438592 PMCID: PMC11224337 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-024-01829-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/06/2024]
Abstract
Clinical studies have shown that the mediodorsal thalamus (MD) may play an important role in the development of depression. However, the molecular and circuit mechanisms by which the mediodorsal thalamus (MD) participates in the pathological processes of depression remain unclear. Here, we show that in male chronic social defeat stress (CSDS) mice, the calcium signaling activity of glutamatergic neurons in MD is reduced. By combining conventional neurotracer and transneuronal virus tracing techniques, we identify a synaptic circuit connecting MD and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) in the mouse. Brain slice electrophysiology and fiber optic recordings reveal that the reduced activity of MD glutamatergic neurons leads to an excitatory-inhibitory imbalance of pyramidal neurons in mPFC. Furthermore, activation of MD glutamatergic neurons restores the electrophysiological properties abnormal in mPFC. Optogenetic activation of the MD-mPFC circuit ameliorates anxiety and depression-like behaviors in CSDS mice. Taken together, these data support the critical role of MD-mPFC circuit on CSDS-induced depression-like behavior and provide a potential mechanistic explanation for depression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fang Li
- Department of Anatomy, Neuroscience Laboratory for Cognitive and Developmental Disorders, Medical College of Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510630, China
- Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Xuefeng Zheng
- Department of Anatomy, Neuroscience Laboratory for Cognitive and Developmental Disorders, Medical College of Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510630, China
| | - Hanjie Wang
- Department of Anatomy, Neuroscience Laboratory for Cognitive and Developmental Disorders, Medical College of Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510630, China
| | - Lianghui Meng
- Department of Anatomy, Neuroscience Laboratory for Cognitive and Developmental Disorders, Medical College of Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510630, China
| | - Meiying Chen
- Department of Anatomy, Neuroscience Laboratory for Cognitive and Developmental Disorders, Medical College of Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510630, China
| | - Yuqing Hui
- Department of Anatomy, Neuroscience Laboratory for Cognitive and Developmental Disorders, Medical College of Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510630, China
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510630, China
| | - Danlei Liu
- Department of Anatomy, Neuroscience Laboratory for Cognitive and Developmental Disorders, Medical College of Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510630, China
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510630, China
| | - Yifei Li
- Department of Anatomy, Neuroscience Laboratory for Cognitive and Developmental Disorders, Medical College of Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510630, China
| | - Keman Xie
- Department of Anatomy, Neuroscience Laboratory for Cognitive and Developmental Disorders, Medical College of Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510630, China
| | - Jifeng Zhang
- Department of Anatomy, Neuroscience Laboratory for Cognitive and Developmental Disorders, Medical College of Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510630, China.
| | - Guoqing Guo
- Department of Anatomy, Neuroscience Laboratory for Cognitive and Developmental Disorders, Medical College of Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510630, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Dragon J, Obuchowicz E. How depression and antidepressant drugs affect endocannabinoid system?-review of clinical and preclinical studies. NAUNYN-SCHMIEDEBERG'S ARCHIVES OF PHARMACOLOGY 2024; 397:4511-4536. [PMID: 38280009 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-023-02938-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2023] [Accepted: 12/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/29/2024]
Abstract
As major depressive disorder is becoming a more and more common issue in modern society, it is crucial to discover new possible grip points for its diagnosis and antidepressive therapy. One of them is endocannabinoid system, which has been proposed as a manager of emotional homeostasis, and thus, endocannabinoid alterations have been found in animals undergoing various preclinical models of depression procedures as well as in humans suffering from depressive-like disorders. In this review article, studies regarding those alterations have been summed up and analyzed. Another important issue raised by the researchers is the impact of currently used antidepressive drugs on endocannabinoid system so that it would be possible to predict reversibility of endocannabinoid alterations following stress exposure and, in the future, to be able to design individually personalized therapies. Preclinical studies investigating this topic have been analyzed and described in this article. Unfortunately, too few clinical studies in this field exist, what indicates an urgent need for collecting such data, so that it would be possible to compare them with preclinical outcomes and draw reliable conclusions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonasz Dragon
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medical Sciences in Katowice, Medical University of Silesia, Medyków Street 18, 40-752, Katowice, Poland.
| | - Ewa Obuchowicz
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medical Sciences in Katowice, Medical University of Silesia, Medyków Street 18, 40-752, Katowice, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ornelas LC, Besheer J. Predator odor stress reactivity, alcohol drinking and the endocannabinoid system. Neurobiol Stress 2024; 30:100634. [PMID: 38623398 PMCID: PMC11016807 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2024.100634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/30/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and alcohol use disorder (AUD) are highly comorbid and individual differences in response to stress suggest resilient and susceptible populations. Using animal models to target neurobiological mechanisms associated with individual variability in stress coping responses and the relationship with subsequent increases in alcohol consumption has important implications for the field of traumatic stress and alcohol disorders. The current review discusses the unique advantages of utilizing predator odor stressor exposure models, specifically using 2,5-dihydro-2,4,5-trimethylthiazoline (TMT) on better understanding PTSD pathophysiology and neurobiological mechanisms associated with stress reactivity and subsequent increases in alcohol drinking. Furthermore, there has been increasing interest regarding the role of the endocannabinoid system in modulating behavioral responses to stress with an emphasis on stress coping and individual differences in stress-susceptibility. Therefore, the current review focuses on the topic of endocannabinoid modulation of stress reactive behaviors during and after exposure to a predator odor stressor, with implications on modulating distinctly different behavioral coping strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura C. Ornelas
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
| | - Joyce Besheer
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Bouchet CA, McPherson KB, Coutens B, Janowsky A, Ingram SL. Monoacylglycerol Lipase Protects the Presynaptic Cannabinoid 1 Receptor from Desensitization by Endocannabinoids after Persistent Inflammation. J Neurosci 2023; 43:5458-5467. [PMID: 37414560 PMCID: PMC10376933 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0037-23.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabinoid-targeted pain therapies are increasing with the expansion of cannabis legalization, however, their efficacy may be limited by pain-induced adaptations in the cannabinoid system. Cannabinoid receptor subtype 1 (CB1R) inhibition of spontaneous, GABAergic miniature IPSCs (mIPSCs) and evoked IPSCs (eIPSCs) in the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray (vlPAG) were compared in slices from naive and inflamed male and female Sprague Dawley rats. Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA) injections into the hindpaw induced persistent inflammation. In naive rats, exogenous cannabinoid agonists robustly reduce both eIPSCs and mIPSCs. After 5-7 d of inflammation, the effects of exogenous cannabinoids are significantly reduced because of CB1R desensitization via GRK2/3, as function is recovered in the presence of the GRK2/3 inhibitor, Compound 101 (Cmp101). Inhibition of GABA release by presynaptic μ-opioid receptors in the vlPAG does not desensitize with persistent inflammation. Unexpectedly, while CB1R desensitization significantly reduces the inhibition produced by exogenous agonists, depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition protocols that promote 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) synthesis exhibit prolonged CB1R activation after inflammation. 2-AG tone is detected in slices from CFA-treated rats when GRK2/3 is blocked, suggesting an increase in 2-AG synthesis after persistent inflammation. Inhibiting 2-AG degradation with the monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) inhibitor JZL184 during inflammation results in the desensitization of CB1Rs by endocannabinoids that is reversed with Cmp101. Collectively, these data indicate that persistent inflammation primes CB1Rs for desensitization, and MAGL degradation of 2-AG protects CB1Rs from desensitization in inflamed rats. These adaptations with inflammation have important implications for the development of cannabinoid-based pain therapeutics targeting MAGL and CB1Rs.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Presynaptic G-protein-coupled receptors are resistant to desensitization. Here we find that persistent inflammation increases endocannabinoid levels, priming presynaptic cannabinoid 1 receptors for desensitization on subsequent addition of exogenous agonists. Despite the reduced efficacy of exogenous agonists, endocannabinoids have prolonged efficacy after persistent inflammation. Endocannabinoids readily induce cannabinoid 1 receptor desensitization if their degradation is blocked, indicating that endocannabinoid concentrations are maintained at subdesensitizing levels and that degradation is critical for maintaining endocannabinoid regulation of presynaptic GABA release in the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray during inflammatory states. These adaptations with inflammation have important implications for the development of cannabinoid-based pain therapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Courtney A Bouchet
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Vollum Institute, Portland, Oregon 97239
| | - Kylie B McPherson
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado 80045
| | - Basile Coutens
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado 80045
| | - Aaron Janowsky
- Research Service, VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, Oregon 97239
- Departments of Psychiatry, and Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239
| | - Susan L Ingram
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado 80045
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
McReynolds JR, Wolf CP, Starck DM, Mathy JC, Schaps R, Krause LA, Hillard CJ, Mantsch JR. Role of mesolimbic cannabinoid receptor 1 in stress-driven increases in cocaine self-administration in male rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2023; 48:1121-1132. [PMID: 37188846 PMCID: PMC10267161 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-023-01589-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 04/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Stress is prevalent in the lives of those with substance use disorders (SUDs) and influences SUD outcomes. Understanding the neurobiological mechanisms through which stress promotes drug use is important for the development of effective SUD interventions. We have developed a model wherein exposure to a stressor, uncontrollable electric footshock, daily at the time of cocaine self-administration escalates intake in male rats. Here we test the hypothesis that stress-induced escalation of cocaine self-administration requires the CB1 cannabinoid receptor. Male Sprague-Dawley rats self-administered cocaine (0.5 mg/kg/inf, i.v.) during 2-h sessions comprised of four 30-min self-administration components separated by 5-min shock sequences or 5-min shock-free periods for 14 days. Footshock produced an escalation of cocaine self-administration that persisted following shock removal. Systemic administration of the cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1R) antagonist/inverse agonist, AM251, attenuated cocaine intake only in rats with a history of stress. This effect was localized to the mesolimbic system, as intra-nucleus accumbens (NAc) shell and intra-ventral tegmental area (VTA) micro-infusions of AM251 attenuated cocaine intake only in stress-escalated rats. Cocaine self-administration, regardless of stress history, increased CB1R binding site density in the VTA, but not NAc shell. Following extinction, cocaine-primed reinstatement (10 mg/kg, ip) was increased in rats with prior footshock during self-administration. AM251 attenuated reinstatement only in rats with a stress history. Altogether, these data demonstrate that mesolimbic CB1Rs are required to escalate intake and heighten relapse susceptibility and suggest that repeated stress at the time of cocaine use regulates mesolimbic CB1R activity through a currently unknown mechanism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jayme R McReynolds
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI, USA.
- Department of Pharmacology & Systems Physiology and Center for Addiction Research, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
| | - Colten P Wolf
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Dylan M Starck
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Jacob C Mathy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Rebecca Schaps
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Leslie A Krause
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology and Neuroscience Research Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Cecilia J Hillard
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology and Neuroscience Research Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - John R Mantsch
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI, USA
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology and Neuroscience Research Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
The antidepressant and anxiolytic effects of cannabinoids in chronic unpredictable stress: a preclinical systematic review and meta-analysis. Transl Psychiatry 2022; 12:217. [PMID: 35641487 PMCID: PMC9156762 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-022-01967-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroscience research presents contradictory evidence in support of both the protective and destructive effects of cannabinoids in depression. Therefore, this systematic review and meta-analysis summarizes the existing preclinical literature on the effects of cannabinoid administration in the chronic unpredictable stress model of depression in order to evaluate the effects of cannabinoids and identify gaps in the literature. After protocol registration (PROSPERO #CRD42020219986), we systematically searched Scopus, Embase, Psychology & Behavioral Sciences Collection, APA PsychINFO, PubMed, CINAHL Complete, and ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global from the earliest record of the databases, February 1964, to November 2020 for articles that met inclusion criteria (e.g., rodent subjects and administration of a cannabinoid. A total of 26 articles were included representing a sample size estimate of 1132 rodents with the majority of articles administering daily intraperitoneal injections during chronic unpredictable stress. These articles were evaluated using a modified SYRCLE's risk-of-bias tool. For each continuous behavioral measure, the standardized mean difference was calculated between cannabinoid and vehicle groups in rodents subjected to chronic unpredictable stress. The effects of cannabinoids on depressive-like behavior was evaluated using a multilevel mixed-effects model with effect size weights nested within control groups. Cannabinoid administration moderately improved the pooled negative effects of chronic unpredictable stress on anhedonia, learned helplessness, novelty suppressed feeding, time in the anxiogenic context, and entries into the anxiogenic context. Although the interpretations are limited, these findings suggest that with further investigation, cannabinoids may be a viable long-term treatment for stress-related psychopathologies such as depression.
Collapse
|
7
|
Bright U, Akirav I. Modulation of Endocannabinoid System Components in Depression: Pre-Clinical and Clinical Evidence. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:5526. [PMID: 35628337 PMCID: PMC9146799 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23105526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Depression is characterized by continuous low mood and loss of interest or pleasure in enjoyable activities. First-line medications for mood disorders mostly target the monoaminergic system; however, many patients do not find relief with these medications, and those who do suffer from negative side effects and a discouragingly low rate of remission. Studies suggest that the endocannabinoid system (ECS) may be involved in the etiology of depression and that targeting the ECS has the potential to alleviate depression. ECS components (such as receptors, endocannabinoid ligands, and degrading enzymes) are key neuromodulators in motivation and cognition as well as in the regulation of stress and emotions. Studies in depressed patients and in animal models for depression have reported deficits in ECS components, which is motivating researchers to identify potential diagnostic and therapeutic biomarkers within the ECS. By understanding the effects of cannabinoids on ECS components in depression, we enhance our understanding of which brain targets they hit, what biological processes they alter, and eventually how to use this information to design better therapeutic options. In this article, we discuss the literature on the effects of cannabinoids on ECS components of specific depression-like behaviors and phenotypes in rodents and then describe the findings in depressed patients. A better understanding of the effects of cannabinoids on ECS components in depression may direct future research efforts to enhance diagnosis and treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Uri Bright
- Department of Psychology, School of Psychological Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa 3498838, Israel;
- The Integrated Brain and Behavior Research Center (IBBRC), University of Haifa, Haifa 3498838, Israel
| | - Irit Akirav
- Department of Psychology, School of Psychological Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa 3498838, Israel;
- The Integrated Brain and Behavior Research Center (IBBRC), University of Haifa, Haifa 3498838, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Simone JJ, Green MR, McCormick CM. Endocannabinoid system contributions to sex-specific adolescent neurodevelopment. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2022; 113:110438. [PMID: 34534603 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2021.110438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
With an increasing number of countries and states adopting legislation permitting the use of cannabis for medical purposes, there is a growing interest among health and research professionals into the system through which cannabinoids principally act, the endocannabinoid system (ECS). Much of the seminal research into the ECS dates back only 30 years and, although there has been tremendous development within the field during this time, many questions remain. More recently, investigations have emerged examining the contributions of the ECS to normative development and the effect of altering this system during important critical periods. One such period is adolescence, a unique period during which brain and behaviours are maturing and reorganizing in preparation for adulthood, including shifts in endocannabinoid biology. The purpose of this review is to discuss findings to date regarding the maturation of the ECS during adolescence and the consequences of manipulations of the ECS during this period to normative neurodevelopmental processes, as well as highlight sex differences in ECS function, important technical considerations, and future directions. Because most of what we know is derived from preclinical studies on rodents, we provide relevant background of this model and some commentary on the translational relevance of the research in this area.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan J Simone
- Department of Biological Sciences, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada; Centre for Neuroscience, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada; Huxley Health Inc., 8820 Jane St., Concord, ON, L4K 2M9, Canada; eCB Consulting Inc., PO Box 652, 3 Cameron St. W., Cannington, ON L0E 1E0, Canada; Medical Cannabis Canada, 601-3500 Lakeshore Rd. W., Oakville, ON L6L 0B4, Canada.
| | - Matthew R Green
- eCB Consulting Inc., PO Box 652, 3 Cameron St. W., Cannington, ON L0E 1E0, Canada; Medical Cannabis Canada, 601-3500 Lakeshore Rd. W., Oakville, ON L6L 0B4, Canada.
| | - Cheryl M McCormick
- Department of Biological Sciences, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada; Centre for Neuroscience, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada; Department of Psychology, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Pizzagalli DA, Roberts AC. Prefrontal cortex and depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 2022; 47:225-246. [PMID: 34341498 PMCID: PMC8617037 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-021-01101-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 101.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 06/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The prefrontal cortex (PFC) has emerged as one of the regions most consistently impaired in major depressive disorder (MDD). Although functional and structural PFC abnormalities have been reported in both individuals with current MDD as well as those at increased vulnerability to MDD, this information has not translated into better treatment and prevention strategies. Here, we argue that dissecting depressive phenotypes into biologically more tractable dimensions - negative processing biases, anhedonia, despair-like behavior (learned helplessness) - affords unique opportunities for integrating clinical findings with mechanistic evidence emerging from preclinical models relevant to depression, and thereby promises to improve our understanding of MDD. To this end, we review and integrate clinical and preclinical literature pertinent to these core phenotypes, while emphasizing a systems-level approach, treatment effects, and whether specific PFC abnormalities are causes or consequences of MDD. In addition, we discuss several key issues linked to cross-species translation, including functional brain homology across species, the importance of dissecting neural pathways underlying specific functional domains that can be fruitfully probed across species, and the experimental approaches that best ensure translatability. Future directions and clinical implications of this burgeoning literature are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Diego A Pizzagalli
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School & McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, USA.
| | - Angela C Roberts
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Chronic mild stress paradigm as a rat model of depression: facts, artifacts, and future perspectives. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2022; 239:663-693. [PMID: 35072761 PMCID: PMC8785013 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-021-05982-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE The chronic mild stress (CMS) paradigm was first described almost 40 years ago and has become a widely used model in the search for antidepressant drugs for major depression disorder (MDD). It has resulted in the publication of almost 1700 studies in rats alone. Under the original CMS procedure, the expression of an anhedonic response, a key symptom of depression, was seen as an essential feature of both the model and a depressive state. The prolonged exposure of rodents to unpredictable/uncontrollable mild stressors leads to a reduction in the intake of palatable liquids, behavioral despair, locomotor inhibition, anxiety-like changes, and vegetative (somatic) abnormalities. Many of the CMS studies do not report these patterns of behaviors, and they often fail to include consistent molecular, neuroanatomical, and physiological phenotypes of CMS-exposed animals. OBJECTIVES To critically review the CMS studies in rats so that conceptual and methodological flaws can be avoided in future studies. RESULTS Analysis of the literature supports the validity of the CMS model and its impact on the field. However, further improvements could be achieved by (i) the stratification of animals into 'resilient' and 'susceptible' cohorts within the CMS animals, (ii) the use of more refined protocols in the sucrose test to mitigate physiological and physical artifacts, and (iii) the systematic evaluation of the non-specific effects of CMS and implementation of appropriate adjustments within the behavioral tests. CONCLUSIONS We propose methodological revisions and the use of more advanced behavioral tests to refine the rat CMS paradigm, which offers a valuable tool for developing new antidepressant medications.
Collapse
|
11
|
de la Tremblaye PB, Wellcome JL, Wiley K, Lomahan CA, Moschonas EH, Cheng JP, Bondi CO, Kline AE. Chronic unpredictable stress during adolescence protects against adult traumatic brain injury-induced affective and cognitive deficits. Brain Res 2021; 1767:147544. [PMID: 34090883 PMCID: PMC8349874 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2021.147544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Pre-clinical early-life stress paradigms model early adverse events in humans. However, the long-term behavioral consequences of early-life adversities after traumatic brain injury (TBI) in adults have not been examined. In addition, endocannabinoids may protect against TBI neuropathology. Hence, the current study assessed the effects of adverse stress during adolescence on emotional and cognitive performance in rats sustaining a TBI as adults, and how cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) activation impacts the outcome. On postnatal days (PND) 30-60, adolescent male rats were exposed to four weeks of chronic unpredictable stress (CUS), followed by four weeks of no stress (PND 60-90), or no stress at any time (Control), and then anesthetized and provided a cortical impact of moderate severity (2.8 mm tissue deformation at 4 m/s) or sham injury. TBI and Sham rats (CUS and Control) were administered either arachidonyl-2'-chloroethylamide (ACEA; 1 mg/kg, i.p.), a CB1 receptor agonist, or vehicle (VEH; 1 mL/kg, i.p.) immediately after surgery and once daily for 7 days. Anxiety-like behavior was assessed in an open field test (OFT) and learning and memory in novel object recognition (NOR) and Morris water maze (MWM) tasks. No differences were revealed among the Sham groups in any behavioral assessment and thus the groups were pooled. In the ACEA and VEH-treated TBI groups, CUS increased exploration in the OFT, enhanced NOR focus, and decreased the time to reach the escape platform in the MWM, suggesting decreased anxiety and enhanced learning and memory relative to the Control group receiving VEH (p < 0.05). ACEA also enhanced NOR and MWM performance in the Control + TBI group (p < 0.05). These data suggest that 4 weeks of CUS provided during adolescence may provide protection against TBI acquired during adulthood and/or induce adaptive behavioral responses. Moreover, CB1 receptor agonism produces benefits after TBI independent of CUS protection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patricia B de la Tremblaye
- Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States; Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States; Neurobiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States
| | - JoDy L Wellcome
- Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States; Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States
| | - Kaitlyn Wiley
- Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States; Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States
| | - Carolyn A Lomahan
- Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States; Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States
| | - Eleni H Moschonas
- Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States; Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States; Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States
| | - Jeffrey P Cheng
- Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States; Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States
| | - Corina O Bondi
- Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States; Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States; Neurobiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States; Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States
| | - Anthony E Kline
- Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States; Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States; Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States; Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States; Critical Care Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States; Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Pavón FJ, Polis IY, Stouffer DG, Cravatt BF, Roberto M, Martin-Fardon R, Rodríguez de Fonseca F, Parsons LH, Serrano A. Selective inhibition of monoacylglycerol lipase is associated with passive coping behavior and attenuation of stress-induced dopamine release in the medial prefrontal cortex. Neurobiol Stress 2021; 14:100293. [PMID: 33490317 PMCID: PMC7809503 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2021.100293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The endocannabinoid system is involved in the regulation of the stress response, but the relative contribution of N-arachidonoylethanolamine (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) and their mechanisms have to be elucidated. In this study, we compared the effects of the pharmacological inhibition of the two major endocannabinoid-degrading enzymes [fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) for AEA and 2-AG, respectively] on stress-coping [forced swim test (FST) and tail suspension test (TST)] and anxiety-like [elevated-plus maze (EPM) and light-dark test (LDT)] behaviors in wild-type and FAAH knockout mice. In vivo microdialysis estimated the effects of FAAH and MAGL inhibition on dopamine (DA) and serotonin (5-HT) levels in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) during an FST. Mice were treated with PF-3845 (FAAH inhibitor), JZL184 (MAGL inhibitor), JZL195 (dual FAAH/MAGL inhibitor) or vehicle. Our data showed that PF-3845 increased latency to immobility and decreased total immobility time in FST, but no effects were observed in TST compared with vehicle-treated wild-type mice. By contrast, JZL184 decreased latency and increased immobility in TST and FST. JZL195 in wild-type mice and JZL184 in FAAH knockout mice reproduced the same passive coping behaviors as JZL184 in wild-type mice in TST and FST. In the microdialysis experiment, FST was associated with increased DA and 5-HT levels in the mPFC. However, JZL184-treated wild-type mice displayed a significant attenuation of forced swim stress-induced DA release compared with vehicle-treated wild-type mice and PF-3845-treated wild-type mice. Finally, FAAH and/or MAGL inhibitors induced robust and consistent anxiolytic-like effects in EPM and LDT. These results suggested differences between FAAH and MAGL inhibition in stress-coping behaviors. Notably, MAGL inhibition induced a consistent avoidant coping behavior and attenuated the stress-induced mPFC DA response in FST. However, more investigation is needed to elucidate the functional association between DA and 2-AG signaling pathways, and the molecular mechanism in the regulation of passive coping strategies during inescapable stress. FAAH and/or MAGL inhibition induce opposite changes in stress-coping behaviors. MAGL inhibition increases passive stress-coping behaviors in mice. Passive stress-coping behaviors are regulated by 2-AG rather than AEA signaling. MAGL inhibition attenuates mPFC dopamine increase in the forced swim test. FAAH and/or MAGL inhibitors are associated with anxiolytic-like effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Javier Pavón
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Unidad de Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Málaga, Spain.,CIBERCV-Instituto de Salud Carlos III and Unidad de Gestión Clínica del Corazón, Hospital Universitario Virgen de la Victoria, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Málaga, Spain
| | - Ilham Y Polis
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - David G Stouffer
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Benjamin F Cravatt
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Marisa Roberto
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Rémi Martin-Fardon
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Fernando Rodríguez de Fonseca
- Unidad de Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Málaga, Spain
| | - Loren H Parsons
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Antonia Serrano
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Unidad de Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Málaga, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Mannekote Thippaiah S, Iyengar SS, Vinod KY. Exo- and Endo-cannabinoids in Depressive and Suicidal Behaviors. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:636228. [PMID: 33967855 PMCID: PMC8102729 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.636228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis (marijuana) has been known to humans for thousands of years but its neurophysiological effects were sparsely understood until recently. Preclinical and clinical studies in the past two decades have indisputably supported the clinical proposition that the endocannabinoid system plays an important role in the etiopathogeneses of many neuropsychiatric disorders, including mood and addictive disorders. In this review, we discuss the existing knowledge of exo- and endo-cannabinoids, and role of the endocannabinoid system in depressive and suicidal behavior. A dysfunction in this system, located in brain regions such as prefrontal cortex and limbic structures is implicated in mood regulation, impulsivity and decision-making, may increase the risk of negative mood and cognition as well as suicidality. The literature discussed here also suggests that the endocannabinoid system may be a viable target for treatments of these neuropsychiatric conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Srinagesh Mannekote Thippaiah
- Valleywise Behavioral Health, Phoenix, AZ, United States.,Creighton University School of Medicine, Phoenix, AZ, United States
| | - Sloka S Iyengar
- The American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY, United States
| | - K Yaragudri Vinod
- Department of Analytical Psychopharmacology, The Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY, United States.,Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY, United States.,Department of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone Health, New York, NY, United States
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Fonseca R, Madeira N, Simoes C. Resilience to fear: The role of individual factors in amygdala response to stressors. Mol Cell Neurosci 2020; 110:103582. [PMID: 33346000 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2020.103582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Resilience to stress is an adaptive process that varies individually. Resilience refers to the adaptation, or the ability to maintain or regain mental health, despite being subject to adverse situation. Resilience is a dynamic concept that reflects a combination of internal individual factors, including age and gender interacting with external factors such as social, cultural and environmental factors. In the last decade, we have witnessed an increase in the prevalence of anxiety disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder. Given that stress in unavoidable, it is of great interest to understand the neurophysiological mechanisms of resilience, the individual factors that may contribute to susceptibility and promote efficacious approaches to improve resilience. Here, we address this complex question, attempting at defining clear and operational definitions that may allow us to improve our analysis of behavior incorporating individuality. We examine how individual perception of the stressor can alter the outcome of an adverse situation using as an example, the fear-conditioning paradigm and discuss how individual differences in the reward system can contribute to resilience. Given the central role of the endocannabinoid system in regulating fear responses and anxiety, we discuss the evidence that polymorphisms in several molecules of this signaling system contribute to different anxiety phenotypes. The endocannabinoid system is highly interconnected with the serotoninergic and dopaminergic modulatory systems, contributing to individual differences in stress perception and coping mechanisms. We review how the individual variability in these modulatory systems can be used towards a multivariable assessment of stress risk. Incorporating individuality in our research will allow us to define biomarkers of anxiety disorders as well as assess prognosis, towards a personalized clinical approach to mental health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rosalina Fonseca
- Cellular and Systems Neurobiology, Chronic Diseases Research Center (CEDOC), NOVA Medical School, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Campo dos Mártires da Pátria, 130 1169-056 Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Natália Madeira
- Cellular and Systems Neurobiology, Chronic Diseases Research Center (CEDOC), NOVA Medical School, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Campo dos Mártires da Pátria, 130 1169-056 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Carla Simoes
- Cellular and Systems Neurobiology, Chronic Diseases Research Center (CEDOC), NOVA Medical School, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Campo dos Mártires da Pátria, 130 1169-056 Lisboa, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Soriano D, Brusco A, Caltana L. Further evidence of anxiety- and depression-like behavior for total genetic ablation of cannabinoid receptor type 1. Behav Brain Res 2020; 400:113007. [PMID: 33171148 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.113007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1R) is the most abundant cannabinoid receptor in central nervous system. Clinical studies and animal models have shown that the attenuation of endocannabinoid system signaling correlates with the development of psychiatric disorders such as anxiety, depression and schizophrenia. In the present work, multiple behavioral tests were performed to evaluate behaviors related to anxiety and depression in CB1R+/- and CB1R-/-. CB1R+/- mice had anxiety-related behavior similar to wild type (CB1R+/+) mice, whereas CB1R-/- mice displayed an anxious-like phenotype, which indicates that lower expression of CB1R is sufficient to maintain the neural circuits modulating anxiety. In addition, CB1R-/- mice exhibited alterations in risk assessment and less exploration, locomotion, grooming, body weight and appetite. These phenotypic characteristics observed in CB1R-/- mice could be associated with symptoms observed in human psychiatric disorders such as depression. A better knowledge of the neuromodulatory role of CB1R may contribute to understand scope and limitations of the development of medical treatments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Delia Soriano
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, 1ª Unidad Académica del Departamento de Histología, Biología Celular, Embriología y Genética, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Universidad de Buenos Aires. CONICET, Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencia Prof. E. de Robertis (IBCN), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Alicia Brusco
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, 1ª Unidad Académica del Departamento de Histología, Biología Celular, Embriología y Genética, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Universidad de Buenos Aires. CONICET, Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencia Prof. E. de Robertis (IBCN), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Laura Caltana
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, 1ª Unidad Académica del Departamento de Histología, Biología Celular, Embriología y Genética, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Universidad de Buenos Aires. CONICET, Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencia Prof. E. de Robertis (IBCN), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Adelhöfer N, Beste C. Pre-trial theta band activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex correlates with inhibition-related theta band activity in the right inferior frontal cortex. Neuroimage 2020; 219:117052. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
|
17
|
Rodrigues MS, Ferreira C, Dias C, Pliássova A, Souza L, Ledo A, Laranjinha J, Cunha RA, Köfalvi A. An optimized spectrophotometric assay reveals increased activity of enzymes involved in 2-arachidonoyl glycerol turnover in the cerebral cortex of a rat model of Alzheimer's disease. Eur J Neurosci 2020; 55:1051-1062. [PMID: 32813905 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The endocannabinoid system is implicated in a plethora of neuropsychiatric disorders. However, it is technically challenging to assess the turnover of 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG), the principal endocannabinoid molecule in the brain. Two recent studies showed that diacylglycerol lipase α (DAGLα), an enzyme chiefly responsible for the cerebral production of 2-AG, also accepts the surrogate chromogenic substrate 4-nitrophenyl butyrate (4-NPB). Here, we aimed to optimize this spectrophotometric assay for ex vivo brain tissue, in particular, rat cerebrocortical homogenates, to measure the activity of the major enzymes responsible for the production and degradation of 2-AG. The initial velocity of 4-NPB hydrolysis was dependent on protein, substrate, and Ca2+ concentrations, and was sensitive to the non-selective serine hydrolase inhibitor, methoxy arachidonyl fluorophosphonate, the DAGLα inhibitors, OMDM188, tetrahydrolipstatin, and RHC80267, as well as the monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) inhibitor, JZL184, respectively. Next, we tested the usefulness of this assay in ex vivo brain tissue of rat models of human health conditions known to affect cerebrocortical 2-AG production, i.e. pathological stress and sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD). In rats submitted to chronic restraint stress, cortical CB1 R density was significantly decreased, as assessed with radioligand binding. Nevertheless, 4-NPB hydrolysis remained at control levels. However, in rats 4 weeks after intracerebroventricular injection with streptozotocin - an established model of sporadic AD -, both CB1 R levels and 4-NPB hydrolysis and its DAGL- and MAGL-dependent fractions were significantly increased. Altogether, we optimized a simple complementary ex vivo technique for the quantification of DAGL and MAGL activity in brain samples.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matilde S Rodrigues
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Cláudia Ferreira
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Cândida Dias
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Anna Pliássova
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Lisiane Souza
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ana Ledo
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - João Laranjinha
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Rodrigo A Cunha
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Attila Köfalvi
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Bruno A, Dolcetti E, Rizzo FR, Fresegna D, Musella A, Gentile A, De Vito F, Caioli S, Guadalupi L, Bullitta S, Vanni V, Balletta S, Sanna K, Buttari F, Stampanoni Bassi M, Centonze D, Mandolesi G. Inflammation-Associated Synaptic Alterations as Shared Threads in Depression and Multiple Sclerosis. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:169. [PMID: 32655374 PMCID: PMC7324636 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.00169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
In the past years, several theories have been advanced to explain the pathogenesis of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), a neuropsychiatric disease that causes disability in general population. Several theories have been proposed to define the MDD pathophysiology such as the classic "monoamine-theory" or the "glutamate hypothesis." All these theories have been recently integrated by evidence highlighting inflammation as a pivotal player in developing depressive symptoms. Proinflammatory cytokines have been indeed claimed to contribute to stress-induced mood disturbances and to major depression, indicating a widespread role of classical mediators of inflammation in emotional control. Moreover, during systemic inflammatory diseases, peripherally released cytokines circulate in the blood, reach the brain and cause anxiety, anhedonia, social withdrawal, fatigue, and sleep disturbances. Accordingly, chronic inflammatory disorders, such as the inflammatory autoimmune disease multiple sclerosis (MS), have been associated to higher risk of MDD, in comparison with overall population. Importantly, in both MS patients and in its experimental mouse model, Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE), the notion that depressive symptoms are reactive epiphenomenon to the MS pathology has been recently challenged by the evidence of their early manifestation, even before the onset of the disease. Furthermore, in association to such mood disturbance, inflammatory-dependent synaptic dysfunctions in several areas of MS/EAE brain have been observed independently of brain lesions and demyelination. This evidence suggests that a fine interplay between the immune and nervous systems can have a huge impact on several neurological functions, including depressive symptoms, in different pathological conditions. The aim of the present review is to shed light on common traits between MDD and MS, by looking at inflammatory-dependent synaptic alterations associated with depression in both diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Bruno
- Synaptic Immunopathology Lab, Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Ettore Dolcetti
- Synaptic Immunopathology Lab, Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesca Romana Rizzo
- Synaptic Immunopathology Lab, Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Diego Fresegna
- Synaptic Immunopathology Lab, IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandra Musella
- Synaptic Immunopathology Lab, IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana, Rome, Italy
- Department of Human Sciences and Quality of Life Promotion, University of Rome San Raffaele, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Francesca De Vito
- Unit of Neurology, Mediterranean Neurological Institute IRCCS Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy
| | - Silvia Caioli
- Synaptic Immunopathology Lab, Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Livia Guadalupi
- Synaptic Immunopathology Lab, Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Bullitta
- Synaptic Immunopathology Lab, Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Rome, Italy
- Synaptic Immunopathology Lab, IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana, Rome, Italy
| | - Valentina Vanni
- Synaptic Immunopathology Lab, Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Rome, Italy
- Synaptic Immunopathology Lab, IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana, Rome, Italy
| | - Sara Balletta
- Synaptic Immunopathology Lab, Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Krizia Sanna
- Synaptic Immunopathology Lab, Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Fabio Buttari
- Unit of Neurology, Mediterranean Neurological Institute IRCCS Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy
| | | | - Diego Centonze
- Synaptic Immunopathology Lab, Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Rome, Italy
- Unit of Neurology, Mediterranean Neurological Institute IRCCS Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy
| | - Georgia Mandolesi
- Synaptic Immunopathology Lab, IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana, Rome, Italy
- Department of Human Sciences and Quality of Life Promotion, University of Rome San Raffaele, Rome, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Sex differences in the interactive effects of early life stress and the endocannabinoid system. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2020; 80:106893. [PMID: 32437941 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2020.106893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2019] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Sex differences in both the endocannabinoid system and stress responses have been established for decades. While there is ample evidence that the sexes respond differently to stress and that the endocannabinoid system is involved in this response, what is less clear is whether the endocannabinoid system mediates this response to stress differently in both sexes. Also, do the sexes respond similarly to exogenous cannabinoids (CBs) following stress? Can the administration of exogenous CBs normalize the effects of stress and if so, does this happen similarly in male and female subjects? This review will attempt to delineate the stress induced neurochemical alterations in the endocannabinoid system and the resulting behavioral changes across periods of development: prenatal, early neonatal or adolescent in males and females. Within this frame work, we will then examine the neurochemical and behavioral effects of exogenous CBs and illustrate that the response to CBs is determined by the stress history of the animal. The theoretical framework for this endeavor relates to the established effects of adverse childhood experiences (ACE) in increasing substance abuse, depression and anxiety and the possibility that individuals with high ACE scores may consume cannabinoids to "self-medicate". Overall, we see that while there are instances where exogenous cannabinoids "normalize" the adverse effects produced by early stress, this normalization does not occur in all animal models with any sort of consistency. The most compelling report where CB administration appears to normalize behaviors altered by early stress, shows minimal differences between the sexes (Alteba et al., 2016). This is in stark contrast to the majority of studies on early stress and the endocannabinoid system where both sexes are included and show quite divergent, in fact opposite, effects in males and females. Frequently there is a disconnect between neurochemical changes and behavioral changes and often, exogenous CBs have greater effects in stressed animals compared to non-stressed controls. This report as well as others reviewed here do support the concept that the effects of exogenous CBs are different in individuals experiencing early stress and that these differences are not equal in males and females. However, due to the wide variety of stressors used and the range of ages when the stress is applied, additional careful studies are warranted to fully understand the interactive effects of stress and the endocannabinoid system in males and females. In general, the findings do not support the statement that CB self-administration is an effective treatment for the adverse behavioral effects of early maltreatment in either males or females. Certainly this review should draw the attention of clinicians working with children, adolescents and adults exposed to early trauma and provide some perspective on the dysregulation of the endocannabinoid system in the response to trauma, the complex actions of exogenous CBs based on stress history and the unique effects of these factors in men and women.
Collapse
|
20
|
Worley NB, Varela JA, Gaillardetz GP, Hill MN, Christianson JP. Monoacylglycerol lipase alpha inhibition alters prefrontal cortex excitability and blunts the consequences of traumatic stress in rat. Neuropharmacology 2020; 166:107964. [PMID: 31954713 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2020.107964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Revised: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Neural activity within the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) is a critical determinant of stressor-induced anxiety. Pharmacological activation of the vmPFC during stress protects against stress-induced social anxiety suggesting that altering the excitatory/inhibitory (E/I) tone in the vmPFC may promote stress resilience. E/I balance is maintained, in part, by endogenous cannabinoid (eCB) signaling with the calcium dependent retrograde release of 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) suppressing presynaptic neurotransmitter release. We hypothesized that raising 2-AG levels, via inhibition of its degradation enzyme monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) with KML29, would shift vmPFC E/I balance and promote resilience. In acute slice experiments, bath application of KML29 (100 nM) augmented evoked excitatory neurotransmission as evidenced by a left-shift in fEPSP I/O curve, and decreased sIPSC amplitude. In whole-cell recordings, KML29 increased resting membrane potential but reduced the after depolarization, bursting rate, membrane time constant and slow after hyperpolarization. Intra-vmPFC administration of KML29 (200ng/0.5μL/hemisphere) prior to inescapable stress (IS) exposure (25, 5s tail shocks) prevented stress induced anxiety as measured by juvenile social exploration 24 h after stressor exposure. Conversely, systemic administration of KML29 (40 mg/kg, i.p.) 2 h before IS exacerbated stress induced anxiety. MAGL inhibition in the vmPFC may promote resilience by augmenting the output of neurons that project to brainstem and limbic structures that mediate stress responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- N B Worley
- Department of Psychology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, 02467, USA.
| | - J A Varela
- Department of Psychology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, 02467, USA
| | - G P Gaillardetz
- Department of Psychology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, 02467, USA
| | - M N Hill
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N4N1, Canada
| | - J P Christianson
- Department of Psychology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, 02467, USA
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Hemisphere-dependent endocannabinoid system activity in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus of the Flinders Sensitive Line rodent model of depression. Neurochem Int 2019; 125:7-15. [PMID: 30716357 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2019.01.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Revised: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Altered endocannabinoid (eCB) signalling is suggested as an important contributor to the pathophysiology of depression. To further elucidate this, we conducted a study using a genetic rat model of depression, the Flinders Sensitive Line (FSL), and their controls, the Flinders Resistant Line (FRL) rats. Plasma, right and left prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus were isolated from FSL and FRL rats. We analyzed each region for the eCB anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) levels by liquid chromatography/multiple reaction monitoring (LC/MRM), mRNA and protein levels of the cannabinoid type 1 receptor (CB1R), fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacyl glycerol lipase (MAGL) by real time qPCR and Western blotting. Content of 2-AG was lower in the left side of the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex in FSL rats compared to FRL rats. Inversely, levels of AEA were higher in right hippocampus than in left hippocampus. In plasma, AEA levels were increased and 2-AG decreased. Cannabinoid receptor 1 (Cnr1), Faah and Magl mRNA levels were prominently decreased in right prefrontal cortex of FSL rats as compared to FRL rats. Protein expression of CB1R and FAAH were decreased in left hippocampus. In summary, our data suggest a decreased eCB signalling in the FSL rats, which could contribute to the depressive-like behaviour. Interestingly, the altered eCB system activity appear to be hemisphere-specific in the limbic regions. Our study support the existing literature and showed altered eCB system activity in this particular animal model of depression.
Collapse
|
22
|
Vangopoulou C, Bourmpoula MT, Koupourtidou C, Giompres P, Stamatakis A, Kouvelas ED, Mitsacos A. Effects of an early life experience on rat brain cannabinoid receptors in adolescence and adulthood. IBRO Rep 2018; 5:1-9. [PMID: 30135950 PMCID: PMC6095101 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibror.2018.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2018] [Revised: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Neonatal handling is an experimental model of early life experience associated with resilience in later life challenges, altering the ability of animals to respond to stress. The endocannabinoid system of the brain modulates the neuroendocrine and behavioral effects of stress, while this system is also capable of being modulated by stress exposure itself. The present study has addressed the question of whether neonatal handling in rats could affect cannabinoid receptors, in an age- and sex-dependent manner, using in situ hybridization and receptor binding techniques. Different effects of neonatal handling were observed in adolescent and adult brain on CB1 receptor mRNA and [3H]CP55,940 binding levels, which in some cases were sexually dimorphic. Neonatal handling interfered in the developmental trajectories of CB1 receptor mRNA levels in striatum and amygdaloid nuclei, as well as of [3H]CP55,940 binding levels in almost all regions studied. Adult handled rats showed reduced [3H]CP55,940 binding levels in the prefrontal cortex, striatum, nucleus accumbens and basolateral amygdala, while binding levels in prefrontal cortex of adolescent handled rats were increased. Finally, handling resulted in decreases in female [3H]CP55,940 binding levels in the striatum, nucleus accumbens, CA3 and DG of dorsal hippocampus and basolateral amygdala. Our results suggest that a brief and repeated maternal separation during the neonatal period induces changes on cannabinoid receptors differently manifested between adolescence and adulthood, male and female brain, which could be correlated to their stress response.
Collapse
Key Words
- 2-AG, 2-arachidonoylglycerol
- ANOVA, analysis of variance
- Adolescence
- BLA, basolateral nucleus of amygdala
- BSA, bovine serum albumin
- CA1, dorsal field 1 of Ammon’s horn
- CA3, dorsal field 3 of Ammon’s horn
- CB1 cannabinoid receptors
- CB1, cannabinoid receptor 1
- CPu-DL, dorsolateral striatum
- CPu-VM, ventromedial striatum
- CeA, central amygdaloid nucleus
- Cg1, anterior cingulate cortex
- DG, dentate gyrus
- Female rat brain
- GR, glucocorticoid receptors
- GrDG, dentate gyrus granule cell layer
- HPA, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
- IL, infralimbic cortex
- LTD, long-term depression
- MO, medial orbital cortex
- Male rat brain
- Maternal separation
- MoDG, dentate gyrus molecular layer
- NAc, nucleus accumbens
- NS, not significant
- Neonatal handling
- PFC, prefrontal cortex
- PND, postnatal day
- PrL, prelimbic cortex
- ROD, relative optical density
- RT, room temperature
- eCB, endocannabinoid
- mPFC, medial prefrontal cortex
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chara Vangopoulou
- Laboratory of Physiology, Medical School, University of Patras, 26500, Patras, Greece
| | - Maria T. Bourmpoula
- Laboratory of Physiology, Medical School, University of Patras, 26500, Patras, Greece
| | | | - Panagiotis Giompres
- Laboratory of Human and Animal Physiology, Department of Biology, University of Patras, 265040, Patras, Greece
| | - Antonios Stamatakis
- Laboratory of Biology-Biochemistry, Faculty of Nursing, University of Athens, 11527, Athens, Greece
| | - Elias D. Kouvelas
- Laboratory of Physiology, Medical School, University of Patras, 26500, Patras, Greece
| | - Ada Mitsacos
- Laboratory of Physiology, Medical School, University of Patras, 26500, Patras, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Berger AL, Henricks AM, Lugo JM, Wright HR, Warrick CR, Sticht MA, Morena M, Bonilla I, Laredo SA, Craft RM, Parsons LH, Grandes PR, Hillard CJ, Hill MN, McLaughlin RJ. The Lateral Habenula Directs Coping Styles Under Conditions of Stress via Recruitment of the Endocannabinoid System. Biol Psychiatry 2018; 84:611-623. [PMID: 29887035 PMCID: PMC6162143 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2018.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Revised: 03/30/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The ability to effectively cope with stress is a critical determinant of disease susceptibility. The lateral habenula (LHb) and the endocannabinoid (ECB) system have independently been shown to be involved in the selection of stress coping strategies, yet the role of ECB signaling in the LHb remains unknown. METHODS Using a battery of complementary techniques in rats, we examined the localization of type-1 cannabinoid receptors (CB1Rs) and assessed the behavioral and neuroendocrine effects of intra-LHb CB1R manipulations. We further tested the extent to which the ECB system in the LHb is impacted following chronic unpredictable stress or social defeat stress, and whether manipulation of LHb CB1Rs can bias coping strategies in rats with a history of chronic stress. RESULTS Electron microscopy studies revealed CB1R expression on presynaptic axon terminals, postsynaptic membranes, mitochondria, and glial processes in the rat LHb. In vivo microdialysis experiments indicated that acute stress increased the amount of 2-arachidonoylglycerol in the LHb, while intra-LHb CB1R blockade increased basal corticosterone, augmented proactive coping strategies, and reduced anxiety-like behavior. Basal LHb 2-arachidonoylglycerol content was similarly elevated in rats that were subjected to chronic unpredictable stress or social defeat stress and positively correlated with adrenal weight. Finally, intra-LHb CB1R blockade increased proactive behaviors in response to a novel conspecific, increasing approach behaviors irrespective of stress history and decreasing the latency to be attacked during an agonistic encounter. CONCLUSIONS Alterations in LHb ECB signaling may be relevant for development of stress-related pathologies in which LHb dysfunction and stress-coping impairments are hallmark symptoms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony L Berger
- Department of Psychology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
| | - Angela M Henricks
- Department of Psychology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
| | - Janelle M Lugo
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
| | - Hayden R Wright
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
| | - Collin R Warrick
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
| | - Martin A Sticht
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Maria Morena
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Itziar Bonilla
- Department of Neurosciences, University of the Basque Country, Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, Leioa, Spain; Achucarro Basque Center for Neuroscience, Science Park of the Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, Leioa, Spain
| | - Sarah A Laredo
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California
| | - Rebecca M Craft
- Department of Psychology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
| | - Loren H Parsons
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California
| | - Pedro R Grandes
- Department of Neurosciences, University of the Basque Country, Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, Leioa, Spain; Achucarro Basque Center for Neuroscience, Science Park of the Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, Leioa, Spain; Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Cecilia J Hillard
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology and Neuroscience Research Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
| | - Matthew N Hill
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Ryan J McLaughlin
- Department of Psychology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington; Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Endocannabinoid system, stress and HPA axis. Eur J Pharmacol 2018; 834:230-239. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2018.07.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2018] [Accepted: 07/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
25
|
Worley NB, Hill MN, Christianson JP. Prefrontal endocannabinoids, stress controllability and resilience: A hypothesis. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2018; 85:180-188. [PMID: 28392485 PMCID: PMC6746235 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2016] [Revised: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Stressor exposure is a predisposing risk factor for many psychiatric conditions such as PTSD and depression. However, stressors do not influence all individuals equally and in response to an identical stressor some individuals may be vulnerable while others are resilient. While various biological and behavioral factors contribute to vulnerability versus resilience, an individual's degree of control over the stressor is among the most potent. Even with only one experience with control over stress, behavioral control has been shown to have acute and long-lasting stress-mitigating effects. This suggests that control both blunts the response to acute stress and prepares the subject to be resilient to future stressors. In this review, we first summarize the evidence which suggests the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) is a critical component of stressor controllability circuits and a locus of neuroplasticity supporting the acute and long-lasting consequences of control. We next review the central endocannabinoid (eCB) system as a possible mediator of short and long-term synaptic transmission in the vmPFC, and offer a hypothesis whereby eCBs regulate vmPFC circuits engaged when a subject has control over stress and may contribute to the encoding of acute stress coping into long lasting stressor resilience.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas B. Worley
- Department of Psychology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA USA,Corresponding Author: Nicholas Worley, Boston College, Department of Psychology, McGuinn Hall Rm. 300, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467 USA,
| | - Matthew N. Hill
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, CAN
| | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Wu ZH, Zhang QJ, Du CX, Xi Y, Li WJ, Guo FY, Yu SQ, Yang YX, Liu J. Prelimbic α1-adrenoceptors are involved in the regulation of depressive-like behaviors in the hemiparkinsonian rats. Brain Res Bull 2017; 134:99-108. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2017.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2017] [Revised: 07/04/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
|
27
|
MacDowell KS, Sayd A, García-Bueno B, Caso JR, Madrigal JLM, Leza JC. Effects of the antipsychotic paliperidone on stress-induced changes in the endocannabinoid system in rat prefrontal cortex. World J Biol Psychiatry 2017; 18:457-470. [PMID: 26987678 DOI: 10.3109/15622975.2016.1151075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Objectives There is a need to explore novel mechanisms of action of existing/new antipsychotics. One potential candidate is the endocannabinoid system (ECS). The present study tried to elucidate the effects of the antipsychotic paliperidone on stress-induced ECS alterations. Methods Wister rats were submitted to acute/chronic restraint stress. Paliperidone (1 mg/kg) was given prior each stress session. Cannabinoid receptors and endocannabinoids (eCBs) synthesis and degradation enzymes were measured in prefrontal cortex (PFC) samples by RT-PCR and Western Blot. Results In the PFC of rats exposed to acute stress, paliperidone increased CB1 receptor (CB1R) expression. Furthermore, paliperidone increased the expression of the eCB synthesis enzymes N-acylphosphatidylethanolamine- hydrolysing phospholipase D and DAGLα, and blocked the stress-induced increased expression of the degrading enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase. In chronic conditions, paliperidone prevented the chronic stress-induced down-regulation of CB1R, normalised DAGLα expression and reverted stress-induced down-regulation of the 2-AG degrading enzyme monoacylglycerol lipase. ECS was analysed also in periphery. Acute stress decreased DAGLα expression, an effect prevented by paliperidone. Contrarily, chronic stress increased DAGLα and this effect was potentiated by paliperidone. Conclusions The results obtained described a preventive effect of paliperidone on stress-induced alterations in ECS. Considering the diverse alterations on ECS described in psychotic disease, targeting ECS emerges as a new therapeutic possibility.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karina S MacDowell
- a Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine , University Complutense (UCM), Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre and Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica UCM , 28040 Madrid , Spain
| | - Aline Sayd
- a Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine , University Complutense (UCM), Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre and Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica UCM , 28040 Madrid , Spain
| | - Borja García-Bueno
- a Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine , University Complutense (UCM), Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre and Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica UCM , 28040 Madrid , Spain
| | - Javier R Caso
- a Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine , University Complutense (UCM), Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre and Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica UCM , 28040 Madrid , Spain
| | - José L M Madrigal
- a Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine , University Complutense (UCM), Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre and Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica UCM , 28040 Madrid , Spain
| | - Juan Carlos Leza
- a Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine , University Complutense (UCM), Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre and Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica UCM , 28040 Madrid , Spain
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Smaga I, Jastrzębska J, Zaniewska M, Bystrowska B, Gawliński D, Faron-Górecka A, Broniowska Ż, Miszkiel J, Filip M. Changes in the Brain Endocannabinoid System in Rat Models of Depression. Neurotox Res 2017; 31:421-435. [PMID: 28247204 PMCID: PMC5360820 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-017-9708-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Revised: 02/02/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
A growing body of evidence implicates the endocannabinoid (eCB) system in the pathophysiology of depression. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of changes in the eCB system, such as levels of neuromodulators, eCB synthesizing and degrading enzymes, and cannabinoid (CB) receptors, in different brain structures in animal models of depression using behavioral and biochemical analyses. Both models used, i.e., bulbectomized (OBX) and Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rats, were characterized at the behavioral level by increased immobility time. In the OBX rats, anandamide (AEA) levels were decreased in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and striatum and increased in the nucleus accumbens, while 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) levels were increased in the prefrontal cortex and decreased in the nucleus accumbens with parallel changes in the expression of eCB metabolizing enzymes in several structures. It was also observed that CB1 receptor expression decreased in the hippocampus, dorsal striatum, and nucleus accumbens, and CB2 receptor expression decreased in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. In WKY rats, the levels of eCBs were reduced in the prefrontal cortex (2-AG) and dorsal striatum (AEA) and increased in the prefrontal cortex (AEA) with different changes in the expression of eCB metabolizing enzymes, while the CB1 receptor density was increased in several brain regions. These findings suggest that dysregulation in the eCB system is implicated in the pathogenesis of depression, although neurochemical changes were linked to the particular brain structure and the factor inducing depression (surgical removal of the olfactory bulbs vs. genetic modulation).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Irena Smaga
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, College of Medicum, Jagiellonian University, Medyczna 9, PL 30-688, Kraków, Poland
- Laboratory of Drug Addiction Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, PL 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Joanna Jastrzębska
- Laboratory of Drug Addiction Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, PL 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Magdalena Zaniewska
- Laboratory of Drug Addiction Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, PL 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Beata Bystrowska
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, College of Medicum, Jagiellonian University, Medyczna 9, PL 30-688, Kraków, Poland
| | - Dawid Gawliński
- Laboratory of Drug Addiction Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, PL 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Agata Faron-Górecka
- Laboratory of Biochemical Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, PL 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Żaneta Broniowska
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, College of Medicum, Jagiellonian University, Medyczna 9, PL 30-688, Kraków, Poland
| | - Joanna Miszkiel
- Laboratory of Drug Addiction Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, PL 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Filip
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, College of Medicum, Jagiellonian University, Medyczna 9, PL 30-688, Kraków, Poland.
- Laboratory of Drug Addiction Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, PL 31-343, Kraków, Poland.
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Activation and blockade of prelimbic 5-HT6 receptors produce different effects on depressive-like behaviors in unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine-induced Parkinson's rats. Neuropharmacology 2016; 110:25-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2016.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2016] [Revised: 07/10/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
|
30
|
Boorman E, Zajkowska Z, Ahmed R, Pariante CM, Zunszain PA. Crosstalk between endocannabinoid and immune systems: a potential dysregulation in depression? Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2016; 233:1591-604. [PMID: 26483037 PMCID: PMC4828487 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-015-4105-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The endocannabinoid (eCB) system, an endogenous lipid signaling system, appears to be dysregulated in depression. The role of endocannabinoids (eCBs) as potent immunomodulators, together with the accumulating support for a chronic low-grade inflammatory profile in depression, suggests a compelling hypothesis for a fundamental impairment in their intercommunication, in depression. OBJECTIVE We aim to review previous literature on individual associations between the immune and eCB systems and depression. It will focus on peripheral and central mechanisms of crosstalk between the eCB and immune systems. A potential dysregulation in this crosstalk will be discussed in the context of depression. RESULTS Investigations largely report a hypoactivity of the eCB system and increased inflammatory markers in individuals with depression. Findings depict a multifaceted communication whereby immunocompetent and eCB-related cells can both influence the suppression and enhancement of the other's activity in both the periphery and central nervous system. A dysregulation of the eCB system, as seen in depression, appears to be associated with central and peripheral concentrations of inflammatory agents implicated in the pathophysiology of this illness. CONCLUSION The eCB and immune systems have been individually associated with and implicated in pathogenic mechanisms of depression. Both systems tightly regulate the other's activity. As such, a dysregulation in this crosstalk has potential to influence the onset and maintenance of this neuropsychiatric illness. However, few studies have investigated both systems and depression conjointly. This review highlights the demand to consider joint eCB-immune interactions in the pathoetiology of depression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emily Boorman
- Stress, Psychiatry and Immunology Laboratory, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Zuzanna Zajkowska
- Stress, Psychiatry and Immunology Laboratory, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Rumsha Ahmed
- Stress, Psychiatry and Immunology Laboratory, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Carmine M Pariante
- Stress, Psychiatry and Immunology Laboratory, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Patricia A Zunszain
- Stress, Psychiatry and Immunology Laboratory, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Morgese MG, Tucci P, Mhillaj E, Bove M, Schiavone S, Trabace L, Cuomo V. Lifelong Nutritional Omega-3 Deficiency Evokes Depressive-Like State Through Soluble Beta Amyloid. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:2079-2089. [PMID: 26924315 PMCID: PMC5355522 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-9809-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2015] [Accepted: 02/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Recent evidence pointed out that the prevalence of depression has reached epidemic proportions in last decades. This increase has been linked to many environmental factors, among these the influence of dietary factors has gained great attention. In particular, it has been reported that low n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 PUFA) intake in diet is correlated to the development of depressive and anxiety-like symptoms. Furthermore, maternal malnutrition is a widely accepted risk factor for developing mental illness in later adulthood; among others, depression has been strongly associated to this event. On the other hand, we have previously found that acute intracerebral injection of the soluble beta amyloid 1–42 (Aβ1–42) peptide induces a depressive-like behavior in rats, associated to altered hypothalamic–pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activation and reduced cortical serotonin and neurotrophin levels. The aim of the present work was to study the effect of pre- and post-natal (5 weeks post-weaning) exposure to diets differently enriched in n-3, n-6, as well as n-6/n-3 PUFA balanced, on immobility time displayed on the forced swimming test (FST), along with neuroendocrine quantification in offspring rats. Results showed that n-6 PUFA-enriched diet increased depressive- and anxiety-like behaviors, as shown by the elevation in the immobility time in the FST test and self-grooming in the open field test. Those effects were accompanied by reduced cortical serotonin, high plasmatic corticosterone and hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing factor levels. Finally, enhanced plasmatic Aβ1–42 levels after n-6 PUFA diet and reduced plasmatic Aβ1–42 levels after n-3 PUFA were found. Taken together, our data indicate that Aβ1–42 might be crucially involved in behavioral alterations found after n-6 rich PUFA diet and strongly endorse the protective role of n-3 and the detrimental effect of improper n-6 PUFA diet consumption.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Grazia Morgese
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy.
| | - Paolo Tucci
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
| | - Emanuela Mhillaj
- Physiology and Pharmacology, La Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Bove
- Physiology and Pharmacology, La Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Stefania Schiavone
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
| | - Luigia Trabace
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Cuomo
- Physiology and Pharmacology, La Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
CB1 receptor antagonism blocks stress-potentiated reinstatement of cocaine seeking in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2016; 233:99-109. [PMID: 26455361 PMCID: PMC4703460 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-015-4092-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 09/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Under some conditions, stress, rather than directly triggering cocaine seeking, potentiates reinstatement to other stimuli, including a subthreshold cocaine dose. The mechanisms responsible for stress-potentiated reinstatement are not well defined. Endocannabinoid signaling is increased by stress and regulates synaptic transmission in brain regions implicated in motivated behavior. OBJECTIVES The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that cannabinoid type 1 receptor (CB1R) signaling is required for stress-potentiated reinstatement of cocaine seeking in rats. METHODS Following i.v. cocaine self-administration (2 h access/day) and extinction in male rats, footshock stress alone does not reinstate cocaine seeking but reinstatement is observed when footshock is followed by an injection of an otherwise subthreshold dose of cocaine (2.5 mg/kg, i.p.). CB1R involvement was tested by systemic administration of the CB1R antagonist AM251 (0, 1, or 3 mg/kg, i.p.) prior to testing for stress-potentiated reinstatement. RESULTS Stress-potentiated reinstatement was blocked by both 1 and 3 mg/kg AM251. By contrast, AM251 only attenuated food-reinforced lever pressing at the higher dose (i.e., 3 mg/kg) and did not affect locomotor activity at either dose tested. Neither high-dose cocaine-primed reinstatement (10 mg/kg, i.p.) nor footshock stress-triggered reinstatement following long-access cocaine self-administration (6 h access/day) was affected by AM251 pretreatment. Footshock stress increased concentrations of both endocannabinoids, N-arachidonylethanolamine and 2-arachidonoylglycerol, in regions of the prefrontal cortex. CONCLUSIONS These findings demonstrate that footshock stress increases prefrontal cortical endocannabinoids and stress-potentiated reinstatement is CB1R-dependent, suggesting that CB1R is a potential therapeutic target for relapse prevention, particularly in individuals whose cocaine use is stress-related.
Collapse
|
33
|
Morena M, Patel S, Bains JS, Hill MN. Neurobiological Interactions Between Stress and the Endocannabinoid System. Neuropsychopharmacology 2016; 41:80-102. [PMID: 26068727 PMCID: PMC4677118 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2015.166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 403] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2015] [Revised: 05/20/2015] [Accepted: 05/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Stress affects a constellation of physiological systems in the body and evokes a rapid shift in many neurobehavioral processes. A growing body of work indicates that the endocannabinoid (eCB) system is an integral regulator of the stress response. In the current review, we discuss the evidence to date that demonstrates stress-induced regulation of eCB signaling and the consequential role changes in eCB signaling have with respect to many of the effects of stress. Across a wide array of stress paradigms, studies have generally shown that stress evokes bidirectional changes in the two eCB molecules, anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG), with stress exposure reducing AEA levels and increasing 2-AG levels. Additionally, in almost every brain region examined, exposure to chronic stress reliably causes a downregulation or loss of cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptors. With respect to the functional role of changes in eCB signaling during stress, studies have demonstrated that the decline in AEA appears to contribute to the manifestation of the stress response, including activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and increases in anxiety behavior, while the increased 2-AG signaling contributes to termination and adaptation of the HPA axis, as well as potentially contributing to changes in pain perception, memory and synaptic plasticity. More so, translational studies have shown that eCB signaling in humans regulates many of the same domains and appears to be a critical component of stress regulation, and impairments in this system may be involved in the vulnerability to stress-related psychiatric conditions, such as depression and posttraumatic stress disorder. Collectively, these data create a compelling argument that eCB signaling is an important regulatory system in the brain that largely functions to buffer against many of the effects of stress and that dynamic changes in this system contribute to different aspects of the stress response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Morena
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada,Mathison Centre for Mental Health Research and Education, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Sachin Patel
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics and Psychiatry, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt-Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Jaideep S Bains
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Matthew N Hill
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada,Mathison Centre for Mental Health Research and Education, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada,Departments of Cell Biology and Anatomy and Psychiatry, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada,Departments of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N4N1, Canada, Tel: +1 403 220 8466, Fax: +1 403 283 2700, E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Zhang QJ, Du CX, Tan HH, Zhang L, Li LB, Zhang J, Niu XL, Liu J. Activation and blockade of serotonin7 receptors in the prelimbic cortex regulate depressive-like behaviors in a 6-hydroxydopamine-induced Parkinson's disease rat model. Neuroscience 2015; 311:45-55. [PMID: 26470809 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2015] [Revised: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 10/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The role of serotonin7 (5-HT7) receptors in the regulation of depression is poorly understood, particularly in Parkinson's disease-associated depression. Here we examined whether 5-HT7 receptors in the prelimbic (PrL) sub-region of the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) involve in the regulation of depressive-like behaviors in sham-operated rats and rats with unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the medial forebrain bundle. The lesion induced depressive-like responses as measured by the sucrose preference and forced swim tests when compared to sham-operated rats. Intra-PrL injection of 5-HT7 receptor agonist AS19 (0.5, 1 and 2 μg/rat) increased sucrose consumption, and decreased immobility time in sham-operated and the lesioned rats, indicating the induction of antidepressant-like effects. Further, intra-PrL injection of 5-HT7 receptor antagonist SB269970 (1.5, 3 and 6 μg/rat) decreased sucrose consumption, and increased immobility time, indicating the induction of depressive-like responses. However, the doses producing these effects in the lesioned rats were higher than those in sham-operated rats. Neurochemical results showed that intra-PrL injection of AS19 (2 μg/rat) increased dopamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and noradrenaline (NA) levels in the mPFC, habenula and ventral hippocampus (vHip) in sham-operated and the lesioned rats; whereas SB269970 (6 μg/rat) decreased 5-HT levels in the habenula and vHip, and the levels of NA in the mPFC, habenula and vHip in the two groups of rats. The results suggest that 5-HT7 receptors in the PrL play an important role in the regulation of these behaviors, which attribute to changes in monoamine levels in the limbic and limbic-related brain regions after activation and blockade of 5-HT7 receptors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Q J Zhang
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Second Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - C X Du
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Second Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - H H Tan
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Second Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - L Zhang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - L B Li
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Second Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - J Zhang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - X L Niu
- Department of Medicine, The Second Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - J Liu
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an 710061, China.
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Fitzgibbon M, Finn DP, Roche M. High Times for Painful Blues: The Endocannabinoid System in Pain-Depression Comorbidity. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2015; 19:pyv095. [PMID: 26342110 PMCID: PMC4815466 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyv095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2015] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Depression and pain are two of the most debilitating disorders worldwide and have an estimated cooccurrence of up to 80%. Comorbidity of these disorders is more difficult to treat, associated with significant disability and impaired health-related quality of life than either condition alone, resulting in enormous social and economic cost. Several neural substrates have been identified as potential mediators in the association between depression and pain, including neuroanatomical reorganization, monoamine and neurotrophin depletion, dysregulation of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis, and neuroinflammation. However, the past decade has seen mounting evidence supporting a role for the endogenous cannabinoid (endocannabinoid) system in affective and nociceptive processing, and thus, alterations in this system may play a key role in reciprocal interactions between depression and pain. This review will provide an overview of the preclinical evidence supporting an interaction between depression and pain and the evidence supporting a role for the endocannabinoid system in this interaction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Michelle Roche
- Physiology (Ms Fitzgibbon and Dr Roche), and Pharmacology and Therapeutics (Dr Finn), School of Medicine, Galway Neuroscience Centre and Centre for Pain Research (Ms Fitzgibbon, Dr Finn, and Dr Roche), National Centre for Biomedical Engineering Science, National University of Ireland Galway, Ireland.
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Abstract
Preclinical and clinical data fully support the involvement of the endocannabinoid system in the etiopathogenesis of several mental diseases. In this review we will briefly summarize the most common alterations in the endocannabinoid system, in terms of cannabinoid receptors and endocannabinoid levels, present in mood disorders (anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, bipolar disorder, and suicidality) as well as psychosis (schizophrenia) and autism. The arising picture for each pathology is not always straightforward; however, both animal and human studies seem to suggest that pharmacological modulation of this system might represent a novel approach for treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tiziana Rubino
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences and Neuroscience Centre, University of Insubria, Via Manara 7, 21052, Busto Arsizio, VA, Italy
| | - Erica Zamberletti
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences and Neuroscience Centre, University of Insubria, Via Manara 7, 21052, Busto Arsizio, VA, Italy
- Fondazione Zardi Gori, Milan, Italy
| | - Daniela Parolaro
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences and Neuroscience Centre, University of Insubria, Via Manara 7, 21052, Busto Arsizio, VA, Italy.
- Fondazione Zardi Gori, Milan, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Smaga I, Bystrowska B, Gawliński D, Przegaliński E, Filip M. The endocannabinoid/endovanilloid system and depression. Curr Neuropharmacol 2014; 12:462-74. [PMID: 25426013 PMCID: PMC4243035 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x12666140923205412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2014] [Revised: 07/15/2014] [Accepted: 09/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Depression is one of the most frequent causes of disability in the 21st century. Despite the many preclinical and clinical studies that have addressed this brain disorder, the pathophysiology of depression is not well understood and the available antidepressant drugs are therapeutically inadequate in many patients. In recent years, the potential role of lipid-derived molecules, particularly endocannabinoids (eCBs) and endovanilloids, has been highlighted in the pathogenesis of depression and in the action of antidepressants. There are many indications that the eCB/endovanilloid system is involved in the pathogenesis of depression, including the localization of receptors, modulation of monoaminergic transmission, inhibition of the stress axis and promotion of neuroplasticity in the brain. Preclinical pharmacological and genetic studies of eCBs in depression also suggest that facilitating the eCB system exerts antidepressant-like behavioral responses in rodents. In this article, we review the current knowledge of the role of the eCB/endovanilloid system in depression, as well as the effects of its ligands, models of depression and antidepressant drugs in preclinical and clinical settings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Irena Smaga
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University, College of Medicum, Medyczna 9, PL 30-688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Beata Bystrowska
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University, College of Medicum, Medyczna 9, PL 30-688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Dawid Gawliński
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University, College of Medicum, Medyczna 9, PL 30-688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Edmund Przegaliński
- Laboratory of Drug Addiction Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, PL 31-343 Kraków, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Filip
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University, College of Medicum, Medyczna 9, PL 30-688 Kraków, Poland ; Laboratory of Drug Addiction Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, PL 31-343 Kraków, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Hashemizadeh S, Sardari M, Rezayof A. Basolateral amygdala CB1 cannabinoid receptors mediate nicotine-induced place preference. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2014; 51:65-71. [PMID: 24468643 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2014.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2013] [Revised: 01/10/2014] [Accepted: 01/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, the effects of bilateral microinjections of cannabinoid CB1 receptor agonist and antagonist into the basolateral amygdala (intra-BLA) on nicotine-induced place preference were examined in rats. A conditioned place preference (CPP) apparatus was used for the assessment of rewarding effects of the drugs in adult male Wistar rats. Subcutaneous (s.c.) administration of nicotine (0.2mg/kg) induced a significant CPP, without any effect on the locomotor activity during the testing phase. Intra-BLA microinjection of a non-selective cannabinoid CB1/CB2 receptor agonist, WIN 55,212-2 (0.1-0.5 μg/rat) with an ineffective dose of nicotine (0.1mg/kg, s.c.) induced a significant place preference. On the other hand, intra-BLA administration of AM251 (20-60 ng/rat), a selective cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist inhibited the acquisition of nicotine-induced place preference. It should be considered that the microinjection of the same doses of WIN 55,212-2 or AM251 into the BLA, by itself had no effect on the CPP score. The administration of a higher dose of AM251 (60 ng/rat) during the acquisition decreased the locomotor activity of animals on the testing phase. Interestingly, the microinjection of AM251 (20 and 40 ng/rat), but not WIN55,212-2 (0.1-0.5 μg/rat), into the BLA inhibited the expression of nicotine-induced place preference without any effect on the locomotor activity. Taken together, these findings support the possible role of endogenous cannabinoid system of the BLA in the acquisition and the expression of nicotine-induced place preference. Furthermore, it seems that there is a functional interaction between the BLA cannabinoid receptors and nicotine in producing the rewarding effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shiva Hashemizadeh
- Department of Animal Biology, School of Biology and Center of Excellence in Phylogeny of Living Organisms, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maryam Sardari
- Department of Animal Biology, School of Biology and Center of Excellence in Phylogeny of Living Organisms, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ameneh Rezayof
- Department of Animal Biology, School of Biology and Center of Excellence in Phylogeny of Living Organisms, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran; School of Cognitive Sciences, Institute for Research in Fundamental Sciences (IPM), Tehran, Iran.
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Changes in cerebral CB1 receptor availability after acute and chronic alcohol abuse and monitored abstinence. J Neurosci 2014; 34:2822-31. [PMID: 24553924 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0849-13.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Involvement of the type 1 cannabinoid receptor (CB1R) in the effects of alcohol on the brain is supported by animal experiments, but how in vivo CB1R levels are altered in alcoholic patients is still unclear. To assess the short-time effects of a binge drinking episode on CB1R availability, 20 healthy social drinkers underwent [(18)F]MK-9470-positron emission tomography (PET) at baseline and after intravenous ethanol administration (ALC ACU). Moreover, 26 alcoholic patients underwent sequential CB1R PET after chronic heavy drinking (ALC CHR) and after 1 month of abstinence (ALC ABST). Seventeen healthy subjects served as controls. Compared with baseline, ALC ACU resulted in a global increase of CB1R availability (+15.8%). In contrast, a global decreased CB1R availability was found in ALC CHR patients (-16.1%) compared with controls, which remained unaltered after abstinence (-17.0%). Voxel-based analysis showed that ALC CHR patients had reduced CB1R availability, especially in the cerebellum and parieto-occipital cortex. After abstinence, reduced CB1R availability extended also to other areas such as the ventral striatum and mesotemporal lobe. In conclusion, whereas the acute alcohol effect is an increase in CB1R availability, chronic heavy drinking leads to reduced CB1R availability that is not reversible after 1 month of abstinence. Longer follow-up is required to differentiate whether this is a compensatory effect of repeated endocannabinoid overstimulation or an enduring trait-like feature. An enhanced CB1R signaling may offer a new therapeutic direction for treatment of the negative affective state produced by alcohol withdrawal and abstinence, which is critical for the maintenance of alcohol addiction.
Collapse
|
40
|
Hui YP, Zhang QJ, Zhang L, Chen L, Guo Y, Qiao HF, Wang Y, Liu J. Activation of prelimbic 5-HT1A receptors produces antidepressant-like effects in a unilateral rat model of Parkinson's disease. Neuroscience 2014; 268:265-75. [PMID: 24680938 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.03.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2014] [Revised: 03/02/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Depression is a common symptom in Parkinson's disease (PD), but its pathophysiology remains unclear. Several lines of studies have revealed that the prelimbic (PrL) sub-region of the ventral medial prefrontal cortex and 5-HT1A receptors are involved in the regulation of depression. In this study, we examined whether complete unilateral lesions of the medial forebrain bundle (MFB) using 6-hydroxydopamine in rats are able to induce depressive-like behaviors, the role of PrL 5-HT1A receptors in the regulation of these behaviors, and co-localization of 5-HT1A receptor and neuronal glutamate transporter EAAC1-immunoreactive (EAAC1-ir) neurons in the PrL. The MFB lesions induced depressive-like responses as measured by the sucrose preference and forced swim tests when compared to sham-operated rats. The intra-PrL injection of 5HT1A receptor agonist 8-OH-DPAT (50, 100, and 500ng/rat) increased sucrose consumption, and decreased immobility time in both sham-operated and the lesioned rats, indicating the induction of antidepressant effects. Furthermore, the intra-PrL injection of 5HT1A receptor antagonist WAY-100635 (60, 120, and 240ng/rat) showed a decrease in sucrose consumption, and an increase in immobility time, indicating the induction of depressive-like responses. However, the effective doses in the lesioned rats were higher than those in sham-operated rats, which attribute to down-regulation of 5-HT1A receptor expression on EAAC1-ir neurons in the PrL of the lesioned rats. These findings suggest that unilateral lesions of the MFB in rats may induce depressive-like behaviors, and 5-HT1A receptors of the PrL play an important role in the regulation of these behaviors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Y P Hui
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Q J Zhang
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Second Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - L Zhang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - L Chen
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Y Guo
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - H F Qiao
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Second Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - Y Wang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China.
| | - J Liu
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China.
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
McLaughlin RJ, Hill MN, Gorzalka BB. A critical role for prefrontocortical endocannabinoid signaling in the regulation of stress and emotional behavior. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2014; 42:116-31. [PMID: 24582908 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2013] [Revised: 01/31/2014] [Accepted: 02/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The prefrontal cortex (PFC) provides executive control of the brain in humans and rodents, coordinating cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses to threatening stimuli and subsequent feedback inhibition of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. The endocannabinoid system has emerged as a fundamental regulator of HPA axis feedback inhibition and an important modulator of emotional behavior. However, the precise role of endocannabinoid signaling within the PFC with respect to stress coping and emotionality has only recently been investigated. This review discusses the current state of knowledge regarding the localization and function of the endocannabinoid system in the PFC, its sensitivity to stress and its role in modulating the neuroendocrine and behavioral responses to aversive stimuli. We propose a model whereby steady-state endocannabinoid signaling in the medial PFC indirectly regulates the outflow of pyramidal neurons by fine-tuning GABAergic inhibition. Local activation of this population of CB1 receptors increases the downstream targets of medial PFC activation, which include inhibitory interneurons in the basolateral amygdala, inhibitory relay neurons in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and monoamine cell bodies such as the dorsal raphe nucleus. This ultimately produces beneficial effects on emotionality (active coping responses to stress and reduced anxiety) and assists in constraining activation of the HPA axis. Under conditions of chronic stress, or in individuals suffering from mood disorders, this system may be uniquely recruited to help maintain appropriate function in the face of adversity, while breakdown of the endocannabinoid system in the medial PFC may be, in and of itself, sufficient to produce neuropsychiatric illness. Thus, we suggest that endocannabinoid signaling in the medial PFC may represent an attractive target for the treatment of stress-related disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Matthew N Hill
- Department of Cell Biology & Anatomy and Department of Psychiatry, Calgary, AB, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Boris B Gorzalka
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Hillard CJ, Liu QS. Endocannabinoid signaling in the etiology and treatment of major depressive illness. Curr Pharm Des 2014; 20:3795-811. [PMID: 24180398 PMCID: PMC4002665 DOI: 10.2174/13816128113196660735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2013] [Accepted: 10/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this review is to examine human and preclinical data that are relevant to the following hypotheses. The first hypothesis is that deficient CB1R-mediated signaling results in symptoms that mimic those seen in depression. The second hypothesis is that activation of CB1R-mediated signaling results in behavioral, endocrine and other effects that are similar to those produced by currently used antidepressants. The third hypothesis is that conventional antidepressant therapies act through enhanced CB1R mediated signaling. Together the available data indicate that activators of CB1R signaling, particularly inhibitors of fatty acid amide hydrolase, should be considered for clinical trials for the treatment of depression.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antidepressive Agents/pharmacology
- Antidepressive Agents/therapeutic use
- Brain/drug effects
- Brain/enzymology
- Brain/metabolism
- Brain/pathology
- Cannabis
- Depressive Disorder, Major/drug therapy
- Depressive Disorder, Major/etiology
- Depressive Disorder, Major/genetics
- Depressive Disorder, Major/pathology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Endocannabinoids/genetics
- Endocannabinoids/metabolism
- Humans
- Magnetic Resonance Imaging
- Neurogenesis/drug effects
- Polymorphism, Genetic
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/genetics
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/metabolism
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Qing-song Liu
- Neuroscience Research Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, 8701 Watertown Plank Road, Milwaukee, WI 53226.
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Basic and modern concepts on cholinergic receptor: A review. ASIAN PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TROPICAL DISEASE 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/s2222-1808(13)60094-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
44
|
NESS06SM reduces body weight with an improved profile relative to SR141716A. Pharmacol Res 2013; 74:94-108. [PMID: 23756200 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2013.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2013] [Revised: 06/01/2013] [Accepted: 06/02/2013] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
We have recently synthesized a new series of 4,5-dihydrobenzo-oxa-cycloheptapyrazole derivatives with the aim to discover novel CB1 antagonist agents characterized by anti-obesity activity comparable to that of SR141716A but with reduced adverse effects such as anxiety and depression. Within the novel class, the CB1 antagonist 8-chloro-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-N-piperidin-1-yl-4,5-dihydrobenzo-1H-6-oxa-cyclohepta(1,2-c)pyrazole-3-carboxamide (NESS06SM) has been selected as lead compound. We found that NESS06SM is a CB1 neutral antagonist, characterized by poor blood-brain barrier permeability. Moreover, NESS06SM chronic treatment determined both anti-obesity effect and cardiovascular risk factor improvement in C57BL/6N Diet Induced Obesity (DIO) mice fed with fat diet (FD mice). In fact, the mRNA gene expression in Central Nervous System (CNS) and peripheral tissues by real time PCR, showed a significant increase of orexigenic peptides and a decrease of anorexigenic peptides elicited by NESS06SM treatment, compared to control mice fed with the same diet. Moreover, in contrast to SR141716A treatment, the chronic administration of NESS06SM did not change mRNA expression of both monoaminergic transporters and neurotrophins highly related with anxiety and mood disorders. Our results suggest that NESS06SM reduces body weight and it can restore the disrupted expression profile of genes linked to the hunger-satiety circuit without altering monoaminergic transmission probably avoiding SR141716A side effects. Therefore the novel CB1 neutral antagonist could represent a useful candidate agent for the treatment of obesity and its metabolic complications.
Collapse
|
45
|
Lee TTY, Hill MN. Age of stress exposure modulates the immediate and sustained effects of repeated stress on corticolimbic cannabinoid CB₁ receptor binding in male rats. Neuroscience 2012. [PMID: 23200786 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Chronic stress is known to modulate cannabinoid CB1 receptor binding densities in corticolimbic structures, in a region-dependent manner; however, the ontogeny of these changes and the degree to which they recover following exposure to stress have yet to be determined. To this extent, we examined both the immediate and sustained effects (following a 40-day recovery period) of a repeated restraint stress paradigm (30-min restraint/day for 10 days) on CB1 receptor binding in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), hippocampus and amygdala in both adolescent (stress onset at post-natal day [PND] 35) and adult (stress onset at PND 75) male Sprague-Dawley rats. Consistent with previous reports, we found that repeated stress in adult rats resulted in an increase in CB1 receptor binding in the PFC, a reduction in CB1 receptor binding in the hippocampus and no effect in the amygdala. Interestingly, adolescent rats exposed to repeated restraint stress did not show any change in hippocampal CB1 receptor density, but exhibited an upregulation of CB1 receptor binding in both the PFC and amygdala. In adults, a 40-day recovery period resulted in a normalization of CB1 receptor binding in the PFC, and surprisingly a pronounced upregulation of CB1 receptor binding in the hippocampus, possibly indicative of a rebound effect. Adolescents similarly exhibited this rebound increase in hippocampal CB1 receptor binding, despite a lack in immediate downregulation following repeated restraint. Of particular interest, adolescents exposed to stress were found to have a sustained downregulation of prefrontocortical CB1 receptors in adulthood, which may relate to some of the reported sustained behavioral effects of stress in adolescence. Collectively, these data indicate that the effects of chronic stress on cannabinoid CB1 receptor binding are modulated by the age of stress exposure and period of recovery following the cessation of stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T T Y Lee
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Department of Cell Biology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | | |
Collapse
|