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Du X, Choa FS, Chiappelli J, Bruce H, Kvarta M, Summerfelt A, Ma Y, Regenold WT, Walton K, Wittenberg GF, Hare S, Gao S, van der Vaart A, Zhao Z, Chen S, Kochunov P, Hong LE. Combining neuroimaging and brain stimulation to test alternative causal pathways for nicotine addiction in schizophrenia. Brain Stimul 2024; 17:324-332. [PMID: 38453003 DOI: 10.1016/j.brs.2024.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024] Open
Abstract
The smoking rate is high in patients with schizophrenia. Brain stimulation targeting conventional brain circuits associated with nicotine addiction has also yielded mixed results. We aimed to identify alternative circuitries associated with nicotine addiction in both the general population and schizophrenia, and then test whether modulation of such circuitries may alter nicotine addiction behaviors in schizophrenia. In Study I of 40 schizophrenia smokers and 51 non-psychiatric smokers, cross-sectional neuroimaging analysis identified resting state functional connectivity (rsFC) between the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) and multiple extended amygdala regions to be most robustly associated with nicotine addiction severity in healthy controls and schizophrenia patients (p = 0.006 to 0.07). In Study II with another 30 patient smokers, a proof-of-concept, patient- and rater-blind, randomized, sham-controlled rTMS design was used to test whether targeting the newly identified dmPFC location may causally enhance the rsFC and reduce nicotine addiction in schizophrenia. Although significant interactions were not observed, exploratory analyses showed that this dmPFC-extended amygdala rsFC was enhanced by 4-week active 10Hz rTMS (p = 0.05) compared to baseline; the severity of nicotine addiction showed trends of reduction after 3 and 4 weeks (p ≤ 0.05) of active rTMS compared to sham; Increased rsFC by active rTMS predicted reduction of cigarettes/day (R = -0.56, p = 0.025 uncorrected) and morning smoking severity (R = -0.59, p = 0.016 uncorrected). These results suggest that the dmPFC-extended amygdala circuit may be linked to nicotine addiction in schizophrenia and healthy individuals, and future efforts targeting its underlying pathophysiological mechanisms may yield more effective treatment for nicotine addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoming Du
- Louis A. Faillace Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA.
| | - Fow-Sen Choa
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Joshua Chiappelli
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Heather Bruce
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Mark Kvarta
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ann Summerfelt
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Yizhou Ma
- Louis A. Faillace Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - William T Regenold
- Noninvasive Neuromodulation Unit, Experimental Therapeutics and Pathophysiology Branch, Division of Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, NIH Clinical Center, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Kevin Walton
- Clinical Research Grants Branch, Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - George F Wittenberg
- Human Engineering Research Laboratories, VA RR&D Center of Excellence, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Rehabilitation Neural Engineering Laboratories, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Stephanie Hare
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Si Gao
- Louis A. Faillace Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Andrew van der Vaart
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Zhiwei Zhao
- Department of Mathematics, University of Maryland, College Park, USA
| | - Shuo Chen
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Peter Kochunov
- Louis A. Faillace Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - L Elliot Hong
- Louis A. Faillace Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
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Jiang K, Yang Z, Cui W, Su K, Ma JZ, Payne TJ, Li MD. An Exome-Wide Association Study Identifies New Susceptibility Loci for Age of Smoking Initiation in African- and European-American Populations. Nicotine Tob Res 2020; 21:707-713. [PMID: 29216386 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntx262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cigarette smoking is one of the largest causes of preventable death worldwide. This study aimed to identify susceptibility loci for age at smoking initiation (ASI) by performing an exome-wide association analysis. METHODS A total of 2510 smokers of either African-American (AA) or European-American (EA) origin were genotyped and analyzed at both the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and gene levels. After removal of those SNPs with a minor allele frequency (<0.01), 48091 and 34933 SNPs for AAs and EAs, respectively, were used to conduct a SNP-based association analysis. Gene-based analyses were then performed for all SNPs examined within each gene. Further, we estimated the proportion of variance explained by all common SNPs included in the analysis. RESULTS The strongest signals were detected for SNPs rs17849904 in the pitrilysin metallopeptidase 1 gene (PITRM1) in the AA sample (p = 9.02 × 10-7) and rs34722354 in the discoidin domain of the receptor tyrosine kinase 2 gene (DDR2) in the EA sample (p = 9.74 × 10-7). Both SNPs remained significant after Bonferroni correction for the number of SNPs tested. Subsequently, the gene-based association analysis revealed a significantly associated gene, DHRS7, in the AA sample (p = 5.00 × 10-6), a gene previously implicated in nicotine metabolism. CONCLUSIONS Our study revealed two susceptibility loci for age of smoking initiation in the two ethnic samples, with the first being PITRM1 for AA smokers and the second DDR2 for EA smokers. In addition, we found DHRS7 to be a plausible candidate for ASI in the AA sample from our gene-based association analysis. IMPLICATIONS PITRM1 and DHRS7 for African-American smokers and DDR2 for European-American smokers are new candidate genes for smoking initiation. These genes represent new additions to smoking initiation, an important but less studied phenotype in nicotine dependence research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keran Jiang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhongli Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Wenyan Cui
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Kunkai Su
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jennie Z Ma
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Thomas J Payne
- ACT Center for Tobacco Treatment, Education and Research University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS.,Department of Otolaryngology and Communicative Sciences, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS
| | - Ming D Li
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,Research Center for Air Pollution and Health, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.,Institute of Neuroimmune Pharmacology, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ, USA
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Datta U, Schoenrock SE, Bubier JA, Bogue MA, Jentsch JD, Logan RW, Tarantino LM, Chesler EJ. Prospects for finding the mechanisms of sex differences in addiction with human and model organism genetic analysis. GENES, BRAIN, AND BEHAVIOR 2020; 19:e12645. [PMID: 32012419 PMCID: PMC7060801 DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Revised: 01/26/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Despite substantial evidence for sex differences in addiction epidemiology, addiction-relevant behaviors and associated neurobiological phenomena, the mechanisms and implications of these differences remain unknown. Genetic analysis in model organism is a potentially powerful and effective means of discovering the mechanisms that underlie sex differences in addiction. Human genetic studies are beginning to show precise risk variants that influence the mechanisms of addiction but typically lack sufficient power or neurobiological mechanistic access, particularly for the discovery of the mechanisms that underlie sex differences. Our thesis in this review is that genetic variation in model organisms are a promising approach that can complement these investigations to show the biological mechanisms that underlie sex differences in addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Udita Datta
- Center for Systems Neurogenetics of Addiction, The Jackson LaboratoryBar HarborMaine
| | - Sarah E. Schoenrock
- Center for Systems Neurogenetics of Addiction, Department of GeneticsUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillNorth Carolina
| | - Jason A. Bubier
- Center for Systems Neurogenetics of Addiction, The Jackson LaboratoryBar HarborMaine
| | - Molly A. Bogue
- Center for Systems Neurogenetics of Addiction, The Jackson LaboratoryBar HarborMaine
| | - James D. Jentsch
- Center for Systems Neurogenetics of Addiction, PsychologyState University of New York at BinghamtonBinghamtonNew York
| | - Ryan W. Logan
- Center for Systems Neurogenetics of Addiction, PsychiatryUniversity of Pittsburgh School of MedicinePittsburghPennsylvania
| | - Lisa M. Tarantino
- Center for Systems Neurogenetics of Addiction, Department of GeneticsUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillNorth Carolina
| | - Elissa J. Chesler
- Center for Systems Neurogenetics of Addiction, The Jackson LaboratoryBar HarborMaine
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Xu Y, Cao L, Zhao X, Yao Y, Liu Q, Zhang B, Wang Y, Mao Y, Ma Y, Ma JZ, Payne TJ, Li MD, Li L. Prediction of Smoking Behavior From Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms With Machine Learning Approaches. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:416. [PMID: 32477189 PMCID: PMC7241440 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2019] [Accepted: 04/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Smoking is a complex behavior with a heritability as high as 50%. Given such a large genetic contribution, it provides an opportunity to prevent those individuals who are susceptible to smoking dependence from ever starting to smoke by predicting their inherited predisposition with their genomic profiles. Although previous studies have identified many susceptibility variants for smoking, they have limited power to predict smoking behavior. We applied the support vector machine (SVM) and random forest (RF) methods to build prediction models for smoking behavior. We first used 1,431 smokers and 1,503 non-smokers of African origin for model building with a 10-fold cross-validation and then tested the prediction models on an independent dataset consisting of 213 smokers and 224 non-smokers. The SVM model with 500 top single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) selected using logistic regression (p<0.01) as the feature selection method achieved an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.691, 0.721, and 0.720 for the training, test, and independent test samples, respectively. The RF model with 500 top SNPs selected using logistic regression (p<0.01) achieved AUCs of 0.671, 0.665, and 0.667 for the training, test, and independent test samples, respectively. Finally, we used the combined logistic (p<0.01) and LASSO (λ=10-3) regression to select features and the SVM algorithm for model building. The SVM model with 500 top SNPs achieved AUCs of 0.756, 0.776, and 0.897 for the training, test, and independent test samples, respectively. We conclude that machine learning methods are promising means to build predictive models for smoking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Xu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Liyu Cao
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xinyi Zhao
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yinghao Yao
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qiang Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Bin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yan Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ying Mao
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yunlong Ma
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jennie Z Ma
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, United States
| | - Thomas J Payne
- Department of Otolaryngology and Communicative Sciences, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, United States
| | - Ming D Li
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,Research Center for Air Pollution and Health, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Lanjuan Li
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
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A regulatory variant of CHRM3 is associated with cannabis-induced hallucinations in European Americans. Transl Psychiatry 2019; 9:309. [PMID: 31740666 PMCID: PMC6861240 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-019-0639-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis, the most widely used illicit drug, can induce hallucinations. Our understanding of the biology of cannabis-induced hallucinations (Ca-HL) is limited. We used the Semi-Structured Assessment for Drug Dependence and Alcoholism (SSADDA) to identify cannabis-induced hallucinations (Ca-HL) among long-term cannabis users (used cannabis ≥1 year and ≥100 times). A genome-wide association study (GWAS) was conducted by analyzing European Americans (EAs) and African Americans (AAs) in Yale-Penn 1 and 2 cohorts individually, then meta-analyzing the two cohorts within population. In the meta-analysis of Yale-Penn EAs (n = 1917), one genome-wide significant (GWS) signal emerged at the CHRM3 locus, represented by rs115455482 (P = 1.66 × 10-10), rs74722579 (P = 2.81 × 10-9), and rs1938228 (P = 1.57 × 10-8); signals were GWS in Yale-Penn 1 EAs (n = 1092) and nominally significant in Yale-Penn 2 EAs (n = 825). Two SNPs, rs115455482 and rs74722579, were available from the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism data (COGA; 3630 long-term cannabis users). The signals did not replicate, but when meta-analyzing Yale-Penn and COGA EAs, the two SNPs' association signals were increased (meta-P-values 1.32 × 10-10 and 2.60 × 10-9, respectively; n = 4291). There were no significant findings in AAs, but in the AA meta-analysis (n = 3624), nominal significance was seen for rs74722579. The rs115455482*T risk allele was associated with lower CHRM3 expression in the thalamus. CHRM3 was co-expressed with three psychosis risk genes (GABAG2, CHRNA4, and HRH3) in the thalamus and other human brain tissues and mouse GABAergic neurons. This work provides strong evidence for the association of CHRM3 with Ca-HL and provides insight into the potential involvement of thalamus for this trait.
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Hällfors J, Palviainen T, Surakka I, Gupta R, Buchwald J, Raevuori A, Ripatti S, Korhonen T, Jousilahti P, Madden PA, Kaprio J, Loukola A. Genome-wide association study in Finnish twins highlights the connection between nicotine addiction and neurotrophin signaling pathway. Addict Biol 2019. [PMID: 29532581 PMCID: PMC6519128 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The heritability of nicotine dependence based on family studies is substantial. Nevertheless, knowledge of the underlying genetic architecture remains meager. Our aim was to identify novel genetic variants responsible for interindividual differences in smoking behavior. We performed a genome-wide association study on 1715 ever smokers ascertained from the population-based Finnish Twin Cohort enriched for heavy smoking. Data imputation used the 1000 Genomes Phase I reference panel together with a whole genome sequence-based Finnish reference panel. We analyzed three measures of nicotine addiction-smoking quantity, nicotine dependence and nicotine withdrawal. We annotated all genome-wide significant SNPs for their functional potential. First, we detected genome-wide significant association on 16p12 with smoking quantity (P = 8.5 × 10-9 ), near CLEC19A. The lead-SNP stands 22 kb from a binding site for NF-κB transcription factors, which play a role in the neurotrophin signaling pathway. However, the signal was not replicated in an independent Finnish population-based sample, FINRISK (n = 6763). Second, nicotine withdrawal showed association on 2q21 in an intron of TMEM163 (P = 2.1 × 10-9 ), and on 11p15 (P = 6.6 × 10-8 ) in an intron of AP2A2, and P = 4.2 × 10-7 for a missense variant in MUC6, both involved in the neurotrophin signaling pathway). Third, association was detected on 3p22.3 for maximum number of cigarettes smoked per day (P = 3.1 × 10-8 ) near STAC. Associating CLEC19A and TMEM163 SNPs were annotated to influence gene expression or methylation. The neurotrophin signaling pathway has previously been associated with smoking behavior. Our findings further support the role in nicotine addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenni Hällfors
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM)University of Helsinki Finland
| | - Teemu Palviainen
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM)University of Helsinki Finland
| | - Ida Surakka
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM)University of Helsinki Finland
| | - Richa Gupta
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM)University of Helsinki Finland
| | - Jadwiga Buchwald
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM)University of Helsinki Finland
| | - Anu Raevuori
- Department of Public HealthUniversity of Helsinki Finland
- Department of Adolescent PsychiatryHelsinki University Central Hospital Finland
| | - Samuli Ripatti
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM)University of Helsinki Finland
- Department of Public HealthUniversity of Helsinki Finland
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute UK
| | - Tellervo Korhonen
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM)University of Helsinki Finland
- Institute of Public Health and Clinical NutritionUniversity of Eastern Finland Finland
| | | | - Pamela A.F. Madden
- Department of PsychiatryWashington University School of Medicine Saint Louis MO USA
| | - Jaakko Kaprio
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM)University of Helsinki Finland
- Department of Public HealthUniversity of Helsinki Finland
| | - Anu Loukola
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM)University of Helsinki Finland
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Chen LS, Horton A, Bierut L. Pathways to precision medicine in smoking cessation treatments. Neurosci Lett 2018; 669:83-92. [PMID: 27208830 PMCID: PMC5115988 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2016.05.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Revised: 05/12/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Cigarette smoking is highly addictive and modern genetic research has identified robust genetic influences on nicotine dependence. An important step in translating these genetic findings to clinical practice is identifying the genetic factors affecting smoking cessation in order to enhance current smoking cessation treatments. We reviewed the significant genetic variants that predict nicotine dependence, smoking cessation, and response to cessation pharmacotherapy. These data suggest that genetic risks can predict smoking cessation outcomes and moderate the effect of pharmacological treatments. Some pharmacogenetic findings have been replicated in meta-analyses or in multiple smoking cessation trials. The variation in efficacy between smokers with different genetic markers supports the notion that personalized smoking cessation intervention based upon genotype could maximize the efficiency of such treatment while minimizing side effects, thus influencing the number needed to treat (NNT) and the number needed to harm. In summary, as precision medicine is revolutionizing healthcare, smoking cessation may be one of the first areas where genetic variants may identify individuals at increased risk. Current evidence strongly suggests that genetic variants predict cessation failure and that cessation pharmacotherapy effectiveness is modulated by biomarkers such as nicotinic cholinergic receptor α5 subunit (CHRNA5) genotypes or nicotine metabolism ratio (NMR). These findings strengthen the case for the development and rigorous testing of treatments that target patients with different biological risk profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Shiun Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, United States.
| | - Amy Horton
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, United States
| | - Laura Bierut
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, United States
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Fang Z, Yang Y, Hu Y, Li MD, Wang J. GRONS: a comprehensive genetic resource of nicotine and smoking. DATABASE-THE JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL DATABASES AND CURATION 2017; 2017:4774645. [PMID: 31725863 PMCID: PMC5750854 DOI: 10.1093/database/bax097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Revised: 11/29/2017] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Nicotine, the primary psychoactive component in tobacco, can exert a broad impact on both the central and peripheral nervous systems. During the past years, a tremendous amount of efforts has been put to exploring the molecular mechanisms underlying tobacco smoking related behaviors and diseases, and many susceptibility genes have been identified via various genomic approaches. For many human complex diseases, there is a trend towards collecting and integrating the data from genetic studies and the biological information related to them into a comprehensive resource for further investigation, but we have not found such an effort for nicotine addiction or smoking-related phenotypes yet. To collect, curate, and integrate cross-platform genetic data so as to make them interpretable and easily accessible, we developed Genetic Resources Of Nicotine and Smoking (GRONS), a comprehensive database for genes related to biological response to nicotine exposure, tobacco smoking related behaviors or diseases. GRONS deposits genes from nicotine addiction studies in the following four categories, i.e. association study, genome-wide linkage scan, expression analysis on genes/proteins via high-throughput technologies, as well as single gene/protein-based experimental studies via literature search. Moreover, GRONS not only provides tools for data browse, search and graphical presentation of gene prioritization, but also presents the results from comprehensive bioinformatics analyses for the prioritized genes associated with nicotine addiction. With more and more genetic data and analysis tools integrated, GRONS will become a useful resource for studies focusing on nicotine addiction or tobacco smoking. Database URL: http://bioinfo.tmu.edu.cn/GRONS/
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhonghai Fang
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, China
| | - Yichen Yang
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, China
| | - Yanshi Hu
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, China
| | - Ming D Li
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310003, China.,Research Center for Air Pollution and Health, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310053, China.,Institute of NeuroImmune Pharmacology, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ, USA
| | - Ju Wang
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, China
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Richmond-Rakerd LS, Otto JM, Slutske WS, Ehlers CL, Wilhelmsen KC, Gizer IR. A Novel Tobacco Use Phenotype Suggests the 15q25 and 19q13 Loci May be Differentially Associated With Cigarettes per Day and Tobacco-Related Problems. Nicotine Tob Res 2017; 19:426-434. [PMID: 27663783 PMCID: PMC5968625 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntw260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 09/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Tobacco use is associated with variation at the 15q25 gene cluster and the cytochrome P450 (CYP) genes CYP2A6 and CYP2B6. Despite the variety of outcomes associated with these genes, few studies have adopted a data-driven approach to defining tobacco use phenotypes for genetic association analyses. We used factor analysis to generate a tobacco use measure, explored its incremental validity over a simple indicator of tobacco involvement: cigarettes per day (CPD), and tested both phenotypes in a genetic association study. METHODS Data were from the University of California, San Francisco Family Alcoholism Study (n = 1942) and a Native American sample (n = 255). Factor analyses employed a broad array of tobacco use variables to establish the candidate phenotype. Subsequently, we conducted tests for association with variants in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor and CYP genes. We explored associations with CPD and our measure. We then examined whether the variants most strongly associated with our measure remained associated after controlling for CPD. RESULTS Analyses identified one factor that captured tobacco-related problems. Variants at 15q25 were significantly associated with CPD after multiple testing correction (rs938682: p = .00002, rs1051730: p = .0003, rs16969968: p = .0003). No significant associations were obtained with the tobacco use phenotype; however, suggestive associations were observed for variants in CYP2B6 near CYP2A6 (rs45482602: ps = .0082, .0075) and CYP4Z2P (rs10749865: ps = .0098, .0079). CONCLUSIONS CPD captures variation at 15q25. Although strong conclusions cannot be drawn, these finding suggest measuring additional dimensions of problems may detect genetic variation not accounted for by smoking quantity. Replication in independent samples will help further refine phenotype definition efforts. IMPLICATIONS Different facets of tobacco-related problems may index unique genetic risk. CPD, a simple measure of tobacco consumption, is associated with variants at the 15q25 gene cluster. Additional dimensions of tobacco problems may help to capture variation at 19q13. Results demonstrate the utility of adopting a data-driven approach to defining phenotypes for genetic association studies of tobacco involvement and provide results that can inform replication efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah S Richmond-Rakerd
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO
- Alcoholism Research Center at Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Jacqueline M Otto
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO
- Alcoholism Research Center at Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Wendy S Slutske
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO
- Alcoholism Research Center at Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Cindy L Ehlers
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurosciences (CLE), The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA
| | - Kirk C Wilhelmsen
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Ian R Gizer
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO
- Alcoholism Research Center at Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
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10
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Niemelä S, Räisänen A, Koskela J, Taanila A, Miettunen J, Ramsay H, Veijola J. The effect of prenatal smoking exposure on daily smoking among teenage offspring. Addiction 2017; 112:134-143. [PMID: 27444807 DOI: 10.1111/add.13533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Revised: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
AIMS To study the predictive associations between maternal smoking and the impact of quitting smoking during pregnancy and offspring daily smoking at age 15-16 years. DESIGN The Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1986 (NFBC86) includes 99% of all births in the region and has an ongoing follow-up. Data were collected using questionnaires at 24th gestational week during pregnancy and after delivery, and at follow-up in 2001-02, when the offspring were aged 15-16 years. SETTING Northern Finland. PARTICIPANTS NFBC86 included 9432 live born children. Data regarding maternal smoking during pregnancy and offspring smoking at age 15-16 years were available for 4462 subjects (47.3% of the original sample). MEASUREMENTS The outcome was offspring's self-reported daily smoking. Maternal smoking during pregnancy was considered using a four-class variable: (1) no smoking, (2) mother had smoked, but had quit smoking before becoming pregnant, (3) mother quit smoking during the 1st trimester and (4) mother quit smoking after the 1st trimester or continued smoking throughout the pregnancy. Information regarding paternal smoking during pregnancy, maternal and paternal smoking and education level, family structure and dwelling at offspring's age 15-16 years were considered potential confounding variables. FINDINGS Continuing smoking after the 1st trimester increased the odds of daily smoking among offspring, independently of confounding factors [odds ratio (OR) = 1.8, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.3-2.5]. Continuing to smoke after the 1st trimester was associated with higher odds compared with quitting smoking during the 1st trimester. Also, parental smoking at offspring age 15-16 years increased the odds of offspring daily smoking, independently of prenatal smoking exposure. CONCLUSIONS Prenatal smoking exposure increases the risk for offspring adolescent daily smoking. Quitting smoking during the early stages of pregnancy may decrease the odds for offspring smoking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Solja Niemelä
- Research Unit of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.,Department of Psychiatry, Lapland Hospital District, Rovaniemi, Finland
| | - Aleksi Räisänen
- Research Unit of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Jari Koskela
- Research Unit of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Anja Taanila
- Center for Life Course Health Research, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.,Unit of Primary Health Care, Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland
| | - Jouko Miettunen
- Center for Life Course Health Research, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.,Medical Research Center Oulu, Oulu University Hospital and University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Hugh Ramsay
- Research Unit of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.,St Michael's House, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Juha Veijola
- Research Unit of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.,Medical Research Center Oulu, Oulu University Hospital and University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.,Department of Psychiatry, Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland
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11
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Shi J, Wang Z, Tan Y, Fan H, An H, Zuo L, Yang F, Tan S, Li J, Zhang X, Zhou D, Luo X. CHRNA4 was associated with prepulse inhibition of schizophrenia in Chinese: a pilot study. Cogn Neuropsychiatry 2016; 21:156-67. [PMID: 26982087 DOI: 10.1080/13546805.2016.1155437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the auditory startle reflex, as an operational measurement used to evaluate the function of brain sensorimotor gating, appears to be a sensitive potential endophenotype for schizophrenia. CHRNA4 is highly expressed in the central nervous system and has been demonstrated to be significantly associated with schizophrenia by previous studies. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the effect of CHRNA4 on PPI and acoustic startle parameters in schizophrenia. METHODS 77 patients with schizophrenia and 62 controls were administered the test PPI, and 3 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (rs3746372, rs1044396, and rs3787140) of CHRNA4 were genotyped in these subjects. RESULTS Patients with schizophrenia showed significantly lower levels of PPI at the 120 ms prepulse intervals and longer peak latency than controls, and the GG genotype of rs3746372 and the TT genotype of rs1044396 were associated with decreased PPI levels in schizophrenia but not in controls. CONCLUSION PPI may be influenced by the polymorphisms of the CHRNA4 in schizophrenia and it may be a potential endophenotype of schizophrenia. An independent replication would greatly increase the value of this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Shi
- a Beijing HuiLongGuan Hospital , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Zhiren Wang
- a Beijing HuiLongGuan Hospital , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Yunlong Tan
- a Beijing HuiLongGuan Hospital , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Hongzhen Fan
- a Beijing HuiLongGuan Hospital , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Huimei An
- a Beijing HuiLongGuan Hospital , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Lingjun Zuo
- a Beijing HuiLongGuan Hospital , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Fude Yang
- a Beijing HuiLongGuan Hospital , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Shuping Tan
- a Beijing HuiLongGuan Hospital , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Jia Li
- a Beijing HuiLongGuan Hospital , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Xiangyang Zhang
- a Beijing HuiLongGuan Hospital , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Dongfeng Zhou
- b Institute of Mental Health , Peking University , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Xingguang Luo
- a Beijing HuiLongGuan Hospital , Beijing , People's Republic of China
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12
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Converging findings from linkage and association analyses on susceptibility genes for smoking and other addictions. Mol Psychiatry 2016; 21:992-1008. [PMID: 27166759 PMCID: PMC4956568 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2016.67] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2015] [Revised: 03/05/2016] [Accepted: 03/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Experimental approaches to genetic studies of complex traits evolve with technological advances. How do discoveries using different approaches advance our knowledge of the genetic architecture underlying complex diseases/traits? Do most of the findings of newer techniques, such as genome-wide association study (GWAS), provide more information than older ones, for example, genome-wide linkage study? In this review, we address these issues by developing a nicotine dependence (ND) genetic susceptibility map based on the results obtained by the approaches commonly used in recent years, namely, genome-wide linkage, candidate gene association, GWAS and targeted sequencing. Converging and diverging results from these empirical approaches have elucidated a preliminary genetic architecture of this intractable psychiatric disorder and yielded new hypotheses on ND etiology. The insights we obtained by putting together results from diverse approaches can be applied to other complex diseases/traits. In sum, developing a genetic susceptibility map and keeping it updated are effective ways to keep track of what we know about a disease/trait and what the next steps may be with new approaches.
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13
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Hodgson K, Almasy L, Knowles EEM, Kent JW, Curran JE, Dyer TD, Göring HHH, Olvera RL, Fox PT, Pearlson GD, Krystal JH, Duggirala R, Blangero J, Glahn DC. Genome-wide significant loci for addiction and anxiety. Eur Psychiatry 2016; 36:47-54. [PMID: 27318301 DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2016.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Revised: 03/10/2016] [Accepted: 03/10/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Psychiatric comorbidity is common among individuals with addictive disorders, with patients frequently suffering from anxiety disorders. While the genetic architecture of comorbid addictive and anxiety disorders remains unclear, elucidating the genes involved could provide important insights into the underlying etiology. METHODS Here we examine a sample of 1284 Mexican-Americans from randomly selected extended pedigrees. Variance decomposition methods were used to examine the role of genetics in addiction phenotypes (lifetime history of alcohol dependence, drug dependence or chronic smoking) and various forms of clinically relevant anxiety. Genome-wide univariate and bivariate linkage scans were conducted to localize the chromosomal regions influencing these traits. RESULTS Addiction phenotypes and anxiety were shown to be heritable and univariate genome-wide linkage scans revealed significant quantitative trait loci for drug dependence (14q13.2-q21.2, LOD=3.322) and a broad anxiety phenotype (12q24.32-q24.33, LOD=2.918). Significant positive genetic correlations were observed between anxiety and each of the addiction subtypes (ρg=0.550-0.655) and further investigation with bivariate linkage analyses identified significant pleiotropic signals for alcohol dependence-anxiety (9q33.1-q33.2, LOD=3.054) and drug dependence-anxiety (18p11.23-p11.22, LOD=3.425). CONCLUSIONS This study confirms the shared genetic underpinnings of addiction and anxiety and identifies genomic loci involved in the etiology of these comorbid disorders. The linkage signal for anxiety on 12q24 spans the location of TMEM132D, an emerging gene of interest from previous GWAS of anxiety traits, whilst the bivariate linkage signal identified for anxiety-alcohol on 9q33 peak coincides with a region where rare CNVs have been associated with psychiatric disorders. Other signals identified implicate novel regions of the genome in addiction genetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Hodgson
- Department of psychiatry, Yale University, School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
| | - L Almasy
- South Texas Diabetes and Obesity Institute, University of Texas, Rio Grande Valley School of Medicine, Brownsville, TX, USA
| | - E E M Knowles
- Department of psychiatry, Yale University, School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - J W Kent
- Department of Genetics, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - J E Curran
- South Texas Diabetes and Obesity Institute, University of Texas, Rio Grande Valley School of Medicine, Brownsville, TX, USA
| | - T D Dyer
- South Texas Diabetes and Obesity Institute, University of Texas, Rio Grande Valley School of Medicine, Brownsville, TX, USA
| | - H H H Göring
- South Texas Diabetes and Obesity Institute, University of Texas, Rio Grande Valley School of Medicine, Brownsville, TX, USA
| | - R L Olvera
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - P T Fox
- Research Imaging Institute, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX, USA; South Texas Veterans Health System, 7400, Merton Minter, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - G D Pearlson
- Department of psychiatry, Yale University, School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Olin Neuropsychiatric Research Center, Institute of Living, Hartford Hospital, Hartford, CT, USA; Department of Neurobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - J H Krystal
- Department of psychiatry, Yale University, School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Department of Neurobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Clinical Neuroscience Division, VA National Center for PTSD, VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, USA; Psychiatry Services, Yale-New Haven Hospital, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - R Duggirala
- South Texas Diabetes and Obesity Institute, University of Texas, Rio Grande Valley School of Medicine, Brownsville, TX, USA
| | - J Blangero
- South Texas Diabetes and Obesity Institute, University of Texas, Rio Grande Valley School of Medicine, Brownsville, TX, USA
| | - D C Glahn
- Department of psychiatry, Yale University, School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Olin Neuropsychiatric Research Center, Institute of Living, Hartford Hospital, Hartford, CT, USA
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14
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Baurley JW, Edlund CK, Pardamean CI, Conti DV, Bergen AW. Smokescreen: a targeted genotyping array for addiction research. BMC Genomics 2016; 17:145. [PMID: 26921259 PMCID: PMC4769529 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-016-2495-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2015] [Accepted: 02/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Addictive disorders are a class of chronic, relapsing mental disorders that are responsible for increased risk of mental and medical disorders and represent the largest, potentially modifiable cause of death. Tobacco dependence is associated with increased risk of disease and premature death. While tobacco control efforts and therapeutic interventions have made good progress in reducing smoking prevalence, challenges remain in optimizing their effectiveness based on patient characteristics, including genetic variation. In order to maximize collaborative efforts to advance addiction research, we have developed a genotyping array called Smokescreen. This custom array builds upon previous work in the analyses of human genetic variation, the genetics of addiction, drug metabolism, and response to therapy, with an emphasis on smoking and nicotine addiction. RESULTS The Smokescreen genotyping array includes 646,247 markers in 23 categories. The array design covers genome-wide common variation (65.67, 82.37, and 90.72% in African (YRI), East Asian (ASN), and European (EUR) respectively); most of the variation with a minor allele frequency ≥ 0.01 in 1014 addiction genes (85.16, 89.51, and 90.49% for YRI, ASN, and EUR respectively); and nearly all variation from the 1000 Genomes Project Phase 1, NHLBI GO Exome Sequencing Project and HapMap databases in the regions related to smoking behavior and nicotine metabolism: CHRNA5-CHRNA3-CHRNB4 and CYP2A6-CYP2B6. Of the 636 pilot DNA samples derived from blood or cell line biospecimens that were genotyped on the array, 622 (97.80%) passed quality control. In passing samples, 90.08% of markers passed quality control. The genotype reproducibility in 25 replicate pairs was 99.94%. For 137 samples that overlapped with HapMap2 release 24, the genotype concordance was 99.76%. In a genome-wide association analysis of the nicotine metabolite ratio in 315 individuals participating in nicotine metabolism laboratory studies, we identified genome-wide significant variants in the CYP2A6 region (min p = 9.10E-15). CONCLUSIONS We developed a comprehensive genotyping array for addiction research and demonstrated its analytic validity and utility through pilot genotyping of HapMap and study samples. This array allows researchers to perform genome-wide, candidate gene, and pathway-based association analyses of addiction, tobacco-use, treatment response, comorbidities, and associated diseases in a standardized, high-throughput platform.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W Baurley
- BioRealm LLC, 6101 W. Centinela Ave., Suite 270, Culver City, CA, 90230-6359, USA.
| | - Christopher K Edlund
- BioRealm LLC, 6101 W. Centinela Ave., Suite 270, Culver City, CA, 90230-6359, USA.
| | - Carissa I Pardamean
- BioRealm LLC, 6101 W. Centinela Ave., Suite 270, Culver City, CA, 90230-6359, USA.
| | - David V Conti
- BioRealm LLC, 6101 W. Centinela Ave., Suite 270, Culver City, CA, 90230-6359, USA.
| | - Andrew W Bergen
- BioRealm LLC, 6101 W. Centinela Ave., Suite 270, Culver City, CA, 90230-6359, USA.
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15
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David SP, Wang A, Kapphahn K, Hedlin H, Desai M, Henderson M, Yang L, Walsh KM, Schwartz AG, Wiencke JK, Spitz MR, Wenzlaff AS, Wrensch MR, Eaton CB, Furberg H, Mark Brown W, Goldstein BA, Assimes T, Tang H, Kooperberg CL, Quesenberry CP, Tindle H, Patel MI, Amos CI, Bergen AW, Swan GE, Stefanick ML. Gene by Environment Investigation of Incident Lung Cancer Risk in African-Americans. EBioMedicine 2016; 4:153-61. [PMID: 26981579 PMCID: PMC4776066 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2016.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2015] [Revised: 12/22/2015] [Accepted: 01/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Genome-wide association studies have identified polymorphisms linked to both smoking exposure and risk of lung cancer. The degree to which lung cancer risk is driven by increased smoking, genetics, or gene-environment interactions is not well understood. METHODS We analyzed associations between 28 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) previously associated with smoking quantity and lung cancer in 7156 African-American females in the Women's Health Initiative (WHI), then analyzed main effects of top nominally significant SNPs and interactions between SNPs, cigarettes per day (CPD) and pack-years for lung cancer in an independent, multi-center case-control study of African-American females and males (1078 lung cancer cases and 822 controls). FINDINGS Nine nominally significant SNPs for CPD in WHI were associated with incident lung cancer (corrected p-values from 0.027 to 6.09 × 10(-5)). CPD was found to be a nominally significant effect modifier between SNP and lung cancer for six SNPs, including CHRNA5 rs2036527[A](betaSNP*CPD = - 0.017, p = 0.0061, corrected p = 0.054), which was associated with CPD in a previous genome-wide meta-analysis of African-Americans. INTERPRETATION These results suggest that chromosome 15q25.1 variants are robustly associated with CPD and lung cancer in African-Americans and that the allelic dose effect of these polymorphisms on lung cancer risk is most pronounced in lighter smokers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean P. David
- Division of General Medical Disciplines, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Ange Wang
- Stanford Prevention Research Center, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Kristopher Kapphahn
- Quantitative Sciences Unit, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Haley Hedlin
- Quantitative Sciences Unit, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Manisha Desai
- Quantitative Sciences Unit, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Michael Henderson
- Stanford Prevention Research Center, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Lingyao Yang
- Quantitative Sciences Unit, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Kyle M. Walsh
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Program in Cancer Genetics, Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Ann G. Schwartz
- Department of Oncology, Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, United States
| | - John K. Wiencke
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Margaret R. Spitz
- Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Angela S. Wenzlaff
- Department of Oncology, Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, United States
| | - Margaret R. Wrensch
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Charles B. Eaton
- Center for Primary Care and Prevention, Department of Family Medicine, Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Pawtucket, RI, United States
| | - Helena Furberg
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - W. Mark Brown
- Division of Public Health Sciences, Department of Biostatistical Sciences, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC, United States
| | - Benjamin A. Goldstein
- Department of Biostatistics & Bioinformatics, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Themistocles Assimes
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Hua Tang
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Charles L. Kooperberg
- Division of Public Health Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, United States
| | | | - Hilary Tindle
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN Norris Cotton Cancer Center, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH, United States
| | - Manali I. Patel
- Division of Oncology, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Christopher I. Amos
- Departments of Genetics, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, United States
- Community and Family Medicine, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, United States
| | | | - Gary E. Swan
- Quantitative Sciences Unit, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Marcia L. Stefanick
- Stanford Prevention Research Center, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
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16
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Hancock DB, Reginsson GW, Gaddis NC, Chen X, Saccone NL, Lutz SM, Qaiser B, Sherva R, Steinberg S, Zink F, Stacey SN, Glasheen C, Chen J, Gu F, Frederiksen BN, Loukola A, Gudbjartsson DF, Brüske I, Landi MT, Bickeböller H, Madden P, Farrer L, Kaprio J, Kranzler HR, Gelernter J, Baker TB, Kraft P, Amos CI, Caporaso NE, Hokanson JE, Bierut LJ, Thorgeirsson TE, Johnson EO, Stefansson K. Genome-wide meta-analysis reveals common splice site acceptor variant in CHRNA4 associated with nicotine dependence. Transl Psychiatry 2015; 5:e651. [PMID: 26440539 PMCID: PMC4930126 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2015.149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 08/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
We conducted a 1000 Genomes-imputed genome-wide association study (GWAS) meta-analysis for nicotine dependence, defined by the Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence in 17 074 ever smokers from five European-ancestry samples. We followed up novel variants in 7469 ever smokers from five independent European-ancestry samples. We identified genome-wide significant association in the alpha-4 nicotinic receptor subunit (CHRNA4) gene on chromosome 20q13: lowest P=8.0 × 10(-9) across all the samples for rs2273500-C (frequency=0.15; odds ratio=1.12 and 95% confidence interval=1.08-1.17 for severe vs mild dependence). rs2273500-C, a splice site acceptor variant resulting in an alternate CHRNA4 transcript predicted to be targeted for nonsense-mediated decay, was associated with decreased CHRNA4 expression in physiologically normal human brains (lowest P=7.3 × 10(-4)). Importantly, rs2273500-C was associated with increased lung cancer risk (N=28 998, odds ratio=1.06 and 95% confidence interval=1.00-1.12), likely through its effect on smoking, as rs2273500-C was no longer associated with lung cancer after adjustment for smoking. Using criteria for smoking behavior that encompass more than the single 'cigarettes per day' item, we identified a common CHRNA4 variant with important regulatory properties that contributes to nicotine dependence and smoking-related consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- D B Hancock
- Behavioral and Urban Health Program, Behavioral Health and Criminal Justice Research Division, Research Triangle Institute International, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA,Behavioral and Urban Health Program, Behavioral Health and Criminal Justice Research Division, Research Triangle Institute International, 3040 East Cornwallis Road, P.O. Box 12194, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA. E-mail:
| | | | - N C Gaddis
- Research Computing Division, Research Triangle Institute International, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - X Chen
- Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Department of Psychiatry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA,Nevada Institute of Personalized Medicine and Department of Psychology, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV, USA
| | - N L Saccone
- Department of Genetics, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - S M Lutz
- Department of Biostatistics and Informatics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - B Qaiser
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - R Sherva
- Department of Medicine (Biomedical Genetics), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - F Zink
- deCODE Genetics/Amgen, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - S N Stacey
- deCODE Genetics/Amgen, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - C Glasheen
- Behavioral and Urban Health Program, Behavioral Health and Criminal Justice Research Division, Research Triangle Institute International, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - J Chen
- Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Department of Psychiatry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - F Gu
- Genetic Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, United States Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | - A Loukola
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | | | - I Brüske
- Institute of Epidemiology I, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - M T Landi
- Genetic Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, United States Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - H Bickeböller
- Department of Genetic Epidemiology, University of Göttingen—Georg-August University Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - P Madden
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - L Farrer
- Department of Medicine (Biomedical Genetics), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA,Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA,Department of Ophthalmology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA,Department of Genetics and Genomics, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA,Department of Epidemiology, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA,Department of Biostatistics, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - J Kaprio
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland,National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland,Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - H R Kranzler
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA,VISN 4 Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center, Philadelphia VA Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - J Gelernter
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA,Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA,Department of Neurobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA,VA CT Healthcare Center, Department of Psychiatry, West Haven, CT, USA
| | - T B Baker
- Center for Tobacco Research and Intervention, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - P Kraft
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard University School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA,Department of Biostatistics, Harvard University School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - C I Amos
- Department of Community and Family Medicine, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, USA,Department of Genetics, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, USA,Department of Biomedical Data Science, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanoven, NH, USA
| | - N E Caporaso
- Genetic Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, United States Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - J E Hokanson
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - L J Bierut
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | | | - E O Johnson
- Fellow Program and Behavioral Health and Criminal Justice Research Division, Research Triangle Institute International, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - K Stefansson
- deCODE Genetics/Amgen, Reykjavik, Iceland,Faculty of Medicine, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
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17
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Role of the Neuregulin Signaling Pathway in Nicotine Dependence and Co-morbid Disorders. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2015; 124:113-31. [PMID: 26472527 DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2015.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Smoking is currently the leading cause of preventable death in the United States and is responsible for over four million deaths annually worldwide. Therefore, there is a vast clinical unmet need with regards to therapeutics targeting smoking cessation. This is even more apparent when examining smokers co-morbid with psychiatric illness, as rates of smoking in this population are ~4× higher than in the general population. Examining common genetic and molecular signaling pathways impinging upon both smoking behavior and psychiatric illness will lead to a better understanding of co-morbid disorders and potential development of novel therapeutics. Studies have implicated the Neuregulin Signaling Pathway in the pathophysiology of a number of psychiatric illnesses. Additionally, recent studies have also shown an association between the Neuregulin Signaling Pathway and smoking behaviors. This review outlines basic mechanisms of the Neuregulin Signaling Pathway and how it may be exploited for precision medicine approaches in treating nicotine dependence and mental illness.
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Pan L, Yang X, Li S, Jia C. Association of CYP2A6 gene polymorphisms with cigarette consumption: a meta-analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015; 149:268-71. [PMID: 25683822 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.01.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2014] [Revised: 01/20/2015] [Accepted: 01/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIMS A meta-analysis was performed to assess the association of hepatic cytochrome P450 2A6 (CYP2A6) gene polymorphisms with cigarette consumption. METHODS A comprehensive search was conducted to identify the studies of the above-mentioned association. The fixed effect model (FEM) or random effect model (REM) was selected based on the homogeneity test among studies. Heterogeneity among studies was evaluated using the I(2). Meta-regression and the "leave one out" sensitive analysis were utilized to explore potential sources of heterogeneity. Publication bias was estimated by Harbord test. The effect of CYP2A6 gene polymorphisms on cigarette consumption was presented as standardized mean difference (SMD) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS After excluding one article that was the key contributor to between-study heterogeneity, there was a significant difference of cigarettes per day in groups of normal vs. reduced metabolizers of CYP2A6 gene (FEM: SMD = 0.134, 95%CI: 0.049-0.219). There was also a significant difference of age of smoking initiation between normal and intermediate metabolizers of CYP2A6 gene (FEM: SMD = 0.216, 95%CI: 0.056-0.377). No significant difference of tobacco dependence between normal and reduced metabolizers of CYP2A6 gene was found (FEM: SMD = 0.185, 95%CI = -0.001 to 0.371). CONCLUSION This meta-analysis suggests that CYP2A6 gene polymorphism is associated with daily cigarette consumption. Individuals with intermediate nicotine metabolism might also initiate smoking later than normal metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lulu Pan
- Department of Epidemiology, Shandong University, PR China
| | - Xiaorong Yang
- Department of Epidemiology, Shandong University, PR China
| | - Suyun Li
- Department of Epidemiology, Shandong University, PR China
| | - Chongqi Jia
- Department of Epidemiology, Shandong University, PR China.
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Genetic variants and early cigarette smoking and nicotine dependence phenotypes in adolescents. PLoS One 2014; 9:e115716. [PMID: 25545355 PMCID: PMC4278712 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0115716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2014] [Accepted: 11/30/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Background While the heritability of cigarette smoking and nicotine dependence (ND) is well-documented, the contribution of specific genetic variants to specific phenotypes has not been closely examined. The objectives of this study were to test the associations between 321 tagging single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that capture common genetic variation in 24 genes, and early smoking and ND phenotypes in novice adolescent smokers, and to assess if genetic predictors differ across these phenotypes. Methods In a prospective study of 1294 adolescents aged 12–13 years recruited from ten Montreal-area secondary schools, 544 participants who had smoked at least once during the 7–8 year follow-up provided DNA. 321 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 24 candidate genes were tested for an association with number of cigarettes smoked in the past 3 months, and with five ND phenotypes (a modified version of the Fagerstrom Tolerance Questionnaire, the ICD-10 and three clusters of ND symptoms representing withdrawal symptoms, use of nicotine for self-medication, and a general ND/craving symptom indicator). Results The pattern of SNP-gene associations differed across phenotypes. Sixteen SNPs in seven genes (ANKK1, CHRNA7, DDC, DRD2, COMT, OPRM1, SLC6A3 (also known as DAT1)) were associated with at least one phenotype with a p-value <0.01 using linear mixed models. After permutation and FDR adjustment, none of the associations remained statistically significant, although the p-values for the association between rs557748 in OPRM1 and the ND/craving and self-medication phenotypes were both 0.076. Conclusions Because the genetic predictors differ, specific cigarette smoking and ND phenotypes should be distinguished in genetic studies in adolescents. Fifteen of the 16 top-ranked SNPs identified in this study were from loci involved in dopaminergic pathways (ANKK1/DRD2, DDC, COMT, OPRM1, and SLC6A3). Impact Dopaminergic pathways may be salient during early smoking and the development of ND.
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Prioritizing Genes Related to Nicotine Addiction Via a Multi-source-Based Approach. Mol Neurobiol 2014; 52:442-55. [PMID: 25193020 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-014-8874-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2014] [Accepted: 08/19/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Nicotine has a broad impact on both the central and peripheral nervous systems. Over the past decades, an increasing number of genes potentially involved in nicotine addiction have been identified by different technical approaches. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying nicotine addiction remain largely unknown. Under such situation, prioritizing the candidate genes for further investigation is becoming increasingly important. In this study, we presented a multi-source-based gene prioritization approach for nicotine addiction by utilizing the vast amounts of information generated from for nicotine addiction study during the past years. In this approach, we first collected and curated genes from studies in four categories, i.e., genetic association analysis, genetic linkage analysis, high-throughput gene/protein expression analysis, and literature search of single gene/protein-based studies. Based on these resources, the genes were scored and a weight value was determined for each category. Finally, the genes were ranked by their combined scores, and 220 genes were selected as the prioritized nicotine addiction-related genes. Evaluation suggested the prioritized genes were promising targets for further analysis and replication study.
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Bergen AW, Javitz HS, Krasnow R, Michel M, Nishita D, Conti DV, Edlund CK, Kwok PY, McClure JB, Kim RB, Hall SM, Tyndale RF, Baker TB, Benowitz NL, Swan GE. Organic cation transporter variation and response to smoking cessation therapies. Nicotine Tob Res 2014; 16:1638-46. [PMID: 25143296 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntu161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION We evaluated chr6q25.3 organic cation transporter gene (SLC22A1, SLC22A2, SLC22A3) variation and response to smoking cessation therapies. The corresponding proteins are low-affinity transporters of choline, acetylcholine and monoamines, and smoking cessation pharmacotherapies expressed in multiple tissues. METHODS We selected 7 common polymorphisms for mega-regression analysis. We assessed additive model association of polymorphisms with 7-day point prevalence abstinence overall and by assigned pharmacotherapy at end of treatment and at 6 months among European-ancestry participants of 7 randomized controlled trials adjusted for demographic, population genetic, and trial covariates. RESULTS Initial results were obtained in 6 trials with 1,839 participants. Nominally statistically significant associations of 2 SLC22A2 polymorphisms were observed: (1) with rs316019 at 6 months, overall ([c.808T>G; p.Ser270Ala], OR = 1.306, 95% CI = 1.034-1.649, p = .025), and among those randomized to nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) (OR = 1.784, 95% CI = 1.072-2.970, p = .026); and (2) with rs316006 (c.1502-529A>T) among those randomized to varenicline (OR = 1.420, 95% CI = 1.038-1.944, p = .028, OR = 1.362, 95% CI = 1.001-1.853, p = .04) at end of treatment and 6 months. Individuals randomized to NRT from a seventh trial were genotyped for rs316019; rs316019 was associated with a nominally statistically significant effect on abstinence overall at 6 months among 2,233 participants (OR = 1.249, 95% CI = 1.007-1.550, p = .043). CONCLUSIONS The functional OCT2 Ser270Ala polymorphism is nominally statistically significantly associated with abstinence among European-ancestry treatment-seeking smokers after adjustments for pharmacotherapy, demographics, population genetics, and without adjustment for multiple testing of 7 SNPs. Replication of these preliminary findings in additional randomized controlled trials of smoking cessation therapies and from multiple continental populations would describe another pharmacogenetic role for SLC22A2/OCT2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew W Bergen
- Center for Health Sciences, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA;
| | - Harold S Javitz
- Center for Health Sciences, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA
| | - Ruth Krasnow
- Center for Health Sciences, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA
| | - Martha Michel
- Center for Health Sciences, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA
| | - Denise Nishita
- Center for Health Sciences, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA
| | - David V Conti
- Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Christopher K Edlund
- Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA; BioRealm, LLC, Monument, CO
| | - Pui-Yan Kwok
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Francisco, CA
| | | | - Richard B Kim
- Department of Medicine, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON, Canada
| | - Sharon M Hall
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, CA
| | - Rachel F Tyndale
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, and Departments of Psychiatry, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Timothy B Baker
- Center for Tobacco Research and Intervention, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI
| | - Neal L Benowitz
- Departments of Medicine and Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA
| | - Gary E Swan
- Stanford Prevention Research Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA
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Won WY, Park B, Choi SW, Kim L, Kwon M, Kim JH, Lee CU, Shin HD, Kim DJ. Genetic Association of CHRNB3 and CHRNA6 Gene Polymorphisms with Nicotine Dependence Syndrome Scale in Korean Population. Psychiatry Investig 2014; 11:307-12. [PMID: 25110504 PMCID: PMC4124190 DOI: 10.4306/pi.2014.11.3.307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2013] [Revised: 08/27/2013] [Accepted: 10/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Cholinergic nicotinic receptor (CHRN) gene family has been known to mediate the highly additive effects of nicotine in the body, and implicated nicotine dependence (ND) and related phenotypes. Previous studies have found that CHRNA6-CHRNB3 cluster polymorphisms were significantly associated with the risk of ND and various tobacco behaviors. The aim of study was to evaluate the genetic association of CHRNB3 and CHRNA6 polymorphisms with the risk of ND based on the Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND) score and five subscales of nicotine dependence syndrome scale (NDSS) in Korean population. METHODS Six SNPs in CHRNA6-CHRNB3 cluster were analyzed in 576 Korean subjects. Association analysis using logistic models and regression analysis with NDSS were performed. RESULTS There was no association in the case-control analysis, whereas all six SNPs were significantly associated with drive factor among NDSS in subgroup based on the FTND score. CHRNB3 rs4954 and CHRNA6 rs16891604 showed significant associations with NDSSF1 (drive) in dominant models among moderate to severe ND among smokers after correction (p(corr) =0.02 and 0.001, respectively), whereas other four SNPs showed significant associations among mild ND after correction (p(corr) =0.03-0.02 in dominant model). CONCLUSION This study showed that the genetic influence of CHRNB3-CHRNA6 cluster polymorphisms are found in a ND endophenotype (drive) using NDSS subscales, rather than the risk of ND in Korean population. Our findings might be the first report for the association of CHRNB3-CHRNA6 cluster with ND-related phenotypes in Korean and might offer an approach to elucidating the molecular mechanisms of ND and ND-related phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wang-Youn Won
- Department of Psychiatry, The Catholic University of Korea College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - ByungLae Park
- Department of Genetic Epidemiology, SNP Genetics, Inc., Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sam-Wook Choi
- Department of Addiction Rehabilitation with Social Welfare, Eulji University, Seongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - LyoungHyo Kim
- Department of Genetic Epidemiology, SNP Genetics, Inc., Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Min Kwon
- Department of Psychiatry, The Catholic University of Korea College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Hwa Kim
- Department of Psychiatry, The Catholic University of Korea College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang-Uk Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, The Catholic University of Korea College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyoung Doo Shin
- Department of Genetic Epidemiology, SNP Genetics, Inc., Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Department of Life Science, Sogang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Dai-Jin Kim
- Department of Psychiatry, The Catholic University of Korea College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Loukola A, Wedenoja J, Keskitalo-Vuokko K, Broms U, Korhonen T, Ripatti S, Sarin AP, Pitkäniemi J, He L, Häppölä A, Heikkilä K, Chou YL, Pergadia ML, Heath AC, Montgomery GW, Martin NG, Madden PAF, Kaprio J. Genome-wide association study on detailed profiles of smoking behavior and nicotine dependence in a twin sample. Mol Psychiatry 2014; 19:615-24. [PMID: 23752247 PMCID: PMC3883996 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2013.72] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2012] [Revised: 03/28/2013] [Accepted: 04/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Smoking is a major risk factor for several somatic diseases and is also emerging as a causal factor for neuropsychiatric disorders. Genome-wide association (GWA) and candidate gene studies for smoking behavior and nicotine dependence (ND) have disclosed too few predisposing variants to account for the high estimated heritability. Previous large-scale GWA studies have had very limited phenotypic definitions of relevance to smoking-related behavior, which has likely impeded the discovery of genetic effects. We performed GWA analyses on 1114 adult twins ascertained for ever smoking from the population-based Finnish Twin Cohort study. The availability of 17 smoking-related phenotypes allowed us to comprehensively portray the dimensions of smoking behavior, clustered into the domains of smoking initiation, amount smoked and ND. Our results highlight a locus on 16p12.3, with several single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the vicinity of CLEC19A showing association (P<1 × 10(-6)) with smoking quantity. Interestingly, CLEC19A is located close to a previously reported attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) linkage locus and an evident link between ADHD and smoking has been established. Intriguing preliminary association (P<1 × 10(-5)) was detected between DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition) ND diagnosis and several SNPs in ERBB4, coding for a Neuregulin receptor, on 2q33. The association between ERBB4 and DSM-IV ND diagnosis was replicated in an independent Australian sample. Recently, a significant increase in ErbB4 and Neuregulin 3 (Nrg3) expression was revealed following chronic nicotine exposure and withdrawal in mice and an association between NRG3 SNPs and smoking cessation success was detected in a clinical trial. ERBB4 has previously been associated with schizophrenia; further, it is located within an established schizophrenia linkage locus and within a linkage locus for a smoker phenotype identified in this sample. In conclusion, we disclose novel tentative evidence for the involvement of ERBB4 in ND, suggesting the involvement of the Neuregulin/ErbB signalling pathway in addictions and providing a plausible link between the high co-morbidity of schizophrenia and ND.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anu Loukola
- Department of Public Health, Hjelt Institute, University of
Helsinki, Finland
| | - Juho Wedenoja
- Department of Public Health, Hjelt Institute, University of
Helsinki, Finland
| | | | - Ulla Broms
- Department of Public Health, Hjelt Institute, University of
Helsinki, Finland
- National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki,
Finland
| | - Tellervo Korhonen
- Department of Public Health, Hjelt Institute, University of
Helsinki, Finland
- National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki,
Finland
| | - Samuli Ripatti
- National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki,
Finland
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland FIMM, University
of Helsinki, Finland
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Cambridge, UK
| | - Antti-Pekka Sarin
- National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki,
Finland
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland FIMM, University
of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Janne Pitkäniemi
- Department of Public Health, Hjelt Institute, University of
Helsinki, Finland
| | - Liang He
- Department of Public Health, Hjelt Institute, University of
Helsinki, Finland
| | - Anja Häppölä
- Department of Public Health, Hjelt Institute, University of
Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kauko Heikkilä
- Department of Public Health, Hjelt Institute, University of
Helsinki, Finland
| | - Yi-Ling Chou
- Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis,
USA
| | | | - Andrew C Heath
- Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis,
USA
| | | | | | | | - Jaakko Kaprio
- Department of Public Health, Hjelt Institute, University of
Helsinki, Finland
- National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki,
Finland
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland FIMM, University
of Helsinki, Finland
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24
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Chen H, Luo R, Gong S, Matta SG, Sharp BM. Protection genes in nucleus accumbens shell affect vulnerability to nicotine self-administration across isogenic strains of adolescent rat. PLoS One 2014; 9:e86214. [PMID: 24465966 PMCID: PMC3899218 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0086214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2013] [Accepted: 12/06/2013] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Classical genetic studies show the heritability of cigarette smoking is 0.4–0.6, and that multiple genes confer susceptibility and resistance to smoking. Despite recent advances in identifying genes associated with smoking behaviors, the major source of this heritability and its impact on susceptibility and resistance are largely unknown. Operant self-administration (SA) of intravenous nicotine is an established model for smoking behavior. We recently confirmed that genetic factors exert strong control over nicotine intake in isogenic rat strains. Because the processing of afferent dopaminergic signals by nucleus accumbens shell (AcbS) is critical for acquisition and maintenance of motivated behaviors reinforced by nicotine, we hypothesized that differential basal gene expression in AcbS accounts for much of the strain-to-strain variation in nicotine SA. We therefore sequenced the transcriptome of AcbS samples obtained by laser capture microdissection from 10 isogenic adolescent rat strains and compared all RNA transcript levels with behavior. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis, a systems biology method, found 12 modules (i.e., unique sets of genes that covary across all samples) that correlated (p<0.05) with amount of self-administered nicotine; 9 of 12 correlated negatively, implying a protective role. PCR confirmed selected genes from these modules. Chilibot, a literature mining tool, identified 15 genes within 1 module that were nominally associated with cigarette smoking, thereby providing strong support for the analytical approach. This is the first report demonstrating that nicotine intake by adolescent rodents is associated with the expression of specific genes in AcbS of the mesolimbic system, which controls motivated behaviors. These findings provide new insights into genetic mechanisms that predispose or protect against tobacco addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America
- * E-mail: (HC); (BS)
| | - Rui Luo
- Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Suzhen Gong
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Shannon G. Matta
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Burt M. Sharp
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America
- * E-mail: (HC); (BS)
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Abstract
Regular smoking is the major risk factor for cardiovascular disease and cancers, and thus is one of the most preventable causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Intake of nicotine, its central nervous system effects, and its metabolism are regulated by biological pathways; some of these are well known, but others are not. Genetic studies offer a method for developing insights into the genes contributing to those pathways. In recent years, large genome-wide association study (GWAS) meta-analyses have consistently revealed that the strongest genetic contribution to smoking-related traits comes from variation in the nicotinic receptor subunit genes. Many other genes, including those coding for enzymes involved in nicotine metabolism, also have been implicated. However, the proportion of phenotypic variance explained by the identified genetic variants is very modest. This review intends to cover progress made in genetics and genetic epidemiology of smoking behavior in recent years, and focuses on studies revealing the nicotinic receptor gene cluster on chromosome 15q25. Evidence supporting the involvement of a novel pathway in the shared pathophysiology of nicotine dependence and schizophrenia is also briefly reviewed. A summary of the current knowledge on gene-environment interactions involved in smoking behavior is included.
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McClure-Begley TD, Papke RL, Stone KL, Stokes C, Levy AD, Gelernter J, Xie P, Lindstrom J, Picciotto MR. Rare human nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α4 subunit (CHRNA4) variants affect expression and function of high-affinity nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2014; 348:410-20. [PMID: 24385388 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.113.209767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Nicotine, the primary psychoactive component in tobacco smoke, produces its behavioral effects through interactions with neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). α4β2 nAChRs are the most abundant in mammalian brain, and converging evidence shows that this subtype mediates the rewarding and reinforcing effects of nicotine. A number of rare variants in the CHRNA4 gene that encode the α4 nAChR subunit have been identified in human subjects and appear to be underrepresented in a cohort of smokers. We compared three of these variants (α4R336C, α4P451L, and α4R487Q) to the common variant to determine their effects on α4β2 nAChR pharmacology. We examined [(3)H]epibatidine binding, interacting proteins, and phosphorylation of the α4 nAChR subunit with liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in HEK 293 cells and voltage-clamp electrophysiology in Xenopus laevis oocytes. We observed significant effects of the α4 variants on nAChR expression, subcellular distribution, and sensitivity to nicotine-induced receptor upregulation. Proteomic analysis of immunopurified α4β2 nAChRs incorporating the rare variants identified considerable differences in the intracellular interactomes due to these single amino acid substitutions. Electrophysiological characterization in X. laevis oocytes revealed alterations in the functional parameters of activation by nAChR agonists conferred by these α4 rare variants, as well as shifts in receptor function after incubation with nicotine. Taken together, these experiments suggest that genetic variation at CHRNA4 alters the assembly and expression of human α4β2 nAChRs, resulting in receptors that are more sensitive to nicotine exposure than those assembled with the common α4 variant. The changes in nAChR pharmacology could contribute to differences in responses to smoked nicotine in individuals harboring these rare variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- T D McClure-Begley
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut (T.D.M.-B., A.D.L., J.G., M.R.P.); Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, Colorado (T.D.M.-B.); Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida (R.L.P., C.S.); W.M. Keck Biotechnology Research Laboratory (K.S.), Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program (A.D.L., M.R.P.), Department of Genetics (J.G., P.X.), and Department of Neurobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut (M.R.P.); Department of Psychiatry, Veterans Affairs Connecticut Healthcare Center, West Haven, Connecticut (J.G.); Center for Human Genome Variation, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina (P.X.); and Department of Neuroscience, Medical School of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (J.L.)
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27
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Eggert M, Aichinger E, Pfaffl MW, Steinlein OK, Pfob M. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits α4 and α5 associated with smoking behaviour and lung cancer are regulated by upstream open reading frames. PLoS One 2013; 8:e66157. [PMID: 23843950 PMCID: PMC3699600 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0066157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2013] [Accepted: 05/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits (nAChR) are associated with different aspects of smoking behaviour as well as with smoking related disorders. Several of these subunits have been found to be upregulated in smokers or differentially expressed in lung tumor cells. The mechanisms behind these observations are not known but assumed to be mainly post-transcriptional. Many post-transcriptional mechanisms are initiated by functionally relevant sequence motifs within untranslated gene regions, such as upstream open reading frames (uORFs). We performed a systematic search in all smoking-associated neuronal nAChR subunits and identified functionally relevant uORFs in CHRNA4 and CHRNA5. Luciferase experiments showed that these uORFs are able to significantly decrease protein expression. Our quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) results strongly suggest that the observed effects originate at the translation rather than at the transcription level. Interestingly, the CHRNA4 uORF was only functionally relevant when expressed in the shorter isoform of this gene. Therefore, the data presented in this study strongly points towards an important role of uORFs within the 5′UTR of CHRNA4-isoform 1 and CHRNA5 as regulators of protein translation. Moreover, the shared uORF of CHRNA4-isoform 1/isoform 2 represents the first example of a sequence context-dependent uORF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlene Eggert
- Institute of Human Genetics, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany.
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Agrawal A, Verweij KJH, Gillespie NA, Heath AC, Lessov-Schlaggar CN, Martin NG, Nelson EC, Slutske WS, Whitfield JB, Lynskey MT. The genetics of addiction-a translational perspective. Transl Psychiatry 2012; 2:e140. [PMID: 22806211 PMCID: PMC3410620 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2012.54] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2012] [Accepted: 05/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Addictions are serious and common psychiatric disorders, and are among the leading contributors to preventable death. This selective review outlines and highlights the need for a multi-method translational approach to genetic studies of these important conditions, including both licit (alcohol, nicotine) and illicit (cannabis, cocaine, opiates) drug addictions and the behavioral addiction of disordered gambling. First, we review existing knowledge from twin studies that indicates both the substantial heritability of substance-specific addictions and the genetic overlap across addiction to different substances. Next, we discuss the limited number of candidate genes which have shown consistent replication, and the implications of emerging genomewide association findings for the genetic architecture of addictions. Finally, we review the utility of extensions to existing methods such as novel phenotyping, including the use of endophenotypes, biomarkers and neuroimaging outcomes; emerging methods for identifying alternative sources of genetic variation and accompanying statistical methodologies to interpret them; the role of gene-environment interplay; and importantly, the potential role of genetic variation in suggesting new alternatives for treatment of addictions.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Agrawal
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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Yang BZ, Han S, Kranzler HR, Farrer LA, Elston RC, Gelernter J. Autosomal linkage scan for loci predisposing to comorbid dependence on multiple substances. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2012; 159B:361-9. [PMID: 22354695 PMCID: PMC3920832 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.32037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2011] [Accepted: 01/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Multiple substance dependence (MSD) trait comorbidity is common, and MSD patients are often severely affected clinically. While shared genetic risks have been documented, so far there has been no published report using the linkage scan approach to survey risk loci for MSD as a phenotype. A total of 1,758 individuals in 739 families [384 African American (AA) and 355 European American (EA) families] ascertained via affected sib-pairs with cocaine or opioid or alcohol dependence were genotyped using an array-based linkage panel of single-nucleotide polymorphism markers. Fuzzy clustering analysis was conducted on individuals with alcohol, cannabis, cocaine, opioid, and nicotine dependence for AAs and EAs separately, and linkage scans were conducted for the output membership coefficients using Merlin-regression. In EAs, we observed an autosome-wide significant linkage signal on chromosome 4 (peak lod = 3.31 at 68.3 cM; empirical autosome-wide P = 0.038), and a suggestive linkage signal on chromosome 21 (peak lod = 2.37 at 19.4 cM). In AAs, four suggestive linkage peaks were observed: two peaks on chromosome 10 (lod = 2.66 at 96.7 cM and lod = 3.02 at 147.6 cM] and the other two on chromosomes 3 (lod = 2.81 at 145.5 cM) and 9 (lod = 1.93 at 146.8 cM). Three particularly promising candidate genes, GABRA4, GABRB1, and CLOCK, are located within or very close to the autosome-wide significant linkage region for EAs on chromosome 4. This is the first linkage evidence supporting existence of genetic loci influencing risk for several comorbid disorders simultaneously in two major US populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bao-Zhu Yang
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut,VA CT Healthcare Center, West Haven, Connecticut
| | - Shizhong Han
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut,VA CT Healthcare Center, West Haven, Connecticut
| | - Henry R. Kranzler
- Psychiatry Treatment Research Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Lindsay A. Farrer
- Departments of Medicine, Neurology, Ophthalmology, Genetics and Genomics, Epidemiology, and Biostatistics, Boston University Schools of Medicine and Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Robert C. Elston
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Joel Gelernter
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut,VA CT Healthcare Center, West Haven, Connecticut,Correspondence to: Joel Gelernter, M.D., Division of Human Genetics, Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, VA CT 116A2.
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Cui WY, Seneviratne C, Gu J, Li MD. Genetics of GABAergic signaling in nicotine and alcohol dependence. Hum Genet 2012; 131:843-55. [PMID: 22048727 PMCID: PMC3746562 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-011-1108-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2011] [Accepted: 10/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Both nicotine and alcohol addictions are common chronic brain disorders that are of great concern to individuals and society. Although genetics contributes significantly to these disorders, the susceptibility genes and variants underlying them remain largely unknown. Many years of genome-wide linkage and association studies have implicated a number of genes and pathways in the etiology of nicotine and alcohol addictions. In this communication, we focus on current evidence, primarily from human genetic studies, supporting the involvement of genes and variants in the GABAergic signaling system in the etiology of nicotine dependence and alcoholism based on linkage, association, and gene-by-gene interaction studies. Current efforts aim not only to replicate these findings in independent samples, but also to identify which variant contributes to the detected associations and through what molecular mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Yan Cui
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- National Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, College of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Chamindi Seneviratne
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences, University of Virginia, 1670 Discovery Drive, Suite 110, Charlottesville, VA 22911, USA
| | - Jun Gu
- National Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, College of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Ming D. Li
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences, University of Virginia, 1670 Discovery Drive, Suite 110, Charlottesville, VA 22911, USA
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Gyekis JP, Dingman MA, Revitsky AR, Bryant BP, Vandenbergh DJ, Frank ME, Blizard DA. Gustatory, trigeminal, and olfactory aspects of nicotine intake in three mouse strains. Behav Genet 2012; 42:820-9. [PMID: 22618163 DOI: 10.1007/s10519-012-9546-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2012] [Accepted: 05/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Studies of nicotine consumption in rodents often intend to investigate nicotine's post-absorptive effects, yet little is known about the pre-absorptive sensory experience of nicotine drinking, including gustatory, trigeminal, and olfactory influences. We conditioned taste aversion (CTA) to nicotine in males of 3 inbred mouse strains: C57BL/6J, DBA/2J, and 129X1/SvJ by repeatedly pairing 150 μg/ml nicotine drinking with lithium chloride injections. Generalization to a variety of bitter, sour, sweet, salty, and irritant solutions and to nicotine odor was then examined. Nicotine CTA generalized to the bitter stimulus quinine hydrochloride and the chemosensory irritant spilanthol in all strains. It also showed strain specificity, generalizing to hydrogen peroxide (an activator of TRPA1) in C57BL/6J mice and to the olfactory cue of nicotine in DBA/2J mice. These behavioral assays demonstrate that the sensory properties of nicotine are complex and include multiple gustatory, irritant, and olfactory components. How these qualities combine at the level of perception remains to be assessed, but sensory factors clearly exert an important influence on nicotine ingestion and their contribution to net intake of nicotine should not be neglected in animal or human studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph P Gyekis
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, Pennsylvania State University, 201 Research Building D, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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Keskitalo-Vuokko K, Hällfors J, Broms U, Pergadia ML, Saccone SF, Loukola A, Madden PAF, Kaprio J. Chromosome 20 shows linkage with DSM-IV nicotine dependence in Finnish adult smokers. Nicotine Tob Res 2012; 14:153-60. [PMID: 22039074 PMCID: PMC3265743 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntr153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2011] [Accepted: 06/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Chromosome 20 has previously been associated with nicotine dependence (ND) and smoking cessation. Our aim was to replicate and extend these findings. METHODS First, a total of 759 subjects belonging to 206 Finnish families were genotyped with 18 microsatellite markers residing on chromosome 20, in order to replicate previous linkage findings. Then, the replication data were combined to an existing whole-genome linkage data resulting in a total of 1,302 genotyped subjects from 357 families. ND diagnosed by DSM-IV criteria, the Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND) score, and the lifetime maximum number of cigarettes smoked within a 24-hr period (MaxCigs24) were used as phenotypes in the nonparametric linkage analyses. RESULTS We replicated previously reported linkage to DSM-IV ND, with a maximum logarithm of odd (LOD) score of 3.8 on 20p11, with females contributing more (maximum LOD [MLOD] score 3.4 on 20q11) than males (MLOD score 2.6 on 20p11). With the combined sample, a suggestive LOD score of 2.3 was observed for DSM-IV ND on 20p11. Sex-specific analyses revealed that the signal was driven by females with a maximum LOD score of 3.3 (on 20q11) versus LOD score of 1.3 in males (on 20q13) in the combined sample. No significant linkage signals were obtained for FTND or MaxCigs24. CONCLUSIONS Our results provide further evidence that chromosome 20 harbors genetic variants influencing ND in adult smokers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jenni Hällfors
- Hjelt Institute, Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ulla Broms
- Hjelt Institute, Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), Helsinki, Finland
| | - Michele L. Pergadia
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Scott F. Saccone
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Anu Loukola
- Hjelt Institute, Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), Helsinki, Finland
| | - Pamela A. F. Madden
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Jaakko Kaprio
- Hjelt Institute, Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), Helsinki, Finland
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Gold AB, Lerman C. Pharmacogenetics of smoking cessation: role of nicotine target and metabolism genes. Hum Genet 2012; 131:10.1007/s00439-012-1143-9. [PMID: 22290489 PMCID: PMC3864572 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-012-1143-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2011] [Accepted: 01/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Many smokers attempt to quit smoking but few are successful in the long term. The heritability of nicotine addiction and smoking relapse have been documented, and research is focused on identifying specific genetic influences on the ability to quit smoking and response to specific medications. Research in genetically modified cell lines and mice has identified nicotine acetylcholine receptor subtypes that mediate the pharmacological and behavioral effects of nicotine sensitivity and withdrawal. Human genetic association studies have identified single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in genes encoding nicotine acetylcholine receptor subunits and nicotine metabolizing enzymes that influence smoking cessation phenotypes. There is initial promising evidence for a role in smoking cessation for SNPs in the β2 and α5/α3/β4 nAChR subunit genes; however, effects are small and not consistently replicated. There are reproducible and clinically significant associations of genotypic and phenotypic measures of CYP2A6 enzyme activity and nicotine metabolic rate with smoking cessation as well as response to nicotine replacement therapies and bupropion. Prospective clinical trials to identify associations of genetic variants and gene-gene interactions on smoking cessation are needed to generate the evidence base for both medication development and targeted therapy approaches based on genotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison B. Gold
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Nicotine Addiction, University of Pennsylvania, 3535 Market Street, Suite 4100, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Caryn Lerman
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Nicotine Addiction, University of Pennsylvania, 3535 Market Street, Suite 4100, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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Broms U, Wedenoja J, Largeau MR, Korhonen T, Pitkäniemi J, Keskitalo-Vuokko K, Häppölä A, Heikkilä KH, Heikkilä K, Ripatti S, Sarin AP, Salminen O, Paunio T, Pergadia ML, Madden PAF, Kaprio J, Loukola A. Analysis of detailed phenotype profiles reveals CHRNA5-CHRNA3-CHRNB4 gene cluster association with several nicotine dependence traits. Nicotine Tob Res 2012; 14:720-33. [PMID: 22241830 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntr283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The role of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor gene cluster on chromosome 15q24-25 in the etiology of nicotine dependence (ND) is still being defined. In this study, we included all 15 tagging single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the CHRNA5-CHRNA3-CHRNB4 cluster and tested associations with 30 smoking-related phenotypes. METHODS The study sample was ascertained from the Finnish Twin Cohort study. Twin pairs born 1938-1957 and concordant for a history of cigarette smoking were recruited along with their family members (mainly siblings), as part of the Nicotine Addiction Genetics consortium. The study sample consisted of 1,428 individuals (59% males) from 735 families, with mean age 55.6 years. RESULTS We detected multiple novel associations for ND. DSM-IV ND symptoms associated significantly with the proxy SNP Locus 1 (rs2036527, p = .000009) and Locus 2 (rs578776, p = .0001) and tolerance factor of the Nicotine Dependence Syndrome Scale (NDSS) showed suggestive association to rs11636753 (p = .0059), rs11634351 (p = .0069), and rs1948 (p = .0071) in CHRNB4. Furthermore, we report significant association with DSM-IV ND diagnosis (rs2036527, p = .0003) for the first time in a Caucasian population. Several SNPs indicated suggestive association for traits related to ages at smoking initiation. Also, rs11636753 in CHRNB4 showed suggestive association with regular drinking (p = .0029) and the comorbidity of depression and ND (p = .0034). CONCLUSIONS We demonstrate novel associations of DSM-IV ND symptoms and the NDSS tolerance subscale. Our results confirm and extend association findings for other ND measures. We show pleiotropic effects of this gene cluster on multiple measures of ND and also regular drinking and the comorbidity of ND and depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulla Broms
- Department of Public Health, Hjelt Institute, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Xie P, Kranzler HR, Krauthammer M, Cosgrove KP, Oslin D, Anton RF, Farrer LA, Picciotto MR, Krystal JH, Zhao H, Gelernter J. Rare nonsynonymous variants in alpha-4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor gene protect against nicotine dependence. Biol Psychiatry 2011; 70:528-36. [PMID: 21683344 PMCID: PMC3199609 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2011] [Revised: 04/04/2011] [Accepted: 04/19/2011] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several studies report association of alpha-4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (encoded by CHRNA4) with nicotine dependence (ND). A meta-analysis of genomewide linkage studies for ND implicated a single chromosomal region, which includes CHRNA4, as genome-wide significant. METHODS After establishing that common variants are unlikely to completely account for this linkage, we investigated the distribution of CHRNA4 rare variants by sequencing the coding exons and flanking intronic regions of CHRNA4 in 209 European American (EA) ND cases and 183 EA control subjects. Because most of the rare variants that we detected (and all nonsynonymous changes) were in Exon 5, we sequenced Exon 5 in an additional 1000 ND cases and 1000 non-ND comparison subjects, both of which included equal numbers of EAs and African Americans. RESULTS Comparison subjects had a higher frequency of rare nonsynonymous variants in the Exon 5 region (encoding the large intercellular loop of the α4 subunit; Fisher's Exact Test p = .009; association test p = .009, odds ratio = .43; weighted-sum method p = .014), indicating a protective effect against ND. Considering data from the two stages combined and only nonsynonymous variants predicted to alter protein function, the association was stronger (Fisher's Exact Test p = .005; association test p = .008, odds ratio = .29; weighted-sum method p = .005). Single-photon emission computed tomography imaging results were consistent with functionality. CONCLUSIONS CHRNA4 functional rare variants may reduce ND risk. This is the first demonstration that rare functional variants at a candidate locus protect against substance dependence to our knowledge, suggesting a novel mechanism of substance dependence heritability that is potentially of general importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pingxing Xie
- Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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Siedlinski M, Cho MH, Bakke P, Gulsvik A, Lomas DA, Anderson W, Kong X, Rennard SI, Beaty TH, Hokanson JE, Crapo JD, Silverman EK. Genome-wide association study of smoking behaviours in patients with COPD. Thorax 2011; 66:894-902. [PMID: 21685187 DOI: 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2011-200154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Background Cigarette smoking is a major risk factor for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and COPD severity. Previous genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified numerous single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with the number of cigarettes smoked per day (CPD) and a dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH) locus associated with smoking cessation in multiple populations. Objective To identify SNPs associated with lifetime average and current CPD, age at smoking initiation, and smoking cessation in patients with COPD. Methods GWAS were conducted in four independent cohorts encompassing 3441 ever-smoking patients with COPD (Global Initiative for Obstructive Lung Disease stage II or higher). Untyped SNPs were imputed using the HapMap (phase II) panel. Results from all cohorts were meta-analysed. Results Several SNPs near the HLA region on chromosome 6p21 and in an intergenic region on chromosome 2q21 showed associations with age at smoking initiation, both with the lowest p=2×10(-7). No SNPs were associated with lifetime average CPD, current CPD or smoking cessation with p<10(-6). Nominally significant associations with candidate SNPs within cholinergic receptors, nicotinic, alpha 3/5 (CHRNA3/CHRNA5; eg, p=0.00011 for SNP rs1051730) and cytochrome P450, family 2, subfamily A, polypeptide 6 (CYP2A6; eg, p=2.78×10(-5) for a non-synonymous SNP rs1801272) regions were observed for lifetime average CPD, however only CYP2A6 showed evidence of significant association with current CPD. A candidate SNP (rs3025343) in DBH was significantly (p=0.015) associated with smoking cessation. Conclusion The authors identified two candidate regions associated with age at smoking initiation in patients with COPD. Associations of CHRNA3/CHRNA5 and CYP2A6 loci with CPD and DBH with smoking cessation are also likely of importance in the smoking behaviours of patients with COPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mateusz Siedlinski
- Channing Laboratory, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Han S, Yang BZ, Kranzler HR, Oslin D, Anton R, Gelernter J. Association of CHRNA4 polymorphisms with smoking behavior in two populations. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2011; 156B:421-9. [PMID: 21445957 PMCID: PMC3742073 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.31177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2010] [Accepted: 02/17/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
CHRNA4, the gene that encodes the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α(4) subunit, is a potential candidate gene for nicotine dependence (ND). However, studies of the association of CHNRA4 with smoking behavior have shown inconsistent results. Our meta-analysis of linkage studies of smoking behavior identified a genome-wide significant linkage of the phenotype maximum number of cigarettes smoked in a 24-hour period to a region (20q13.12-q13.32) harboring CHRNA4. This motivated us to examine the association of CHRNA4 with smoking behavior in two independent samples. In this study, we examined five single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within CHRNA4 and three smoking-related behaviors: one quantitative trait [cigarettes smoked per day (CPD)], and two binary traits [DSM-IV diagnosis of ND and dichotomized Fagerstrom test of ND (FTND)], in 1,249 unrelated European-Americans (EAs) and 1,790 unrelated African-Americans (AAs). Using the combined sample with sex, age, and race as covariates, the synonymous SNP rs1044394 was significantly associated with ND (P = 0.001) and FTND (P = 0.01). Rs2236196, which has a low correlation with rs1044394, was also significantly associated with CPD (P = 0.003). The pattern of association for these SNPs was similar in AAs and EAs. After correction for multiple testing, the association between rs1044394 and ND in the combined sample remained significant (P = 0.033). In summary, our study supports association between CHRNA4 common variation and ND in AA and EA samples. Additional studies will be necessary to evaluate the role of rare variants at CHRNA4 for ND.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shizhong Han
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Human Genetics, Yale
University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
- VA CT Healthcare Center 116A2; 950 Campbell Avenue; West Haven, CT
06516
| | - Bao-Zhu Yang
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Human Genetics, Yale
University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
- VA CT Healthcare Center 116A2; 950 Campbell Avenue; West Haven, CT
06516
| | - Henry R. Kranzler
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania School of
Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104 and VISN 4 MIRECC, Philadelphia VAMC, Philadelphia,
PA 19104
| | - David Oslin
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania School of
Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104 USA
| | - Raymond Anton
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical University
of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425 USA
| | - Joel Gelernter
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Human Genetics, Yale
University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
- Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New
Haven, CT 06511, USA
- Department of Neurobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New
Haven, CT 06511, USA
- VA CT Healthcare Center 116A2; 950 Campbell Avenue; West Haven, CT
06516
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Liu T, David SP, Tyndale RF, Wang H, Zhou Q, Ding P, He YH, Yu XQ, Chen W, Crump C, Wen XZ, Chen WQ. Associations of CYP2A6 genotype with smoking behaviors in southern China. Addiction 2011; 106:985-94. [PMID: 21205058 PMCID: PMC3074015 DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03353.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To investigate the association of CYP2A6 genetic polymorphisms with smoking-related phenotypes in Chinese smokers. DESIGN Case-only genetic association study. SETTING Southern China. PARTICIPANTS A total of 1328 Han Chinese smokers who participated in a community-based chronic disease screening project in Guangzhou and Zhuhai from 2006 to 2007. MEASUREMENTS All participants answered a structured questionnaire about socio-demographic status and smoking behaviors and informative alleles were genotyped for the cytochrome P450 2A6 (CYP2A6) gene (CYP2A6*4,*5,*7,*9 and *10). FINDINGS The frequencies of CYP2A6*4, *5, *7, *9 and *10 alleles were 8.5, 1.2, 6.3, 13.5 and 2.4%, which corresponded to 48.9, 15.4, 24.2 and 11.5% of participants being classified as normal, intermediate, slow and poor metabolizers, respectively. Multivariate analyses in male smokers demonstrated that compared with normal metabolizers, poor metabolizers reported smoking fewer cigarettes per day [adjusted odds ratio (OR) = 0.49; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.32-0.76], started smoking regularly later in life (adjusted OR = 1.55; 95% CI: 1.06-2.26) and, among former smokers, reported smoking for a shorter duration prior to quitting (adjusted OR = 0.33; 95% CI: 0.12-0.94). However, poor metabolizers were less likely to quit smoking and remain abstinent than normal metabolizers (adjusted OR = 0.54; 95% CI: 0.34-0.86). CONCLUSIONS Reduced metabolism function of cytochrome P450 2A6 in smokers appears to be associated with fewer cigarettes smoked, later initiation of smoking regularly, shorter smoking duration and lower likelihood of smoking cessation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Liu
- Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-Sen University, 74, Zhongshan Road 2, 510080, Guangzhou, China
| | - Sean P. David
- Center for Education in Family & Community Medicine and the Division of Family & Community Medicine, Stanford University, 1215 Welch Road, Modular G, Stanford, CA 94305, USA, SRI International, 333 Ravenswood Ave, Menlo Park, CA 943025, USA, Center for Primary Care & Prevention and the Department of Family Medicine, Brown Alpert Medical School, 111 Brewster Street, Pawtucket, RI 02860
| | - Rachel F. Tyndale
- The Center for Addiction and Mental Health and the Departments of Psychiatry, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Canada M5S 1A8
| | - Hui Wang
- Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-Sen University, 74, Zhongshan Road 2, 510080, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qian Zhou
- The Center for Addiction and Mental Health and the Departments of Psychiatry, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Canada M5S 1A8
| | - Peng Ding
- Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-Sen University, 74, Zhongshan Road 2, 510080, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yan-Hui He
- Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-Sen University, 74, Zhongshan Road 2, 510080, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xue-Qing Yu
- Department of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, 58, Zhongshan Road 2, 510080, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wei Chen
- Department of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, 58, Zhongshan Road 2, 510080, Guangzhou, China
| | - Casey Crump
- Center for Education in Family & Community Medicine and the Division of Family & Community Medicine, Stanford University, 1215 Welch Road, Modular G, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Xiao-Zhong Wen
- Department of Community Health, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Wei-Qing Chen
- Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-Sen University, 74, Zhongshan Road 2, 510080, Guangzhou, China,To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: +8620 87332199; Fax: +8620 87330446, (Wei-Qing Chen)
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Abstract
Drug-dependence disorders (we focus here on cocaine, opioid, and nicotine dependence) are genetically influenced. Risk genes have been located based primarily on genetic linkage studies, and identified primarily based on genetic association studies. In this article we review salient results from linkage, association, and genome-wide association study methodologies, and discuss future prospects for risk allele identification based on these, and on newer, methodologies. Although considerable progress has been made, it is likely that the application of more extensive sequencing than has previously been practical will be required to identify a fuller range of risk variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Gelernter
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
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