Pathological mechanisms of liver injury caused by continuous intraperitoneal injection of silica nanoparticles

Microneedle-mediated nanomedicine to enhance therapeutic and diagnostic efficacy

Nanomedicine has been extensively explored for therapeutic and diagnostic applications in recent years, owing to its numerous advantages such as controlled release, targeted delivery, and efficient protection of encapsulated agents. Integration of microneedle technologies with nanomedicine has the potential to address current limitations in nanomedicine for drug delivery including relatively low therapeutic efficacy and poor patient compliance and enable theragnostic uses. In this Review, we first summarize representative types of nanomedicine and describe their broad applications. We then outline the current challenges faced by nanomedicine, with a focus on issues related to physical barriers, biological barriers, and patient compliance. Next, we provide an overview of microneedle systems, including their definition, manufacturing strategies, drug release mechanisms, and current advantages and challenges. We also discuss the use of microneedle-mediated nanomedicine systems for therapeutic and diagnostic applications. Finally, we provide a perspective on the current status and future prospects for microneedle-mediated nanomedicine for biomedical applications.

Selenium nanoparticles: Enhanced nutrition and beyond

Selenium is a trace nutrient that has both nutritional and nutraceutical functions, whereas narrow nutritional range of selenium intake limits its use. Selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) are less toxic and more bioavailable than traditional forms of selenium, suggesting that SeNPs have the potential to replace traditional selenium in food industries and/or biomedical fields. From the perspective of how SeNPs can be applied in health area, this review comprehensively discusses SeNPs in terms of its preparation, nutritional aspect, detoxification effect of heavy metals, nutraceutical functions and anti-pathogenic microorganism effects. By physical, chemical, or biological methods, inorganic selenium can be transformed into SeNPs which have increased stability and bioavailability as well as low toxicity. SeNPs are more effective than traditional selenium form in synthesizing selenoproteins like glutathione peroxidases. SeNPs can reshape the digestive system to facilitate digestion and absorption of nutrients. SeNPs have shown excellent potential to adjunctively treat cancer patients, enhance immune system, control diabetes, and prevent rheumatoid arthritis. Additionally, SeNPs have good microbial anti-pathogenic effects and can be used with other antimicrobial agents to fight against pathogenic bacteria, fungi, or viruses. Development of novel SeNPs with enhanced functions can greatly benefit the food-, nutraceutical-, and biomedical industries.

Single-cell RNA transcriptome landscape of murine liver following systemic administration of mesoporous silica nanoparticles

Due to the unique physicochemical properties, mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MONs) have been widely utilized in biomedical fields for drug delivery, gene therapy, disease diagnosis and imaging. With the extensive applications and large-scale production of MONs, the potential effects of MONs on human health are gaining increased attention. To better understand the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of MONs on the mouse liver, we profiled the transcriptome of 63,783 single cells from mouse livers following weekly intravenous administration of MONs for 2 weeks. The results showed that the proportion of endothelial cells and CD4+ T cells was increased, whereas that of Kupffer cells was decreased, in a dose-dependent manner after MONs treatment in the mouse liver. We also observed that the proportion of inflammation-related Kupffer cell subtype and wound healing-related hepatocyte subtype were elevated, but the number of hepatocytes with detoxification characteristics was reduced after MONs treatment. The cell-cell communication network revealed that there was more crosstalk between cholangiocytes and Kupffer cells, liver capsular macrophages, hepatic stellate cells, and endothelial cells following MONs treatment. Furthermore, we identified key ligand-receptor pairs between crucial subtypes after MONs treatment that are known to promote liver fibrosis. Collectively, our study explored the effects of MONs on mouse liver at a single-cell level and provides comprehensive information on the potential hepatotoxicity of MONs.

Survival, growth, behavior, hematology and serum biochemistry of mice under different concentrations of orally administered amorphous silica nanoparticle

Silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) are used extensively in consumer products and biomedical research basically due to ease of production and low cost. However, insufficient literature is reported regarding the toxicity and biocompatibility of SiNPs. The present study aimed to investigate the potential role of amorphous SiNPs on survival, growth, behavioral alterations, hematology and serum biochemistry of mice at four concentrations (control, 50, 100 and 150 mg/kg/day) of an oral supplementation for a period of 3 months. Signs of toxicity (lethargy, nausea, coma, tremors, vomiting and diarrhea, etc.) were noted at 9:00 am and 9:00 pm (twice a day) and the body weight of each of these mice was measured every week. The data were subjected to mean, standard deviation (S.D). Moreover, One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Dunnett's test were applied for analysis of statistical significance between groups by using SPSS software, version 20. All the mice survived with minor alterations in behavior and no significant weight changes were observed during the stipulated time period. Complete blood count (CBC) analysis indicated non-significant (P ≥ 0.05) systemic dysfunctions of organ systems. However, there was elevation in the level of AST and ALT in the analysis of serum biochemistry, while the values of all other examined parameters were not-significant (P ≥ 0.05). The study concluded that orally administered large silica nanoparticles up to the dose level of 150 mg/kg/day are nontoxic for the in vivo use in mice.

Magnesium Supplementation Alleviates the Toxic Effects of Silica Nanoparticles on the Kidneys, Liver, and Adrenal Glands in Rats

Concerns regarding the possible hazards to human health have been raised by the growing usage of silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) in a variety of applications, including industrial, agricultural, and medical applications. This in vivo subchronic study was conducted to assess the following: (1) the toxicity of orally administered SiNPs on the liver, kidneys, and adrenal glands; (2) the relationship between SiNPs exposure and oxidative stress; and (3) the role of magnesium in mitigating these toxic effects. A total of 24 Sprague Dawley male adult rats were divided equally into four groups, as follows: control group, magnesium (Mg) group (50 mg/kg/d), SiNPs group (100 mg/kg/d), and SiNPs+ Mg group. Rats were treated with SiNPs by oral gavage for 90 days. The liver transaminases, serum creatinine, and cortisol levels were evaluated. The tissue malondialdehyde (MDA) and reduced glutathione (GSH) levels were measured. Additionally, the weight of the organs and the histopathological changes were examined. Our results demonstrated that SiNPs exposure caused increased weight in the kidneys and adrenal glands. Exposure to SiNPs was also associated with significant alterations in liver transaminases, serum creatinine, cortisol, MDA, and GSH. Additionally, histopathological changes were significantly reported in the liver, kidneys, and adrenal glands of SiNPs-treated rats. Notably, when we compared the control group with the treated groups with SiNPs and Mg, the results revealed that magnesium could mitigate SiNPs-induced biochemical and histopathologic changes, confirming its effective role as an antioxidant that reduced the accumulation of SiNPs in tissues, and that it returns the levels of liver transaminases, serum creatinine, cortisol, MDA, and GSH to almost normal values.

Polysaccharide Nanofiber-Stabilized Pickering Emulsion Microparticles Induce Pyroptotic Cell Death in Hepatocytes and Kupffer Cells

The intracellular uptake and interaction behavior of emulsion microparticles in liver cells critical to host defense and inflammation is significant to understanding their potential cytotoxicity and biomedical applications. In this study, the cell death responses of fibroblastic, hepatocyte, and Kupffer cells (KCs) induced by four types of emulsion particles that are stabilized by polysaccharide nanofibers (cellulose or chitin), an inorganic nanoparticle (β-tricalcium phosphate), or surfactants are compared. Pickering emulsion (PE) microparticles stabilized by polysaccharide nanofibers or inorganic nanoparticles have a droplet size of 1-3 µm, while the surfactant-stabilized emulsion has a diameter of ≈190 nm. Polysaccharide nanofiber-stabilized PEs (PPEs) markedly induce lactate dehydrogenase release in all cell types. Additionally, characteristic pyroptotic cell death, which is accompanied by cell swelling, membrane blebbing, and caspase-1 activation, occurs in hepatocytes and KCs. These PE microparticles are co-cultured with lipopolysaccharide-primed KCs associated with cytokine interleukin-1β release, and the PPEs demonstrate biological activity as a mediator of the inflammation response. Well-designed PPE microparticles induce pyroptosis of liver cells, which may provide new insight into regulating inflammation-related diseases for designing potent anticancer drugs and vaccine adjuvants.

Adverse effects and underlying mechanism of amorphous silica nanoparticles in liver

Amorphous silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) have been widely used and mass-producted due to its unique properties. With the life cycle of SiNPs-based products, SiNPs are further released into the air, soil, surface water and sediment, resulting in an increasing risk to humans. SiNPs could enter into the human body through vein, respiratory tract, digestive tract or skin. Moreover, recent evidences have showed that, regardless of exposure pathways, SiNPs could even be traced in liver, which is gradually considered as one of the main organs that SiNPs accumulate. Increasing evidences supported the link between SiNPs exposure and adverse liver effects. However, the research models are diverse and the molecular mechanisms have not been well integrated. In this review, the liver-related studies of SiNPs in vivo and in vitro were screened from the PubMed database by systematic retrieval method. We explored the interaction between SiNPs and the liver, and especially proposed a framework of SiNPs-caused liver toxicity, considering AOP Wiki and existing studies. We identified increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) as a molecular initiating event (MIE), oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress, lysosome disruption and mitochondrial dysfunction as subsequent key events (KEs), which gradually led to adverse outcomes (AOs) containing liver dysfunction and liver fibrosis through a series of key events about cell inflammation and death such as hepatocyte apoptosis/pyroptosis, hepatocyte autophagy dysfuncton and hepatic macrophages pyroptosis. To our best knowledge, this is the first AOP proposed on SiNPs-related liver toxicity. In the future, more epidemiological studies need to be performed and more biomarkers need to be explored to improve the AOP framework for SiNPs-associated liver toxicity.

A toxicological profile of silica nanoparticles

Humans are regularly exposed to silica nanoparticles in environmental and occupational contexts, and these exposures have been implicated in the onset of adverse health effects. Existing reviews on silica nanoparticle toxicity are few and not comprehensive. There are natural and synthetic sources by which crystalline and amorphous silica nanoparticles are produced. These processes influence physiochemical properties, which are factors that can dictate toxicological effects. Toxicological assessment includes exposure scenario (e.g. environmental, occupational), route of exposure, toxicokinetics, and toxicodynamics. Broader considerations include pathology, risk assessment, regulation, and treatment after injury. This review aims to consolidate the most relevant and up-to-date research in these areas to provide an exhaustive toxicological profile of silica nanoparticles.

Integrative proteomics and metabolomics approach to elucidate metabolic dysfunction induced by silica nanoparticles in hepatocytes

Silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) are derived from manufactured materials and the natural environment, and they cause detrimental effects on human health via various exposure routes. The liver is proven to be a key target organ for SiNP toxicity; however, the mechanisms causing toxicity remain largely uncertain. Here, we investigated the effects of SiNPs on the metabolic spectrum in hepatocytes via integrative analyses of proteomics and metabolomics. First, a proteomic analysis was used to screen for critical proteins (including RPL3, HSP90AA1, SOD, PGK1, GOT1, and PNP), indicating that abnormal protein synthesis, protein misfolding, oxidative stress, and metabolic dysfunction may contribute to SiNP-induced hepatotoxicity. Next, metabolomic data demonstrated that SiNPs caused metabolic dysfunction by altering vital metabolites (including glucose, alanine, GSH, CTP, and ATP). Finally, a systematic bioinformatic analysis of protein-metabolite interactions showed that SiNPs disturbed glucose metabolism (glycolysis and pentose phosphate pathways, amino acid metabolism (alanine, aspartate, and glutamate), and ribonucleotide metabolism (purine and pyrimidine). These metabolic dysfunctions could exacerbate oxidative stress and lead to liver injury. Moreover, SOD, TKT, PGM1, GOT1, PNP, and NME2 may be key proteins for SiNP-induced hepatotoxicity. This study revealed the metabolic mechanisms underlying SiNP-induced hepatotoxicity and illustrated that integrative omics analyses can be a powerful approach for toxicity evaluations and risk assessments of nanoparticles.

Silica nanoparticles: Biomedical applications and toxicity

Silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) are composed of silicon dioxide, the most abundant compound on Earth, and are used widely in many applications including the food industry, synthetic processes, medical diagnosis, and drug delivery due to their controllable particle size, large surface area, and great biocompatibility. Building on basic synthetic methods, convenient and economical strategies have been developed for the synthesis of SiNPs. Numerous studies have assessed the biomedical applications of SiNPs, including the surface and structural modification of SiNPs to target various cancers and diagnose diseases. However, studies on the in vitro and in vivo toxicity of SiNPs remain in the exploratory stage, and the toxicity mechanisms of SiNPs are poorly understood. This review covers recent studies on the biomedical applications of SiNPs, including their uses in drug delivery systems to diagnose and treat various diseases in the human body. SiNP toxicity is discussed in terms of the different systems of the human body and the individual organs in those systems. This comprehensive review includes both fundamental discoveries and exploratory progress in SiNP research that may lead to practical developments in the future.

Inhalation exposure to silver nanoparticles induces hepatic inflammation and oxidative stress, associated with altered renin-angiotensin system signaling, in Wistar rats

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have become increasingly popular in the biomedical field over the last few decades due to its proven antibacterial property. Previous scientific studies have reported that one of the major organs responsible for detoxification of AgNPs is the liver. The liver is also the primary organ responsible for secretion of angiotensinogen (AGT), a key signaling molecule involved in the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), which plays an important role in maintaining cardiac output and vascular pressure. The aim of this study was to assess any potential changes in the RAS-associated gene signaling, inflammatory response, and hepatocellular toxicity resulting from AgNP exposure. To do this, 6-week-old, male Wistar rats were exposed to a subacute inhalation exposure of AgNP (200 ppb/days over 4 h/days exposure, for 5 d) and their livers were analyzed for alterations in RAS components, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Real time qPCR analysis showed that AgNP-exposure resulted in a significant increase in hepatic AGT, angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)-1, and ACE-2 mRNA expression. Expression of inflammatory markers interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α were also upregulated with AgNP-exposure, compared to controls. Furthermore AgNP-exposure mediated a significant increase in hepatic expression of catalase, and superoxide dismutase, and oxidative stress, as assessed via 8-Oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine staining. Increased oxidative stress was associated with increased monocyte/macrophage-2 staining in the liver of AgNP-exposed rats. Such findings indicate that subacute inhalation exposure to AgNPs mediate increased hepatic RAS signaling, associated with inflammation, macrophage infiltration, and oxidative stress.

Integrative Metabolomics, Proteomics and Transcriptomics Analysis Reveals Liver Toxicity of Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles

As pharmaceutical excipients, mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) have attracted considerable concern based on potential risks to the public. The impact of MSNs on biochemical metabolism is poorly understood, and few studies have compared the effects of MSNs administered via different routes. To evaluate the hepatotoxicity of MSNs, metabolomics, proteomics and transcriptomic analyses were performed in mice after intravenous (20 mg/kg/d) or oral ad-ministration (200 mg/kg/d) of MSNs for 10 days. Intravenous injection induced significant hepatic injury based on pathological inspection and increased the levels of AST/ALT and the inflammatory factors IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-a. Omics data suggested intravenous administration of MSNs perturbed the following metabolites: succinate, hypoxanthine, GSSG, NADP+, NADPH and 6-phosphogluconic acid. In addition, increases in GPX, SOD3, G6PD, HK, and PFK at proteomic and transcriptomic levels suggested elevation of glycolysis and pentose phosphate pathway, synthesis of glutathione and nucleotides, and antioxidative pathway activity, whereas oxidative phosphorylation, TCA and mitochondrial energy metabolism were reduced. On the other hand, oral administration of MSNs disturbed inflammatory factors and metabolites of ribose-5-phosphate, 6-phosphogluconate, GSSG, and NADP+ associated with the pentose phosphate pathway, glutathione synthesis and oxidative stress albeit to a lesser extent than intravenous injection despite the administration of a ten-fold greater dose. Overall, systematic biological data suggested that intravenous injection of nanoparticles of pharmaceutical excipients substantially affected hepatic metabolism function and induced oxidative stress and inflammation, whereas oral administration exhibited milder effects compared with intravenous injection.

Comparison of Bio-C Pulpo and MTA Repair HP with White MTA: effect on liver parameters and evaluation of biocompatibility and bioactivity in rats

AIM

To evaluate the tissue response promoted by Bio-C Pulpo (Bio), MTA Repair HP (MTA-HP) and White MTA (WMTA) and whether these materials cause liver changes in a rat experimental model.

METHODOLOGY

Polyethylene tubes filled with Bio, MTA-HP and WMTA, and empty tubes (control group, CG) were implanted into the subcutaneous tissues of rats for 7, 15, 30 and 60 days. Inflammatory reaction score (IRS), capsule thickness, number of inflammatory cells (IC), von Kossa reaction, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) immunohistochemistry reactions were performed. Combined methods, von Kossa followed by immunohistochemistry for detection of ALP, were performed. At 60 days, the serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase (GOT) and glutamic-pyruvic transaminase (GPT) levels were measured and liver fragments were collected for histological analysis; the data were assessed by one-way ANOVA analysis followed by Sidak's post-test. The biocompatibility and bioactivity data were subjected to the two-way ANOVA analysis followed by Tukey post hoc test, except the IRS. The IRS data were subjected to the Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA non-parametric test followed by Dunn's test (p ≤ .05).

RESULTS

No significant difference was detected in serum GOT and GPT concentrations and in the number of hepatocytes among the experimental and CG samples. Although Bio-C Pulpo had the highest IC and IL-6-immunolabelled cells (p < 0.0001) at all periods, no significant difference was observed in the IRS among the materials, except at 60 days. In this period, the WMTA had lower IRS. All groups had a significant reduction in the capsule thickness and in the number of IC and IL-6-immunolabelled cells over time. Bio-C Pulpo, MTA-HP and WMTA specimens had greater immunoexpression of ALP than CG (p < .0001). At all periods, von Kossa-positive and birefringent structures were observed in the capsules around the materials. ALP-immunolabelled cells were also seen near von Kossa-positive structures.

CONCLUSIONS

Bio-C Pulpo, MTA-HP and WMTA materials did not cause morphological changes in the liver and no significant alteration in the serum GOT and GPT levels. Moreover, these bioceramic materials were biocompatible and exhibited bioactive potential. However, Bio-C Pulpo induced greater inflammatory infiltrate than MTA-HP and WMTA at all periods.

Biosafety of mesoporous silica nanoparticles: a combined experimental and literature study

Mesoporous silica (MS) particles have been explored for various healthcare applications, but universal data about their safety and/or toxicity are yet to be well-established for clinical purposes. Information about general toxicity of hollow MS (HMS) particles and about immunotoxicity of MS particles are significantly lacked. Therefore, acute toxicity and immunotoxicity of HMS particles were experimentally evaluated. A systematic and objective literature study was parallelly performed to analyze the published in vivo toxicity of MS particles. Lethal acute toxicity of MS particles is likely to arise from their physical action after intravenous and intraperitoneal administrations, and only rarely observed after subcutaneous administration. No clear relationship was identified between physicochemical properties of MS particles and lethality as well as maximum tolerated dose with some exceptions. At sub-lethal doses, MS particles tend to accumulate mainly in lung, liver, and spleen. The HMS particles showed lower inflammation-inducing ability than polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid and almost the same allergy-inducing ability as Alum. Finally, the universal lowest observed adverse effect levels were determined as 0.45, 0.81, and 4.1 mg/kg (human equivalent dose) for intravenous, intraperitoneal, and subcutaneous administration of MS particles, respectively. These results could be helpful for determining an appropriate MS particle dose in clinical study.

Lipid nanoparticle formulations for targeting leukocytes with therapeutic RNA in liver fibrosis

Obesity and low-grade inflammation are promoters of a multitude of diseases including liver fibrosis. Activation of the mobile leukocytes has a major impact on the outcome of inflammatory disease and can hence foster or mitigate liver fibrosis. This renders immunological targets valuable for directed interventions using nanomedicines. Particularly, RNA-based drugs formulated as lipid nanoparticles (LNP) can open new avenues for the personalized treatment of liver fibrosis both through specific interference and via the induction of the expression of functional and therapeutic proteins. Using microfluidics technology, all components, including lipid-anchored targeting ligands, are assembled in a single-step mixing process. A highlight is set to immunologically relevant liver cell types that are most vulnerable for being reached by LNP. A selection of LNP from other therapeutic fields applicable for reaching these cells in liver fbrosis is summarized. Furthermore, recent proceedings and major obstacles in the field of these targeted LNP are presented.

Biomedical application of mesoporous silica nanoparticles as delivery systems: a biological safety perspective

The application of mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) as drug delivery systems to deliver drugs, proteins, and genes has expanded considerably in recent years, using in vitro and animal studies. For future translation to clinical applications, the biological safety aspects of MSNs must be considered carefully. This paper reviews the biosafety of MSNs, examining key issues such as biocompatibility, effects on immune cells and erythrocytes, biodistribution, biodegradation and clearance, and how these vary depending on the effects of the physical and chemical properties of MSNs such as particle size, porosity, morphology, surface charge, and chemical modifications. The future use of MSNs as a delivery system must extend beyond what has been learnt thus far using rodent animal models to encompass larger animals.

Unraveling the publication trends in inhalable nano-systems

Nano-systems (size range: 1 ~ 1000 nm) have been widely investigated as pulmonary drug delivery carriers, and the safety of inhaled nano-systems has aroused general interests. In this work, bibliometric analysis was performed to describe the current situation of related literature, figure out the revolutionary trends, and eventually forecast the possible future directions. The relevant articles and reviews from 2001 to 2020 were retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection. The documents were processed by Clarivate Analytic associated with Web of Science database, Statistical Analysis Toolkit for Informetric, bibliometric online platform and VOSviewer, and the data were visualized. The bibliometric overview of the literature was described, citation analysis was performed, and research hotspots were showcased. The bibliometric analysis of 3362 documents of interest indicated that most of the relevant source titles were in the fields of toxicology, pharmacy, and materials science. The three research hotspots were the biological process of inhalable nano-systems in vivo, the manufacture of inhalable nano-systems, and the impact of nano-systems on human health in the environment. Toxicity and safety have always been the keywords. The USA was the major contributing country, and international collaboration and co-authorship were common phenomena. The general situation and development trend of literature of inhalable nano-systems were summarized. It was anticipated that bibliometrics analysis could provide new ideas for the future research of inhalable nano-systems.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11051-021-05384-1.

Is individual genetic susceptibility a link between silica exposure and development or severity of silicosis? A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Silicosis is a lung disease of fibrotic nature resulting from the inhalation and deposition of dust containing crystalline silica. Subjects exposed to the same environmental factors may show distinct radiological manifestations, and since silicosis is known as a multifactorial disease, it is plausible that individual genetic susceptibility may play a role in the pathology. This review of the literature aims to provide an assessment of the present data on the genetic association studies in silicosis and describe the genes that potentially might influence silicosis susceptibility in silica-exposed individuals.

METHODS

We accessed the database of PubMed for articles published in English about interindividual genetic susceptibility to silicosis using terms related to the subject matter.

RESULTS

Following the evaluation process, 28 studies were included in this systematic review, including 23 original studies and 5 meta-analyses.

CONCLUSIONS

Regardless of the advances in the knowledge of the importance of gene variations in silicosis, more studies need to be performed, in particular, special polygenic and genome-wide investigations.

Role of Liver-Mediated Tolerance in Nanoparticle-Based Tumor Therapy

In the last decades, the use of nanocarriers for immunotherapeutic purposes has gained a lot of attention, especially in the field of tumor therapy. However, most types of nanocarriers accumulate strongly in the liver after systemic application. Due to the default tolerance-promoting role of liver non-parenchymal cells (NPCs), Kupffer cells (KCs), liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs), and hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), their potential role on the immunological outcome of systemic nano-vaccination approaches for therapy of tumors in the liver and in other organs needs to be considered. Concerning immunological functions, KCs have been the focus until now, but recent studies have elucidated an important role of LSECs and HSCs as well. Therefore, this review aims to summarize current knowledge on the employment of nanocarriers for immunotherapeutic therapy of liver diseases and the overall role of liver NPCs in the context of nano-vaccination approaches. With regard to the latter, we discuss strategies on how to address liver NPCs, aiming to exploit and modulate their immunological properties, and alternatively how to avoid unwanted engagement of nano-vaccines by liver NPCs for tumor therapy.

Factors Influencing the Immunogenicity and Immunotoxicity of Cyclic RGD Peptide-Modified Nanodrug Delivery Systems

c(RGDyK)-modified liposomes have been shown to be immunogenic and potentially trigger acute systemic anaphylaxis upon repeated intravenous injection in both BALB/c nude mice and ICR mice. However, questions concerning the potential influence of mouse strains, immunization routes, drug carrier properties, and changes in c(RGDyK) itself on the immunogenicity and resultant immunotoxicity (anaphylaxis) of cyclic RGD peptide-modified nanodrug delivery systems remain unanswered. Here, these potential impact factors were investigated, aiming to better understand the immunological properties of cyclic RGD peptide-based nanodrug delivery systems and seek for solutions for this immunogenicity-associated issue. It was revealed that anaphylaxis caused by intravenous c(RGDyK)-modified drug delivery systems might be avoided by altering the preimmunization route (i.e., subcutaneous injection), introducing positively charged lipids into the liposomes and by using micelles or red blood cell membrane (RBC)-based drug delivery systems as the carrier. Different murine models showed different incidences of anaphylaxis following intravenous c(RGDyK)-liposome stimulation: anaphylaxis was not observed in both SD rats and BALB/c mice and was less frequent in C57BL/6 mice than that in ICR mice. In addition, enlarging the peptide ring of c(RGDyK) by introducing amino sequence serine-glycine-serine reduced the incidence of anaphylaxis post the repeated intravenous c(RGDyKSGS)-liposome stimulation. However, immunogenicity of cyclic RGD-modified drug carriers could not be reversed, although some reduction in IgG antibody production was observed when ICR mice were intravenously stimulated with c(RGDyK)-modified micelles, RBC membrane-based drug delivery systems and c(RGDyKSGS)-liposomes instead of c(RGDyK)-liposomes. This study provides a valuable reference for future application of cyclic RGD peptide-modified drug delivery systems.

Synthesis of folic acid functionalized terbium-doped dendritic fibrous nano-silica and Interaction with HEK 293 normal, MDA breast cancer and HT 29 colon cancer cells

A novel folic acid functionalized terbium-doped dendritic fibrous nanoparticle (Tb@KCC-1-NH₂ -FA) with high surface area was synthesized using a novel hydrothermal protocol. In the present work, we report the fluorescent Tb-doted nanomaterial with emission wavelength at 497 nm which confirms the formation of Tb@KCC-1-NH₂ -FA. Synthesized nanoparticles were investigated through transmission electron microscope, field emission scanning electron Microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectra, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller, energy dispersive X-ray, Zeta potential and particle size distribution values and AFM (Atomic force microscopy) techniques. Specially, our desired nanomaterial which has FA moieties on the surface of Tb@KCC-1-NH2-FA where interact with folate receptor (FR) which there is on the surface of the various cancer cells. For this purpose, fluorescence microscopy images were used to prove the uptake of FA based nanomaterial with FR-positive MDA breast cancer and HT 29 colon cancer cells. Also HEK 293 normal cells as FR-negative cells verified the specificity of our desired nanomaterial toward the FR-positive cells. The cytotoxicity survey of Tb@KCC-1-NH₂ -FA was examined by MTT assays against MDA breast cancer, HT 29 colon cancer and HEK 293 Normal cell lines which confirmed their biocompatible nature with any significant cytotoxic effects even for concentration higher than 900 μg/mL which could be used as a non-toxic catalyst or carrier in biological ambient. Hence, Tb@KCC-1-NH₂ -FA were synthesized using green and hydrothermal method; the process was simple with good productivity and desired nanocomposite was non-toxic.

Disturbed mitochondrial quality control involved in hepatocytotoxicity induced by silica nanoparticles

The extensive application of silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) brings about inevitable occupational, environmental, and even iatrogenic exposure for human beings. The liver, which is rich in mitochondria, is one of the target organs of SiNPs, but the underlying mechanisms by which these nanoparticles (NPs) interact with liver mitochondria and affect their functions still remain unclear. In the present study, we examined silicon nanoparticle (SiNP)-induced mitochondrial dysfunction, and further revealed its negative effects on mitochondrial quality control (MQC) in the human liver cell line L-02, including mitochondrial dynamics, mitophagy and biogenesis. Consequently, SiNPs induced cellular injury, accompanied by mitochondrial dysfunction, including mitochondrial reactive oxygen generation and mitochondrial membrane potential collapse. In line with the transmission electron microscopy (TEM)-observed abnormalities in the mitochondrial morphology and length distribution, a fission phenotype was manifested in the mitochondria of SiNP-exposed cells, and up-regulated DRP1 and FIS1, and down-regulated MFN1, were detected. Furthermore, the enhanced LC3II level, colocalization of the mitochondria and lysosomes, activated PINK1/Parkin signaling, and accumulated p62 in the SiNP-exposed cells suggested mitophagy disorder triggered by SiNPs. In addition, SiNPs inhibited mito-biogenesis, as evidenced by the reduced mitochondrial mass and mtDNA copy number, as well as the suppressed PGC1α-NRF1-TFAM signaling pathway. Overall, the study demonstrates that SiNPs trigger hepatocytotoxicity through interfering with the MQC process, bringing in excessive mitochondrial fission, mitophagy disorder and suppressed mito-biogenesis, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction and ensuing cell damage, and ultimately contributing to the occurrence and development of liver diseases. Our research could provide important experimental evidence related to safety assessments of SiNPs, especially in the field of biomedical applications.

Nanotechnology and immunoengineering: How nanotechnology can boost CAR-T therapy

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) therapy has achieved remarkable clinical efficacy against hematological cancers and has been approved by FDA for treatment of B-cell tumors. However, the complex manufacturing process and limited success in solid tumors hamper its widespread applications, thus prompting the development of new strategies for overcoming the abovementioned hurdles. In the last decade, nanotechnology has provided sustainable strategies for improving cancer immunotherapy through vaccine development and delivery of immunomodulatory drugs. Nanotechnology can boost CAR-T therapy and may overcome the existing challenges by emerging as a carrier for CAR-T therapy or in combination with CAR-T, it may inhibit solid tumors more effectively than conventional approaches. The revealing of cellular mechanisms, barriers and potential strategies that could be used to manipulate and/or modify cells would enable unprecedented advances in nanotechnology for biologics delivery. This review outlines the journey and barriers of nanoparticles (NPs) across the cell. Subsequently, the approaches to tackle the barriers and strategies to modulate NPs as a carrier for CAR-T therapy are discussed. Finally, the role of NPs in CAR-T therapy and the potential challenges are summarized. This review aims to provide the readers with a detailed overview of NP-based CAR-T therapy research and distil this information into an accessible form conducive to design desired CAR-T therapy using NP approach. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy is the most vibrant field in immuno-oncology today, with enormous benefits to patients with B-cell malignancies. However, a rapid and straightforward procedure for CAR-T generation is an exigent need to broaden its therapeutic avenue. Nanotechnology has emerged as a novel alternative approach for CAR-T generation. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first in-depth review that briefly highlights the various aspects of nanotechnology in CAR-T therapy, including the strategies to brand NPs as an effective carrier for CAR cargo, its potential advantages, challenges, and future roadmap. It provides readers with a detailed overview of NP-based CAR-T therapy research, and researchers would be able to distill this information into an accessible form conducive to design the desired CAR therapy using the nanotechnology approach.

Interleukin 1α and 1β gene variations are associated with tuberculosis in silica exposed subjects

INTRODUCTION

Silicosis is a fibrotic lung disease resulting from the inhalation of crystalline silica and can be classified as simple or complicated according to the International Labour Organization criteria. Furthermore, individuals exposed to crystalline silica also have a higher risk for the development of tuberculosis (Tb). The contribution of inflammatory cytokines to the risk of silicosis and Tb in different populations has previously been reported. Since genetic background might be related to susceptibility to silicosis and Tb, the study of polymorphisms within IL-1α, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor protein-coding genes may contribute to elucidating the genetic basis of these diseases.

METHODS

Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were genotyped by polymerase chain reaction using restriction fragment length polymorphism or by Taqman methodology, in a sample of 102 silica-exposed patients from Brazil.

RESULTS

No significant associations were observed between the SNPs studied and the severity of silicosis. However, significant associations were found between Tb and the C allele (odds ratio [OR] = 1.93, 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.01-3.73) and the CC genotype (OR = 2.34, 95% CI, 1.04-5.31) of IL1A -899C>T. The IL1B +3954C>T polymorphism also showed an association with Tb (T allele dominant model OR = 2.38, 95% CI, 1.04-5.41).

CONCLUSION

These preliminary results demonstrate that the IL1A and IL1B gene variations may contribute to some extent to susceptibility to Tb, but not silicosis. However, additional studies are still needed to confirm these results.

Outer-Frame-Degradable Nanovehicles Featuring Near-Infrared Dual Luminescence for in Vivo Tracking of Protein Delivery in Cancer Therapy

In vivo monitoring of cargo protein delivery is critical for understanding the pharmacological efficacies and mechanisms during cancer therapy, but it still remains a formidable challenge because of the difficulty in observing nonfluorescent proteins at high resolution and sensitivity. Here we report an outer-frame-degradable nanovehicle featuring near-infrared (NIR) dual luminescence for real-time tracking of protein delivery in vivo. Upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) and fluorophore-doped degradable macroporous silica (DS) with spectral overlap were coupled to form a core-shell nanostructure as a therapeutic protein nanocarrier, which was eventually enveloped with a hyaluronic acid (HA) shell to prevent protein leakage and for recognizing tumor sites. The DS layer served as both a container to accommodate the therapeutic proteins and a filter to attenuate upconversion luminescence (UCL) of the inner UCNPs. After the nanovehicles selectively accumulated at tumor sites and entered cancer cells, intracellular hyaluronidase (HAase) digested the outermost HA protective shell and initiated the outer frame degradation-induced protein release and UCL restoration of UCNPs in the intracellular environment. Significantly, the biodistribution of the nanovehicles can be traced at the 710 nm NIR fluorescence channel of DS, whereas the protein release can be monitored at the 660 nm NIR fluorescence channel of UCNPs. Real-time tracking of protein delivery and release was achieved in vitro and in vivo by NIR fluorescence imaging. Moreover, in vitro and in vivo studies manifest that the protein cytochrome c-loaded nanovehicles exhibited excellent cancer therapeutic efficacy. This nanoplatform assembled by the outer-frame-degradable nanovehicles featuring NIR dual luminescence not only advances our understanding of where, when, and how therapeutic proteins take effect in vivo but also provides a universal route for visualizing the translocation of other bioactive macromolecules in cancer treatment and intervention.

Co-Exposure to SiO2 Nanoparticles and Arsenic Induced Augmentation of Oxidative Stress and Mitochondria-Dependent Apoptosis in Human Cells

Widespread application of silica nanoparticles (nSiO₂) and ubiquitous metalloid arsenic (As) may increase their chances of co-exposure to human beings in daily life. Nonetheless, studies on combined effects of nSiO₂ and As in human cells are lacking. We investigated the co-exposure effects of nSiO₂ and As in human liver (HepG2) and human fibroblast (HT1080) cells. Results showed that nSiO₂ did not cause cytotoxicity. However, exposure of As caused oxidative stress and apoptosis in both types of cells. Interesting results were that co-exposure of a non-cytotoxic concentration of nSiO₂ significantly augmented the As induced toxicity in both cells. Intracellular level of As was higher in the co-exposure group (nSiO₂ + As) than the As group alone, suggesting that nSiO₂ facilitates the cellular uptake of As. Co-exposure of nSiO₂ and As potentiated oxidative stress indicated by pro-oxidants generation (reactive oxygen species, hydrogen peroxide and lipid peroxidation) and antioxidants depletion (glutathione level, and glutathione reductase, superoxide dismutase and catalase activities). In addition, co-exposure of nSiO₂ and As also potentiated mitochondria-mediated apoptosis suggested by increased expression of p53, bax, caspase-3 and caspase-9 genes (pro-apoptotic) and decreased expression of bcl-2 gene (anti-apoptotic) along with depleted mitochondrial membrane potential. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study showing that co-exposure of nSiO₂ and As induced augmentation of oxidative stress and mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in HepG2 and HT1080 cells. Hence, careful attention is required for human health assessment following combined exposure to nSiO₂ and As.

Hepatobiliary surgeons meet immunologists: the case of colorectal liver metastases patients

The burgeoning field of cancer immunology demands a change in the paradigm of cancer patient management. The understanding of the course of a given malignant disease should also include the host immune system as one of the key factors in determining the patient's prognosis. Surgical and medical oncologists need to understand the basic and advanced applications of immunotherapies, which are rapidly evolving, and are nowadays an integral part of the armamentarium for the treatment of cancer patients. In the present work, we review the current knowledge concerning the immune landscape of colorectal cancer (CRC) patients with liver metastases, as recently discovered.

Physicochemical Properties Can Be Key Determinants of Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticle Potency in Vitro

Nanoforms of mesoporous silica (mSiNPs) are increasingly applied in medicine, imaging, energy storage, catalysis, biosensors, and bioremediation. The impact of their physicochemical properties on health and the environment remain to be elucidated. In this work, newly synthesized mesoporous silica (sizes: 25, 70, 100, 170, and 600 nm; surface functionalization: pristine, C3-, and C11-COOH moieties) were assessed for cytotoxicity and induction of inflammatory responses in vitro (A549, THP-1, J774A.1 cells). All toxicity end points were integrated to obtain simple descriptors of biological potencies of these mSiNPs. The findings indicate that mSiNPs are less bioactive than the nonporous reference SiNP used in this study. The C3-COOH-modified mSiNPs were generally less cytotoxic than their pristine and C11-modified counterparts in the nanorange (≤100 nm). Carboxyl-modified mSiNPs affected inflammatory marker release across all sizes with cell-type specificity, suggesting a potential for immunomodulatory effects. Surface area, size, extent of agglomeration, ζ-potential, and surface modification appeared to be important determinants of cytotoxicity of mSiNPs based on association tests. Pathway analysis identified particle and cell-type-specific alteration of cellular pathways and functions by mSiNPs. The integration of exposure-related biological responses of multiple cell lines to mSiNPs allowed for a comprehensive evaluation of the impact of physicochemical factors on their toxicity characteristics. The integrated multilevel toxicity assessment approach can be valuable as a hazard screening tool for safety evaluations of emerging nanomaterials for regulatory purpose.

Blood exosomes regulate the tissue distribution of grapefruit-derived nanovector via CD36 and IGFR1 pathways

Tumor-specific delivery of therapeutics is challenging. One of the major hurdles for successfully delivering targeted agents by nanovectors is the filtering role of the liver in rapidly sequestering nanovectors from the circulation. Exosomes, a type of endogenous nanoparticle, circulate continuously in the peripheral blood and play a role in intercellular communication. The aim of this study was to determine whether the level of endogenous exosomes has an effect on nanovector delivery efficiency of targeted agents. Methods: Exosomes were isolated from peripheral blood and intravenously (I.V.) injected into tumor-bearing mice. Subsequently, 1,1-dioctadecyl-3,3,3'3'-tetramethylindotricarbocyanine-iodide (DiR) fluorescent dye-labeled nanoparticles, including grapefruit nanovectors (GNV) and standard liposomes, were I.V. injected in the mice. The efficiency of redirecting GNVs from liver to other organs of injected mice was further analyzed with in vivo imaging. The concentration of chemo drugs delivered by GNV was measured by HPLC and the anti-lung metastasis therapeutic effects of chemo drugs delivered by GNVs in mouse breast cancer and melanoma cancer models were evaluated. Results: We show that tail vein-injected exosomes isolated from mouse peripheral blood were predominately taken up by liver Kupffer cells. Injection of peripheral blood-derived exosomes before I.V. injection of grapefruit-derived nanovector (GNV) decreased the deposition of GNV in the liver and redirected the GNV to the lung and to the tumor in breast and melanoma tumor-bearing mouse models. Enhanced therapeutic efficiency of doxorubicin (Dox) or paclitaxel (PTX) carried by GNVs for lung metastases was demonstrated when there was an I.V. injection of exosomes before therapeutic treatment. Furthermore, we found that CD36 and IGFR1 receptor-mediated pathways played a critical role in the exosome-mediated inhibitory effect of GNV entry into liver macrophages. Conclusions: Collectively, our findings provide a foundation for using autologous exosomes to enhance therapeutic vector targeted delivery to the lung.

Enhanced efficacy of curcumin with phosphatidylserine-decorated nanoparticles in the treatment of hepatic fibrosis

Hepatic macrophages have been considered as a therapeutic target for liver fibrosis treatment, and phosphatidylserine (PS)-containing nanoparticles are commonly used to mimic apoptotic cells that can specifically regulate macrophage functions, resulting in anti-inflammatory effects. This study was designed to test the efficacy of PS-modified nanostructured lipid carriers (mNLCs) containing curcumin (Cur) (Cur-mNLCs) in the treatment of liver fibrosis in a rat model. Carbon tetrachloride-induced liver fibrosis in rats was used as an experimental model, and the severity of the disease was examined by both biochemical and histological methods. Here, we showed that mNLCs were spherical nanoparticles with decreased negative zeta potentials due to PS decoration, and significantly increased both mean residence time and area under the curve of Cur. In the rats with liver fibrosis, PS-modification of NLCs enhanced the nanoparticles targeting to the diseased liver, which was evidenced by their highest accumulation in the liver. As compared to all the controls, Cur-mNLCs were significantly more effective at reducing the liver damage and fibrosis, which were indicated by in Cur-mNLCs-treated rats the least increase in liver enzymes and pro-inflammatory cytokines in the circulation, along with the least increase in collagen fibers and alpha smooth muscle actin and the most increased hepatocyte growth factors (HGF) and matrix metalloprotease (MMP) two in the livers. In conclusion, PS-modified NLCs nanoparticles prolonged the retention time of Cur, and enhanced its bioavailability and delivery efficiency to the livers, resulting in reduced liver fibrosis and up-regulating hepatic expression of HGF and MMP-2.

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles induced hepatotoxicity via NLRP3 inflammasome activation and caspase-1-dependent pyroptosis

Increased biomedical applications of mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) raise considerable attention concerning their toxicological effects; the toxicities of MSNs are still undefined and the underlying mechanisms are unknown. We conducted this study to determine the hepatotoxicity of continuous administration of MSNs and the potential mechanisms. MSNs caused cytotoxicity in hepatic L02 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Then, MSNs were shown to elicit NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation in hepatocytes, leading to caspase-1-dependent pyroptosis, a novel manner of cell death. In vivo MSN administration triggered hepatotoxicity as indicated by increased histological injury, serum alanine aminotransferase and serum aspartate aminotransferase. Notably, NLRP3 inflammasome and pyroptosis were also activated during the treatment. Meanwhile, in NLRP3 knockout mice and caspase-1 knockout mice, MSN-induced liver inflammation and hepatotoxicity could be abolished. Furthermore, experiments indicated that MSNs induced mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and the ROS scavenger could attenuate the MSN-activated NLRP3 inflammasomes and pyroptosis in the liver. Collectively, these data suggested that MSNs triggered liver inflammation and hepatocyte pyroptosis through NLRP3 inflammasome activation, which was caused by MSN-induced ROS generation. Our study provided novel insights into the hepatotoxicity of MSNs and the underlying mechanisms, and facilitated the potential approach to increase the biosafety of MSNs.

Dual Drug Delivery System Based on Biodegradable Organosilica Core-Shell Architectures

To overcome drug resistance, efficient cancer therapeutic strategies using a combination of small-molecule drugs and macromolecule drugs is highly desired. However, because of their significant differences in molecular weight and size, it is difficult to load them simultaneously in one vector and to release them individually. Here, a biodegradable organosilica-based core-shell-structured nanocapsule was designed and used as a dual stimuli-responsive drug vector to solve this problem. Biodegradable organosilica shell coated outside the macromolecule model drug "core" would be disrupted by high glutathione (GSH) levels inside tumor cells, resulting in the escape of the entrapped drugs. Small-molecule drugs capping on the surface of the organosilica shell via pH-responsive imine bonds can be cut and released in the acidic lysosomal environment. Transmission electron microscopy has shown that the framework of the organosilica shell was dissolved and degraded after 8 h incubation with 5 mM GSH. Confocal imaging confirmed that small-molecule and macromolecular drugs were individually released from the nanoparticles because of the pH or redox-triggered degradation under the tumor microenvironment and thus led to the strong fluorescence recovery in the cytoplasm. As expected, these biodegradable organosilica nanoparticles could not release drugs into normal cells but could specifically release them into tumor cells owing to their tumor-triggered targeting capability. This system will serve as an efficient shuttle for multidrug delivery and also provide a potential strategy to overcome drug resistance.

Folic acid conjugation improves the bioavailability and chemosensitizing efficacy of curcumin-encapsulated PLGA-PEG nanoparticles towards paclitaxel chemotherapy

Nanoencapsulation has emerged as a novel strategy to enhance the pharmacokinetic and therapeutic potential of conventional drugs. Recent studies from our lab have established the efficacy of curcumin in sensitizing cervical cancer cells and breast cancer cells towards paclitaxel and 5-FU chemotherapy respectively. Factors that hinder the clinical use of curcumin as a sensitizer or therapeutic agent include its poor bioavailability and retention time. Earlier reports of improvement in bioavailability and retention of drugs upon nanoencapsulation have motivated us in developing various nanoformulations of curcumin, which were found to exhibit significant enhancement in bioavailability and retention time as assessed by our previous in vitro studies. Among the various formulations tested, curcumin-entrapped in PLGA-PEG nanoparticles conjugated to folic acid (PPF-curcumin) displayed maximum cell death. In the present study, we have demonstrated the efficacy of this formulation in augmenting the bioavailability and retention time of curcumin, in vivo, in Swiss albino mice. Further, the acute and chronic toxicity studies proved that the formulation is pharmacologically safe. We have also evaluated its potential in chemosensitizing cervical cancer cells to paclitaxel and have verified the results using cervical cancer xenograft model in NOD-SCID mice. Folic acid conjugation significantly enhanced the efficacy of curcumin in down-regulating various survival signals induced by paclitaxel in cervical cancer cells and have considerably improved its potential in inhibiting the tumor growth of cervical cancer xenografts. The non-toxic nature coupled with improved chemosensitization potential makes PPF-curcumin a promising candidate formulation for clinical trials.

High drug-loading nanomedicines: progress, current status, and prospects

Drug molecules transformed into nanoparticles or endowed with nanostructures with or without the aid of carrier materials are referred to as "nanomedicines" and can overcome some inherent drawbacks of free drugs, such as poor water solubility, high drug dosage, and short drug half-life in vivo. However, most of the existing nanomedicines possess the drawback of low drug-loading (generally less than 10%) associated with more carrier materials. For intravenous administration, the extensive use of carrier materials might cause systemic toxicity and impose an extra burden of degradation, metabolism, and excretion of the materials for patients. Therefore, on the premise of guaranteeing therapeutic effect and function, reducing or avoiding the use of carrier materials is a promising alternative approach to solve these problems. Recently, high drug-loading nanomedicines, which have a drug-loading content higher than 10%, are attracting increasing interest. According to the fabrication strategies of nanomedicines, high drug-loading nanomedicines are divided into four main classes: nanomedicines with inert porous material as carrier, nanomedicines with drug as part of carrier, carrier-free nanomedicines, and nanomedicines following niche and complex strategies. To date, most of the existing high drug-loading nanomedicines belong to the first class, and few research studies have focused on other classes. In this review, we investigate the research status of high drug-loading nanomedicines and discuss the features of their fabrication strategies and optimum proposal in detail. We also point out deficiencies and developing direction of high drug-loading nanomedicines. We envision that high drug-loading nanomedicines will occupy an important position in the field of drug-delivery systems, and hope that novel perspectives will be proposed for the development of high drug-loading nanomedicines.

Redox-responsive mesoporous selenium delivery of doxorubicin targets MCF-7 cells and synergistically enhances its anti-tumor activity

To reduce the side effects and enhance the anti-tumor activities of anticancer drugs in the clinic, the use of nano mesoporous materials, with mesoporous silica (MSN) being the best-studied, has become an effective method of drug delivery. In this study, we successfully synthesized mesoporous selenium (MSe) nanoparticles and first introduced them to the field of drug delivery. Loading MSe with doxorubicin (DOX) is mainly driven by the physical adsorption mechanism of the mesopores, and our results demonstrated that MSe could synergistically enhance the antitumor activity of DOX. Coating the surface of MSe@DOX with Human serum albumin (HSA) generated a unique redox-responsive nanoparticle (HSA-MSe@DOX) that demonstrated glutathione-dependent drug release, increased tumor-targeting effects and enhanced cellular uptake throug nanoparticle interact with SPARC in MCF-7 cells. In vitro, HSA-MSe@DOX prominently induced cancer cell toxicity by synergistically enhancing the effects of MSe and DOX. Moreover, HSA-MSe@DOX possessed tumor-targeting abilities in tumor-bearing nude mice and not only decreased the side effects associated with DOX, but also enhanced its antitumor activity. Therefore, HSA-MSe@DOX is a promising new drug that warrants further evaluation in the treatments of tumors.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

To reduce the side effects and enhance the anti-tumor activities of anticancer drugs, we successfully synthesized mesoporous selenium (MSe) nanoparticles and first introduced them to the field of drug delivery. Loading MSe with doxorubicin (DOX) is mainly driven by the physical adsorption mechanism of the mesopores. Coating the surface of MSe@DOX with Human serum albumin (HSA) generated a unique redox-responsive nanoparticle (HSA-MSe@DOX) that demonstrated glutathione-dependent drug release, increased tumor-targeting effects and enhanced cellular uptake throug nanoparticle interact with SPARC in MCF-7 cells. In vitro and in vivo, HSA-MSe@DOX possessed tumor-targeting abilities and not only decreased the side effects associated with DOX, but also enhanced its antitumor activity. Therefore, HSA-MSe@DOX is a promising new drug that warrants further evaluation in the treatments of tumors.

Exosomes in immunoregulation of chronic lung diseases

Exosomes are nano-sized, membrane-bound vesicles released from cells that transport cargo including DNA, RNA, and proteins, between cells as a form of intercellular communication. In addition to their role in intercellular communication, exosomes are beginning to be appreciated as agents of immunoregulation that can modulate antigen presentation, immune activation, suppression, and surveillance. This article summarizes how these multifaceted functions of exosomes may promote development and/or progression of chronic inflammatory lung diseases including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and pulmonary fibrosis. The potential of exosomes as a novel therapeutic is also discussed.

In vivo toxicological assessment of electrochemically engineered anodic alumina nanotubes: a study of biodistribution, subcutaneous implantation and intravenous injection

Electrochemically engineered anodic alumina nanotubes (AANTs) have recently shown good in vitro biocompatibility. However, in vivo toxicological and pathological studies are required to clarify the bio-safety of this novel nanomaterial. Herein, we present a pioneering pilot toxicity study on AANTs in immune-competent murine models (Balb/c mice, 8 weeks). AANTs were administered by intravenous (IV) injection and subcutaneous (SC) implantation routes considering the future toxicological implications associated with this nanomaterial for potential biomedical applications. AANTs, 736 nm long and 90 nm in outer diameter, were chosen as a nanomaterial model. We demonstrate that IV injected AANTs do not have any effect on the mortality or body weight of these animal models within 28 days at three different doses (20, 50, 100 mg kg^-1). The biodistribution of AANTs characterized by fluorescence imaging and inductively coupled plasma revealed the accumulation of AANTs in the liver and spleen after IV injection. When AANTs were injected intravenously, the highest dose of 100 mg kg^-1 caused moderate hepatotoxicity, identified by histopathological analysis. The implantation of AANTs subcutaneously and directly under the skin leads to an inflammatory response, which is a typical foreign body reaction. Taken together, this work provides new insights into the toxicity patterns of new nanomaterials such as AANTs and establishes a rationale for the design of functional AANTs for future biomedical applications.

Comparative in vivo toxicity assessment places multiwalled carbon nanotubes at a higher level than mesoporous silica nanoparticles

In the present work, we took two nanomaterials (NMs), mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), and compared their in vivo toxicity taking albino mice as a test animal model. Presently, conflicting data persist regarding behavior of these NMs with macromolecules like protein and lipid at the cellular level in cell lines as well as in animal models and this generated the interest to study them. The mice were treated orally with a single dose of 50 ppm MWCNTs and intraperitoneally with 10, 25, and 50 mg kg−1 body weight (BW) of MSNs and 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5 mg kg−1 BW of MWCNTs. Liver enzyme markers serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase along with total protein (TP) levels were evaluated 7 days postexposure. No significant differences in organ weight indices or enzyme levels were observed between different treatment doses but there were significant differences between the treatment groups and the controls. Of the three enzymes assayed, AST displayed a peculiar pattern, especially in the MWCNTs intraperitoneally treated group. TP level was significantly increased in the orally treated MWCNTs group. The results showed that MWCNTs even at much smaller doses than MSNs displayed similar toxicity levels, suggesting that toxicity of MWCNTs is greater than MSNs.

Emerging nanotechnologies for cancer immunotherapy

Founded on the growing insight into the complex cancer-immune system interactions, adjuvant immunotherapies are rapidly emerging and being adapted for the treatment of various human malignancies. Immune checkpoint inhibitors, for example, have already shown clinical success. Nevertheless, many approaches are not optimized, require frequent administration, are associated with systemic toxicities and only show modest efficacy as monotherapies. Nanotechnology can potentially enhance the efficacy of such immunotherapies by improving the delivery, retention and release of immunostimulatory agents and biologicals in targeted cell populations and tissues. This review presents the current status and emerging trends in such nanotechnology-based cancer immunotherapies including the role of nanoparticles as carriers of immunomodulators, nanoparticles-based cancer vaccines, and depots for sustained immunostimulation. Also highlighted are key translational challenges and opportunities in this rapidly growing field.

Hepatic macrophages in homeostasis and liver diseases: from pathogenesis to novel therapeutic strategies

Macrophages represent a major cell type of innate immunity and have emerged as a critical player and therapeutic target in many chronic inflammatory diseases. Hepatic macrophages consist of Kupffer cells, which are originated from the fetal yolk-sack, and infiltrated bone marrow-derived monocytes/macrophages. Hepatic macrophages play a central role in maintaining homeostasis of the liver and in the pathogenesis of liver injury, making them an attractive therapeutic target for liver diseases. However, the various populations of hepatic macrophages display different phenotypes and exert distinct functions. Thus, more research is required to better understand these cells to guide the development of macrophage-based therapeutic interventions. This review article will summarize the current knowledge on the origins and composition of hepatic macrophages, their functions in maintaining hepatic homeostasis, and their involvement in both promoting and resolving liver inflammation, injury, and fibrosis. Finally, the current strategies being developed to target hepatic macrophages for the treatment of liver diseases will be reviewed.

Mast cell accumulation precedes tissue fibrosis induced by intravenously administered amorphous silica nanoparticles

Despite the increasing use of amorphous silica nanoparticles (SNPs) in biomedical applications, their toxicity after intravenous administration remains a major concern. We investigated the effects of single 7 mg/kg intravenous infusions of 13 nm SNPs on hemodynamic parameters in rats. Hematological and biochemical parameters were assessed at 7, 30, and 60 d post treatment. Silicon content in the liver, lungs, heart, and kidney was analyzed, as well as tissue histology with special emphasis on mast cell (MC) content. SNP infusion had no effect on hemodynamics, nor did it alter hematological or biochemical parameters. SNP retention in the liver was conspicuous for up to 60 d. Among the other organs analyzed, silicon content was significantly increased only in the lung at 1-h post infusion. Despite the relatively low dose, SNP administration caused extensive liver remodeling, including the formation of multiple foreign body-type granulomas starting 7 d post treatment, and subsequent development of fibrosis. Histopathological changes in the liver were not preceded by hepatocyte necrosis. We found increased MC abundance in the liver, lungs, and heart starting on day 30 post treatment. MC recruitment in the liver preceded fibrosis, suggesting that MCs are involved in liver tissue remodeling elicited by intravenously administered SNPs.

Autophagy upregulation promotes macrophages to escape mesoporous silica nanoparticle (MSN)-induced NF-κB-dependent inflammation

BACKGROUND

Our previous studies (Int J Nanomed 10:22, 2015) have indicated that a single large dose of mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) can induce severe and selective nephrotoxicity, which is closely related to inflammation mediated by the NF-κB pathway. However, the effect of MSNs on other organs and the interactions of nanomaterials with biological systems remain rudimentary.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to clarify the biological behaviour and influence of MSNs on macrophages.

METHODS

The mice received a single intraperitoneal injection of a suspension of 150, 300 of 600 mg/kg MSNs, and RAW 264.7 cells were treated with MSNs at various concentrations and times. Cell viability was determined by MTT assay and LDH release assay. The NF-κB pathway and the target proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β and TNF-α were determined by western blotting or ELISA. Autophagy is considered as an emerging mechanism of nanomaterials. So the autophagic ultrastructural analysis, the determination of Beclin-1 and LC3 expression, and the calculation of LC3II dots were employed to verify autophagy activation. In addition, RNA interference, autophagy agonist and inhibitor were used to explore the role of autophagy in inflammation.

RESULTS

The results indicated that MSNs are internalized into macrophages and induce cytotoxicity in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The NF-κB pathway, IL-1β and TNF-α were induced and released by MSNs. The levels of Beclin-1 and LC3II dots were obviously up-regulated by MSNs, which indicated that autophagy was induced in the MSN-treated cells. Moreover, the enhanced autophagy can attenuate the inflammation mediated by the NF-κB pathway, whereas the inhibition of autophagy can contribute to inflammation.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, our results suggest that autophagy may be a possible protective factor in inflammation induced by MSNs in macrophages.