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Miao C, Shen Y, Lang Y, Li H, Gong Y, Liu Y, Li H, Jones BC, Chen F, Feng S. Biomimetic nanoparticles with enhanced rapamycin delivery for autism spectrum disorder treatment via autophagy activation and oxidative stress modulation. Theranostics 2024; 14:4375-4392. [PMID: 39113803 PMCID: PMC11303075 DOI: 10.7150/thno.95614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Accepted: 07/10/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Rationale: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) represents a complex neurodevelopmental condition lacking specific pharmacological interventions. Given the multifaced etiology of ASD, there exist no effective treatment for ASD. Rapamycin (RAPA) can activate autophagy by inhibiting the mTOR pathway and has exhibited promising effects in treating central nervous system disorders; however, its limited ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) has hindered its clinical efficacy, leading to substantial side effects. Methods: To address this challenge, we designed a drug delivery system utilizing red blood cell membrane (CM) vesicles modified with SS31 peptides to enhance the brain penetration of RAPA for the treatment of autism. Results: The fabricated SCM@RAPA nanoparticles, with an average diameter of 110 nm, exhibit rapid release of RAPA in a pathological environment characterized by oxidative stress. In vitro results demonstrate that SCM@RAPA effectively activate cellular autophagy, reduce intracellular ROS levels, improve mitochondrial function, thereby ameliorating neuronal damage. SS31 peptide modification significantly enhances the BBB penetration and rapid brain accumulation of SCM@RAPA. Notably, SCM@RAPA nanoparticles demonstrate the potential to ameliorate social deficits, improve cognitive function, and reverse neuronal impairments in valproic acid (VPA)-induced ASD models. Conclusions: The therapeutic potential of SCM@RAPA in managing ASD signifies a paradigm shift in autism drug treatment, holding promise for clinical interventions in diverse neurological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenlin Miao
- School of Lifesciences, Shanghai University, 333 Nanchen Road, 200444, Shanghai, P.R.C
| | - Yizhe Shen
- School of Lifesciences, Shanghai University, 333 Nanchen Road, 200444, Shanghai, P.R.C
| | - Yue Lang
- School of Lifesciences, Shanghai University, 333 Nanchen Road, 200444, Shanghai, P.R.C
| | - Hui Li
- School of Lifesciences, Shanghai University, 333 Nanchen Road, 200444, Shanghai, P.R.C
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, 333 Nanchen Road, 200444, Shanghai, P.R.C
| | - Yan Gong
- School of Lifesciences, Shanghai University, 333 Nanchen Road, 200444, Shanghai, P.R.C
| | - Yamei Liu
- School of Lifesciences, Shanghai University, 333 Nanchen Road, 200444, Shanghai, P.R.C
| | - Huafei Li
- School of Lifesciences, Shanghai University, 333 Nanchen Road, 200444, Shanghai, P.R.C
| | - Byron C. Jones
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, USA
| | - Fuxue Chen
- School of Lifesciences, Shanghai University, 333 Nanchen Road, 200444, Shanghai, P.R.C
| | - Shini Feng
- School of Lifesciences, Shanghai University, 333 Nanchen Road, 200444, Shanghai, P.R.C
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Le Belle JE, Condro M, Cepeda C, Oikonomou KD, Tessema K, Dudley L, Schoenfield J, Kawaguchi R, Geschwind D, Silva AJ, Zhang Z, Shokat K, Harris NG, Kornblum HI. Acute rapamycin treatment reveals novel mechanisms of behavioral, physiological, and functional dysfunction in a maternal inflammation mouse model of autism and sensory over-responsivity. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.07.08.602602. [PMID: 39026891 PMCID: PMC11257517 DOI: 10.1101/2024.07.08.602602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/20/2024]
Abstract
Maternal inflammatory response (MIR) during early gestation in mice induces a cascade of physiological and behavioral changes that have been associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In a prior study and the current one, we find that mild MIR results in chronic systemic and neuro-inflammation, mTOR pathway activation, mild brain overgrowth followed by regionally specific volumetric changes, sensory processing dysregulation, and social and repetitive behavior abnormalities. Prior studies of rapamycin treatment in autism models have focused on chronic treatments that might be expected to alter or prevent physical brain changes. Here, we have focused on the acute effects of rapamycin to uncover novel mechanisms of dysfunction and related to mTOR pathway signaling. We find that within 2 hours, rapamycin treatment could rapidly rescue neuronal hyper-excitability, seizure susceptibility, functional network connectivity and brain community structure, and repetitive behaviors and sensory over-responsivity in adult offspring with persistent brain overgrowth. These CNS-mediated effects are also associated with alteration of the expression of several ASD-,ion channel-, and epilepsy-associated genes, in the same time frame. Our findings suggest that mTOR dysregulation in MIR offspring is a key contributor to various levels of brain dysfunction, including neuronal excitability, altered gene expression in multiple cell types, sensory functional network connectivity, and modulation of information flow. However, we demonstrate that the adult MIR brain is also amenable to rapid normalization of these functional changes which results in the rescue of both core and comorbid ASD behaviors in adult animals without requiring long-term physical alterations to the brain. Thus, restoring excitatory/inhibitory imbalance and sensory functional network modularity may be important targets for therapeutically addressing both primary sensory and social behavior phenotypes, and compensatory repetitive behavior phenotypes.
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Roy B, Amemasor E, Hussain S, Castro K. UBE3A: The Role in Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) and a Potential Candidate for Biomarker Studies and Designing Therapeutic Strategies. Diseases 2023; 12:7. [PMID: 38248358 PMCID: PMC10814747 DOI: 10.3390/diseases12010007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Published reports from the CDC's Autism and Development Disabilities Monitoring Networks have shown that an average of 1 in every 44 (2.3%) 8-year-old children were estimated to have ASD in 2018. Many of the ASDs exhibiting varying degrees of autism-like phenotypes have chromosomal anomalies in the Chr15q11-q13 region. Numerous potential candidate genes linked with ASD reside in this chromosomal segment. However, several clinical, in vivo, and in vitro studies selected one gene more frequently than others randomly and unbiasedly. This gene codes for UBE3A or Ubiquitin protein ligase E3A [also known as E6AP ubiquitin-protein ligase (E6AP)], an enzyme involved in the cellular degradation of proteins. This gene has been listed as one of the several genes with a high potential of causing ASD in the Autism Database. The gain of function mutations, triplication, or duplication in the UBE3A gene is also associated with ASDs like Angelman Syndrome (AS) and Dup15q Syndrome. The genetic imprinting of UBE3A in the brain and a preference for neuronal maternal-specific expression are the key features of various ASDs. Since the UBE3A gene is involved in two main important diseases associated with autism-like symptoms, there has been widespread research going on in understanding the link between this gene and autism. Additionally, since no universal methodology or mechanism exists for identifying UBE3A-mediated ASD, it continues to be challenging for neurobiologists, neuroscientists, and clinicians to design therapies or diagnostic tools. In this review, we focus on the structure and functional aspects of the UBE3A protein, discuss the primary relevance of the 15q11-q13 region in the cause of ASDs, and highlight the link between UBE3A and ASD. We try to broaden the knowledge of our readers by elaborating on the possible mechanisms underlying UBE3A-mediated ASDs, emphasizing the usage of UBE3A as a prospective biomarker in the preclinical diagnosis of ASDs and discuss the positive outcomes, advanced developments, and the hurdles in the field of therapeutic strategies against UBE3A-mediated ASDs. This review is novel as it lays a very detailed and comprehensive platform for one of the most important genes associated with diseases showing autistic-like symptoms. Additionally, this review also attempts to lay optimistic feedback on the possible steps for the diagnosis, prevention, and therapy of these UBE3A-mediated ASDs in the upcoming years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bidisha Roy
- Life Science Centre, Department of Biological Sciences, Rutgers University-Newark, Newark, NJ 07102, USA; (E.A.); (S.H.); (K.C.)
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Melanis K, Stefanou MI, Themistoklis KM, Papasilekas T. mTOR pathway - a potential therapeutic target in stroke. Ther Adv Neurol Disord 2023; 16:17562864231187770. [PMID: 37576547 PMCID: PMC10413897 DOI: 10.1177/17562864231187770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Stroke is ranked as the second leading cause of death worldwide and a major cause of long-term disability. A potential therapeutic target that could offer favorable outcomes in stroke is the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway. mTOR is a serine/threonine kinase that composes two protein complexes, mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) and mTOR complex 2 (mTORC2), and is regulated by other proteins such as the tuberous sclerosis complex. Through a significant number of signaling pathways, the mTOR pathway can modulate the processes of post-ischemic inflammation and autophagy, both of which play an integral part in the pathophysiological cascade of stroke. Promoting or inhibiting such processes under ischemic conditions can lead to apoptosis or instead sustained viability of neurons. The purpose of this review is to examine the pathophysiological role of mTOR in acute ischemic stroke, while highlighting promising neuroprotective agents such as hamartin for therapeutic modulation of this pathway. The therapeutic potential of mTOR is also discussed, with emphasis on implicated molecules and pathway steps that warrant further elucidation in order for their neuroprotective properties to be efficiently tested in future clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantinos Melanis
- Second Department of Neurology, School of Medicine and ‘Attikon’ University Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Rimini 1 Chaidari, Athens 12462, Greece
- Center of Basic Research, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Maria-Ioanna Stefanou
- Second Department of Neurology, School of Medicine and ‘Attikon’ University Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Konstantinos M. Themistoklis
- Center of Basic Research, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens, Athens, Greece
- Department of Neurosurgery, ‘Korgialenio, Benakio, H.R.C’. General Hospital of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Themistoklis Papasilekas
- Center of Basic Research, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens, Athens, Greece
- Department of Neurosurgery, ‘Korgialenio, Benakio, H.R.C’. General Hospital of Athens, Athens, Greece
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Matthiesen M, Khlaifia A, Steininger CFD, Dadabhoy M, Mumtaz U, Arruda-Carvalho M. Maturation of nucleus accumbens synaptic transmission signals a critical period for the rescue of social deficits in a mouse model of autism spectrum disorder. Mol Brain 2023; 16:46. [PMID: 37226266 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-023-01028-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Social behavior emerges early in development, a time marked by the onset of neurodevelopmental disorders featuring social deficits, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Although social deficits are at the core of the clinical diagnosis of ASD, very little is known about their neural correlates at the time of clinical onset. The nucleus accumbens (NAc), a brain region extensively implicated in social behavior, undergoes synaptic, cellular and molecular alterations in early life, and is particularly affected in ASD mouse models. To explore a link between the maturation of the NAc and neurodevelopmental deficits in social behavior, we compared spontaneous synaptic transmission in NAc shell medium spiny neurons (MSNs) between the highly social C57BL/6J and the idiopathic ASD mouse model BTBR T+Itpr3tf/J at postnatal day (P) 4, P6, P8, P12, P15, P21 and P30. BTBR NAc MSNs display increased spontaneous excitatory transmission during the first postnatal week, and increased inhibition across the first, second and fourth postnatal weeks, suggesting accelerated maturation of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic inputs compared to C57BL/6J mice. BTBR mice also show increased optically evoked medial prefrontal cortex-NAc paired pulse ratios at P15 and P30. These early changes in synaptic transmission are consistent with a potential critical period, which could maximize the efficacy of rescue interventions. To test this, we treated BTBR mice in either early life (P4-P8) or adulthood (P60-P64) with the mTORC1 antagonist rapamycin, a well-established intervention for ASD-like behavior. Rapamycin treatment rescued social interaction deficits in BTBR mice when injected in infancy, but did not affect social interaction in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melina Matthiesen
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, M1C1A4, Canada
| | - Abdessattar Khlaifia
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, M1C1A4, Canada
| | | | - Maryam Dadabhoy
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, M1C1A4, Canada
| | - Unza Mumtaz
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, M1C1A4, Canada
| | - Maithe Arruda-Carvalho
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, M1C1A4, Canada.
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S3G5, Canada.
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Deutsch SI, Burket JA. From Mouse to Man: N-Methyl-d-Aspartic Acid Receptor Activation as a Promising Pharmacotherapeutic Strategy for Autism Spectrum Disorders. Med Clin North Am 2023; 107:101-117. [PMID: 36402493 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcna.2022.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The BALB/c mouse displays hypersensitivity to behavioral effects of MK-801 (dizocilpine), a noncompetitive N-methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor "open-channel" blocker, and shows both no preference for an enclosed stimulus mouse over an inanimate object and reduced social interaction with a freely behaving stimulus mouse. NMDA receptor agonist interventions improved measures of social preference and social interaction of the BALB/c mouse model of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). A "proof of principle/proof of concept" translational 10-week clinical trial with 8-week of active medication administration was conducted comparing 20 DSM-IV-TR-diagnosed older adolescent/young adult patients with ASD randomized to once-weekly pulsed administration (50 mg/d) versus daily administration of d-cycloserine (50 mg/d). The results showed that d-cycloserine, a partial glycine agonist, was well tolerated, the 2 dosing strategies did not differ, and improvement was noted on the "lethargy/social withdrawal" and "stereotypic behavior" subscales of the Aberrant Behavior Checklist. NMDA receptor activation contributes to the regulation of mTOR signaling, a pathologic point of convergence in several monogenic syndromic forms of ASD. Furthermore, both NMDA receptor hypofunction and imbalance between NMDA receptor activation mediated by GluN2B and GluN2A-containing NMDA receptors occur as "downstream" consequences of several genetically unrelated abnormalities associated with ASD. NMDA receptor-subtype selective "positive allosteric modulators (PAMs)" are particularly appealing medication candidates for future translational trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen I Deutsch
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, 825 Fairfax Avenue, Suite 710, Norfolk, VA 23507, USA
| | - Jessica A Burket
- Department of Molecular Biology & Chemistry, Christopher Newport University, 1 Avenue of the Arts, Newport News, VA 23606, USA.
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7
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FDA-Approved Kinase Inhibitors in Preclinical and Clinical Trials for Neurological Disorders. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15121546. [PMID: 36558997 PMCID: PMC9784968 DOI: 10.3390/ph15121546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancers and neurological disorders are two major types of diseases. We previously developed a new concept termed "Aberrant Cell Cycle Diseases" (ACCD), revealing that these two diseases share a common mechanism of aberrant cell cycle re-entry. The aberrant cell cycle re-entry is manifested as kinase/oncogene activation and tumor suppressor inactivation, which are hallmarks of both tumor growth in cancers and neuronal death in neurological disorders. Therefore, some cancer therapies (e.g., kinase inhibition, tumor suppressor elevation) can be leveraged for neurological treatments. The United States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) has so far approved 74 kinase inhibitors, with numerous other kinase inhibitors in clinical trials, mostly for the treatment of cancers. In contrast, there are dire unmet needs of FDA-approved drugs for neurological treatments, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), ischemic stroke (IS), traumatic brain injury (TBI), and others. In this review, we list these 74 FDA-approved kinase-targeted drugs and identify those that have been reported in preclinical and/or clinical trials for neurological disorders, with a purpose of discussing the feasibility and applicability of leveraging these cancer drugs (FDA-approved kinase inhibitors) for neurological treatments.
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8
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Sheng Z, Liu Q, Cheng C, Li M, Barash J, Kofke WA, Shen Y, Xie Z. Fentanyl induces autism-like behaviours in mice by hypermethylation of the glutamate receptor gene Grin2b. Br J Anaesth 2022; 129:544-554. [PMID: 35697546 DOI: 10.1016/j.bja.2022.04.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Environmental factors contribute to autism spectrum disorder. Fentanyl, one of the most widely used opioid analgesics in anaesthesia, can induce neurotoxicity, but its role in autism remains unknown. We determined whether fentanyl induced autism-like behaviours in young mice and the underlying mechanisms. METHODS Young male and female mice received fentanyl at postnatal days 6, 8, and 10, and performed behavioural tests, including three-chamber social preference, elevated plus maze, grooming behaviour, and open-field test, from postnatal days 30-32. Expression of Grin2b, the gene encoding the GluN2B subunit of the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor, was assessed in the anterior cingulate cortex of male mice using fluorescence in situ hybridisation histochemistry. We used bisulfite target sequencing to determine Grin2b hypermethylation sites after fentanyl treatment. In the specific activation and rescue experiments, we injected the mu opioid receptor agonist [D-Ala,2 N-MePhe,4 Gly-ol]-enkephalin (DAMGO) or Grin2b overexpression lentivirus into the anterior cingulate cortex of male mice. RESULTS Fentanyl induced autism-like behaviours in both young male and female mice, and downregulated Grin2b expression (0.49-fold [0.08] vs 1.00-fold [0.09]; P<0.01) and GluN2B protein amounts (0.38-fold [0.07] vs 1.00-fold [0.12]; P<0.01) in the anterior cingulate cortex through hypermethylation of Grin2b. The mu-opioid receptor antagonist naloxone and overexpression of Grin2b in anterior cingulate cortex attenuated the fentanyl-induced effects, whereas DAMGO injection into the anterior cingulate cortex induced autism-like behaviours. CONCLUSIONS These data suggest that fentanyl induces autism-like behaviours in young mice via an epigenetic mechanism. Further research is required to determine possible clinical relevance to autism risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhihao Sheng
- Anesthesia and Brain Research Institute, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China; Department of Anesthesiology, Shanghai First Maternity and Infant Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qidong Liu
- Anesthesia and Brain Research Institute, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Chun Cheng
- Anesthesia and Brain Research Institute, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Mengzhu Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shanghai First Maternity and Infant Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jed Barash
- Department of Medicine, Soldiers' Home, Chelsea, MA, USA
| | - W Andrew Kofke
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Yuan Shen
- Anesthesia and Brain Research Institute, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Zhongcong Xie
- Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA.
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From bench to bedside: The mGluR5 system in people with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder and animal model systems. Transl Psychiatry 2022; 12:395. [PMID: 36127322 PMCID: PMC9489881 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-022-02143-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5) is a key regulator of excitatory (E) glutamate and inhibitory (I) γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) signalling in the brain. Despite the close functional ties between mGluR5 and E/I signalling, no-one has directly examined the relationship between mGluR5 and glutamate or GABA in vivo in the human brain of autistic individuals. We measured [18F] FPEB (18F-3-fluoro-5-[(pyridin-3-yl)ethynyl]benzonitrile) binding in 15 adults (6 with Autism Spectrum Disorder) using two regions of interest, the left dorsomedial prefrontal cortex and a region primarily composed of left striatum and thalamus. These two regions were mapped out using MEGA-PRESS voxels and then superimposed on reconstructed PET images. This allowed for direct comparison between mGluR5, GABA + and Glx. To better understand the molecular underpinnings of our results we used an autoradiography study of mGluR5 in three mouse models associated with ASD: Cntnap2 knockout, Shank3 knockout, and 16p11.2 deletion. Autistic individuals had significantly higher [18F] FPEB binding (t (13) = -2.86, p = 0.047) in the left striatum/thalamus region of interest as compared to controls. Within this region, there was a strong negative correlation between GABA + and mGluR5 density across the entire cohort (Pearson's correlation: r (14) = -0.763, p = 0.002). Cntnap2 KO mice had significantly higher mGlu5 receptor binding in the striatum (caudate-putamen) as compared to wild-type (WT) mice (n = 15, p = 0.03). There were no differences in mGluR5 binding for mice with the Shank3 knockout or 16p11.2 deletion. Given that Cntnap2 is associated with a specific striatal deficit of parvalbumin positive GABA interneurons and 'autistic' features, our findings suggest that an increase in mGluR5 in ASD may relate to GABAergic interneuron abnormalities.
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10
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Singla R, Mishra A, Cao R. The trilateral interactions between mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling, the circadian clock, and psychiatric disorders: an emerging model. Transl Psychiatry 2022; 12:355. [PMID: 36045116 PMCID: PMC9433414 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-022-02120-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Circadian (~24 h) rhythms in physiology and behavior are evolutionarily conserved and found in almost all living organisms. The rhythms are endogenously driven by daily oscillatory activities of so-called "clock genes/proteins", which are widely distributed throughout the mammalian brain. Mammalian (mechanistic) target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling is a fundamental intracellular signal transduction cascade that controls important neuronal processes including neurodevelopment, synaptic plasticity, metabolism, and aging. Dysregulation of the mTOR pathway is associated with psychiatric disorders including autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and mood disorders (MD), in which patients often exhibit disrupted daily physiological rhythms and abnormal circadian gene expression in the brain. Recent work has found that the activities of mTOR signaling are temporally controlled by the circadian clock and exhibit robust circadian oscillations in multiple systems. In the meantime, mTOR signaling regulates fundamental properties of the central and peripheral circadian clocks, including period length, entrainment, and synchronization. Whereas the underlying mechanisms remain to be fully elucidated, increasing clinical and preclinical evidence support significant crosstalk between mTOR signaling, the circadian clock, and psychiatric disorders. Here, we review recent progress in understanding the trilateral interactions and propose an "interaction triangle" model between mTOR signaling, the circadian clock, and psychiatric disorders (focusing on ASD and MD).
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Affiliation(s)
- Rubal Singla
- grid.17635.360000000419368657Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota Medical School, Duluth, MN 55812 USA
| | - Abhishek Mishra
- grid.17635.360000000419368657Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota Medical School, Duluth, MN 55812 USA
| | - Ruifeng Cao
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota Medical School, Duluth, MN, 55812, USA. .,Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA.
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11
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Tian J, Gao X, Yang L. Repetitive Restricted Behaviors in Autism Spectrum Disorder: From Mechanism to Development of Therapeutics. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:780407. [PMID: 35310097 PMCID: PMC8924045 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.780407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication, social interaction, and repetitive restricted behaviors (RRBs). It is usually detected in early childhood. RRBs are behavioral patterns characterized by repetition, inflexibility, invariance, inappropriateness, and frequent lack of obvious function or specific purpose. To date, the classification of RRBs is contentious. Understanding the potential mechanisms of RRBs in children with ASD, such as neural connectivity disorders and abnormal immune functions, will contribute to finding new therapeutic targets. Although behavioral intervention remains the most effective and safe strategy for RRBs treatment, some promising drugs and new treatment options (e.g., supplementary and cell therapy) have shown positive effects on RRBs in recent studies. In this review, we summarize the latest advances of RRBs from mechanistic to therapeutic approaches and propose potential future directions in research on RRBs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Li Yang
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), NHC Key Laboratory of Mental Health (Peking University), Beijing, China
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12
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Deutsch SI, Luyo ZNM, Burket JA. Targeted NMDA Receptor Interventions for Autism: Developmentally Determined Expression of GluN2B and GluN2A-Containing Receptors and Balanced Allosteric Modulatory Approaches. Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12020181. [PMID: 35204682 PMCID: PMC8961601 DOI: 10.3390/biom12020181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 01/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Various ASD risk alleles have been associated with impairment of NMDA receptor activation (i.e., NMDA Receptor Hypofunction) and/or disturbance of the careful balance between activation mediated by GluN2B-subtype and GluN2A-subtype-containing NMDA receptors. Importantly, although these various risk alleles affect NMDA receptor activation through different mechanisms, they share the pathogenic consequences of causing disturbance of highly regulated NMDA receptor activation. Disturbances of NMDA receptor activation due to sequence variants, protein termination variants and copy number variants are often cell-specific and regionally selective. Thus, translational therapeutic NMDA receptor agonist interventions, which may require chronic administration, must have specificity, selectivity and facilitate NMDA receptor activation in a manner that is physiologic (i.e., mimicking that of endogenously released glutamate and glycine/D-serine released in response to salient and relevant socio-cognitive provocations within discrete neural circuits). Importantly, knockout mice with absent expression and mice with haploinsufficient expression of the deleterious genes often serve as good models to test the potential efficacy of promising pharmacotherapeutic strategies. The Review considers diverse examples of “illness” genes, their pathogenic effects on NMDA receptor activation and, when available, results of studies of impaired sociability in mouse models, including “proof of principle/proof of concept” experiments exploring NMDA receptor agonist interventions and the development of promising positive allosteric modulators (PAMs), which serve as support and models for developing an inventory of PAMs and negative allosteric modulators (NAMs) for translational therapeutic intervention. Conceivably, selective PAMs and NAMs either alone or in combination will be administered to patients guided by their genotype in order to potentiate and/or restore disrupted balance between activation mediated by GluN2B-subtype and GluN2A-subtype containing NMDA receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen I. Deutsch
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, 825 Fairfax Avenue, Suite 710, Norfolk, VA 23507, USA;
| | - Zachary N. M. Luyo
- Program in Neuroscience, Christopher Newport University, Newport News, VA 23606, USA;
| | - Jessica A. Burket
- Program in Neuroscience, Christopher Newport University, Newport News, VA 23606, USA;
- Department of Molecular Biology & Chemistry, Christopher Newport University, Newport News, VA 23606, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-757-594-8743
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Martin LJ, Poulson SJ, Mannan E, Sivaselvachandran S, Cho M, Setak F, Chan C. Altered nociceptive behavior and emotional contagion of pain in mouse models of autism. GENES, BRAIN, AND BEHAVIOR 2021; 21:e12778. [PMID: 34812576 PMCID: PMC9744566 DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2021] [Revised: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have altered sensory processing but may ineffectively communicate their experiences. Here, we used a battery of nociceptive behavioral tests to assess sensory alterations in two commonly used mouse models of ASD, BTBR T+ Itpr3tf /J (BTBR), and fragile-X mental retardation-1 knockout (Fmr1-KO) mice. We also asked whether emotional contagion, a primitive form of empathy, was altered in BTBR and Fmr1 KO mice when experiencing pain with a social partner. BTBR mice demonstrated mixed nociceptive responses with hyporesponsivity to mechanical/thermal stimuli and intraplantar injections of formalin and capsaicin while displaying hypersensitivity on the acetic acid test. Fmr1-KO mice were hyposensitive to mechanical stimuli and intraplantar injections of capsaicin and formalin. BTBR and Fmr1-KO mice developed significantly less mechanical allodynia following intraplantar injections of complete Freund's adjuvant, while BTBR mice developed slightly more thermal hyperalgesia. Finally, as measured by the formalin and acetic acid writhing tests, BTBR and Fmr1-KO mice did not show emotional contagion of pain. In sum, our findings indicate that depending on the sensation, pain responses may be mixed, which reflects findings in ASD individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loren J. Martin
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of Toronto MississaugaMississaugaOntarioCanada,Cell and Systems BiologyUniversity of TorontoTorontoOntarioCanada
| | - Sandra J. Poulson
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of Toronto MississaugaMississaugaOntarioCanada
| | - Emma Mannan
- Cell and Systems BiologyUniversity of TorontoTorontoOntarioCanada
| | | | - Moonjeong Cho
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of Toronto MississaugaMississaugaOntarioCanada
| | - Fatima Setak
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of Toronto MississaugaMississaugaOntarioCanada
| | - Claire Chan
- Cell and Systems BiologyUniversity of TorontoTorontoOntarioCanada
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The HECT E3 Ligase E6AP/UBE3A as a Therapeutic Target in Cancer and Neurological Disorders. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12082108. [PMID: 32751183 PMCID: PMC7464832 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12082108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 07/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The HECT (Homologous to the E6-AP Carboxyl Terminus)-family protein E6AP (E6-associated protein), encoded by the UBE3A gene, is a multifaceted ubiquitin ligase that controls diverse signaling pathways involved in cancer and neurological disorders. The oncogenic role of E6AP in papillomavirus-induced cancers is well known, with its action to trigger p53 degradation in complex with the E6 viral oncoprotein. However, the roles of E6AP in non-viral cancers remain poorly defined. It is well established that loss-of-function alterations of the UBE3A gene cause Angelman syndrome, a severe neurodevelopmental disorder with autosomal dominant inheritance modified by genomic imprinting on chromosome 15q. Moreover, excess dosage of the UBE3A gene markedly increases the penetrance of autism spectrum disorders, suggesting that the expression level of UBE3A must be regulated tightly within a physiologically tolerated range during brain development. In this review, current the knowledge about the substrates of E6AP-mediated ubiquitination and their functions in cancer and neurological disorders is discussed, alongside with the ongoing efforts to pharmacologically modulate this ubiquitin ligase as a promising therapeutic target.
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15
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Rapamycin/Sirolimus Improves the Behavior of an 8-Year-Old Boy With Nonsyndromic Autism Spectrum Disorder. Am J Ther 2020; 28:e608-e610. [PMID: 34491961 DOI: 10.1097/mjt.0000000000001131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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16
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Deutsch SI, Burket JA. An Evolving Therapeutic Rationale for Targeting the α 7 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2020; 45:167-208. [PMID: 32468495 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2020_136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Abnormalities of cholinergic nuclei, cholinergic projections, and cholinergic receptors, as well as abnormalities of growth factors involved in the maturation and maintenance of cholinergic neurons, have been described in postmortem brains of persons with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Further, microdeletions of the 15q13.3 locus that encompasses CHRNA7, the gene coding the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7 nAChR), are associated with a spectrum of neurodevelopmental disorders, including ASD. The heterozygous 15q13.3 microdeletion syndrome suggests that diminished or impaired transduction of the acetylcholine (ACh) signal by the α7 nAChR can be a pathogenic mechanism of ASD. The α7 nAChR has a role in regulating the firing and function of parvalbumin (PV)-expressing GABAergic projections, which synchronize the oscillatory output of assemblies of pyramidal neurons onto which they project. Synchronous oscillatory output is an electrophysiological substrate for higher executive functions, such as working memory, and functional connectivity between discrete anatomic areas of the brain. The α7 nAChR regulates PV expression and works cooperatively with the co-expressed NMDA receptor in subpopulations of GABAergic interneurons in mouse models of ASD. An evolving literature supports therapeutic exploration of selectively targeted cholinergic interventions for the treatment of ASD, especially compounds that target the α7 nAChR subtype. Importantly, development and availability of high-affinity, brain-penetrable, α7 nAChR-selective agonists, partial agonists, allosteric agonists, and positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) should facilitate "proof-of-principle/concept" clinical trials. nAChRs are pentameric allosteric proteins that function as ligand-gated ion channel receptors constructed from five constituent polypeptide subunits, all of which share a common structural motif. Importantly, in addition to α7 nAChR-gated Ca2+ conductance causing membrane depolarization, there are emerging data consistent with possible metabotropic functions of this ionotropic receptor. The ability of α7-selective type II PAMs to "destabilize" the desensitized state and promote ion channel opening may afford them therapeutic advantages over orthosteric agonists. The current chapter reviews historic and recent literature supporting selective therapeutic targeting of the α7 nAChR in persons affected with ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen I Deutsch
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA, USA.
| | - Jessica A Burket
- Department of Molecular Biology and Chemistry, Christopher Newport University, Newport News, VA, USA
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17
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Rivell A, Mattson MP. Intergenerational Metabolic Syndrome and Neuronal Network Hyperexcitability in Autism. Trends Neurosci 2019; 42:709-726. [PMID: 31495451 PMCID: PMC6779523 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2019.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Revised: 07/17/2019] [Accepted: 08/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
We review evidence that suggests a role for excessive consumption of energy-dense foods, particularly fructose, and consequent obesity and insulin resistance (metabolic syndrome) in the recent increase in prevalence of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Maternal insulin resistance, obesity, and diabetes may predispose offspring to ASD by mechanisms involving chronic activation of anabolic cellular pathways and a lack of metabolic switching to ketosis resulting in a deficit in GABAergic signaling and neuronal network hyperexcitability. Metabolic reprogramming by epigenetic DNA and chromatin modifications may contribute to alterations in gene expression that result in ASD. These mechanistic insights suggest that interventions that improve metabolic health such as intermittent fasting and exercise may ameliorate developmental neuronal network abnormalities and consequent behavioral manifestations in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aileen Rivell
- Laboratory of Neurosciences, National Institute on Aging Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Mark P Mattson
- Laboratory of Neurosciences, National Institute on Aging Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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18
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Ryan K, Thompson L, Mendoza PA, Chadman KK. Inbred strain preference in the BTBR T + Itpr3 tf /J mouse model of autism spectrum disorder: Does the stranger mouse matter in social approach? Autism Res 2019; 12:1184-1191. [PMID: 31206258 DOI: 10.1002/aur.2158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Revised: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BTBR T+ Itpr3tf /J (BTBR) mice have been used as a model of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) due to their low levels of sociability and high levels of repetitive grooming. These experiments explored social behavior in the BTBR and C57BL/6J mice using variations of the three-chambered social approach test. In the first test, the subject mice had a choice between a stranger mouse of the same strain or from a strain with a different level of sociability. The BTBR male mice demonstrated a strong preference for the more social C57BL/6J stranger mouse, as did the C57BL/6J male mice, although more moderately with sniff time only. The C57BL/6J female mice showed a moderate preference, sniff time only, for the BTBR stranger mouse, whereas the BTBR female mice did not show a preference. The second experiment examined whether the subject mouse preferred a stranger mouse or bedding from the stranger mouse home cage. Male BTBR mice always preferred bedding, whereas the C57BL/6J male mice did not show a preference. Both BTBR and C57BL/6J female mice preferred bedding when the stranger mouse was a different strain but not when the stranger mouse was the same strain. Therefore, the stranger mouse strain seems to influence the preference of the female mice more than the male mice. The mice preferred spending time in the chamber with the social smell but not the actual stranger mouse although not always significantly. This suggests that contact with a stranger mouse is more stressful or anxiety provoking than the smell. Autism Res 2019, 12: 1184-1191. © 2019 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. LAY SUMMARY: BTBR T+ Itpr3tf /J (BTBR) mice have been used as a model of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) due to their low levels of sociability and high levels of repetitive grooming. These experiments explored social behavior in the BTBR and C57BL/6J mice using variations of the three-chambered social approach test. These experiments examined how the sociability level of the stranger mouse affected the subject mouse's preference and if social odor was preferable to a social situation in the BTBR mice. The BTBR male mice demonstrated a strong preference for the more social C57BL/6J stranger mouse, as did the C57BL/6J male mice. The C57BL/6J female mice showed a moderate preference for the BTBR stranger mouse, whereas the BTBR female mice did not show a preference for either stranger mouse. The second modification let the subject mouse have a choice between a stranger mouse or bedding. Male BTBR mice preferred bedding, regardless of the strain of the stranger mouse, whereas the C57BL/6J male mice did not show a preference. Both BTBR and C57BL/6J female mice preferred bedding when the stranger mouse was a different strain but showed no preference when the stranger mouse was from the same strain. The stranger mouse strain seems to influence the female mice more. Male BTBR mice preferred spending time in the chamber with the social smell but not the actual mouse, suggesting that actual contact with a stranger mouse is more stressful or anxiety provoking.
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Affiliation(s)
- KatieLynne Ryan
- Center for Developmental Neuroscience, College of Staten Island, City University of New York, New York, New York.,Department of Developmental Neurobiology, New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, New York, New York
| | - Lynn Thompson
- Center for Developmental Neuroscience, College of Staten Island, City University of New York, New York, New York.,Department of Developmental Neurobiology, New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, New York, New York
| | - Patricia A Mendoza
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, New York, New York.,Macaulay Honors College, College of Staten Island, City University of New York, New York, New York
| | - Kathryn K Chadman
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, New York, New York
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Metabotropic functions of the NMDA receptor and an evolving rationale for exploring NR2A-selective positive allosteric modulators for the treatment of autism spectrum disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2019; 90:142-160. [PMID: 30481555 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Revised: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
NMDA receptors are widely distributed throughout the brain and major therapeutic challenges include targeting specific NMDA receptor subtypes while preserving spatial and temporal specificity during their activation. The NR2A-subunit containing NMDA receptor is implicated in regulating synchronous oscillatory output of cortical pyramidal neurons, which may be disturbed in clinical presentations of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Because NR2A-selective positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) preserve spatial and temporal selectivity while activating this subpopulation of receptors, they represent a promising strategy to address neocortical circuit abnormalities in ASD. In addition to promoting Ca2+ entry and membrane depolarization, diverse metabotropic effects of NMDA receptor activation on signal transduction pathways occur within the cell, some of which depend on alignment of protein binding partners. For example, NMDA receptor agonist interventions attenuate impaired sociability in transgenic mice with 'loss-of-function' mutations of the Shank family of scaffolding proteins, which highlights the necessity of a carefully orchestrated alignment of protein binding partners in the excitatory synapse. The current Review considers metabotropic functions of the NMDA receptor that could play a role in sociability and the pathogenesis of ASD (e.g., mTOR signaling), in addition to its more familiar ionotropic functions, and provides a rationale for therapeutic exploration of NR2A-selective PAMs.
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20
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Suppression of Akt-mTOR pathway rescued the social behavior in Cntnap2-deficient mice. Sci Rep 2019; 9:3041. [PMID: 30816216 PMCID: PMC6395585 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-39434-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) form a heterogeneous, neurodevelopmental syndrome characterized by deficits in social interactions and repetitive behavior/restricted interests. Dysregulation of mTOR signaling has been implicated in the pathogenesis of certain types of ASD, and inhibition of mTOR by rapamycin has been demonstrated to be an effective therapeutics for impaired social interaction in Tsc1+/−, Tsc2+/−, Pten−/− mice and valproic acid-induced ASD animal models. However, it is still unknown if dysregulation of mTOR signaling is responsible for the ASD-related deficit caused by other genes mutations. Contactin associated protein-like 2 (CNTNAP2) is the first widely replicated autism-predisposition gene. Mice deficient in Cntnap2 (Cntnap2−/− mice) show core ASD-like phenotypes, and have been demonstrated as a validated model for ASD-relevant drug discovery. In this study, we found hyperactive Akt-mTOR signaling in the hippocampus of Cntnap2−/− mice with RNA sequencing followed with biochemical analysis. Treatment with Akt inhibitor LY294002 or mTOR inhibitor rapamycin rescued the social deficit, but had no effect on hyperactivity and repetitive behavior/restricted behavior in Cntnap2−/− mice. We further showed that the effect of LY294002 and rapamycin on social behaviors is reversible. Our results thus identified hyperactive Akt-mTOR signaling pathway as a therapeutic target for abnormal social behavior in patients with dysfunction of CNTNAP2.
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21
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Rhine MA, Parrott JM, Schultz MN, Kazdoba TM, Crawley JN. Hypothesis-driven investigations of diverse pharmacological targets in two mouse models of autism. Autism Res 2019; 12:401-421. [PMID: 30653853 PMCID: PMC6402976 DOI: 10.1002/aur.2066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2018] [Revised: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder is a neurodevelopmental syndrome diagnosed primarily by persistent deficits in social interactions and communication, unusual sensory reactivity, motor stereotypies, repetitive behaviors, and restricted interests. No FDA‐approved medical treatments exist for the diagnostic symptoms of autism. Here we interrogate multiple pharmacological targets in two distinct mouse models that incorporate well‐replicated autism‐relevant behavioral phenotypes. Compounds that modify inhibitory or excitatory neurotransmission were selected to address hypotheses based on previously published biological abnormalities in each model. Shank3B is a genetic model of a mutation found in autism and Phelan‐McDermid syndrome, in which deficits in excitatory neurotransmission and synaptic plasticity have been reported. BTBR is an inbred strain model of forms of idiopathic autism in which reduced inhibitory neurotransmission and excessive mTOR signaling have been reported. The GABA‐A receptor agonist gaboxadol significantly reduced repetitive self‐grooming in three independent cohorts of BTBR. The TrkB receptor agonist 7,8‐DHF improved spatial learning in Shank3B mice, and reversed aspects of social deficits in BTBR. CX546, a positive allosteric modulator of the glutamatergic AMPA receptor, and d‐cycloserine, a partial agonist of the glycine site on the glutamatergic NMDA receptor, did not rescue aberrant behaviors in Shank3B mice. The mTOR inhibitor rapamycin did not ameliorate social deficits or repetitive behavior in BTBR mice. Comparison of positive and negative pharmacological outcomes, on multiple phenotypes, evaluated for replicability across independent cohorts, enhances the translational value of mouse models of autism for therapeutic discovery. GABA agonists present opportunities for personalized interventions to treat components of autism spectrum disorder. Autism Res 2019, 12: 401–421 © 2019 The Authors. Autism Research published by International Society for Autism Research published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Lay Summary Many of the risk genes for autism impair synapses, the connections between nerve cells in the brain. A drug that reverses the synaptic effects of a mutation could offer a precision therapy. Combining pharmacological and behavioral therapies could reduce symptoms and improve the quality of life for people with autism. Here we report reductions in repetitive behavior by a GABA‐A receptor agonist, gaboxadol, and improvements in social and cognitive behaviors by a TrkB receptor agonist, in mouse models of autism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya A Rhine
- MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, 95817
| | - Jennifer M Parrott
- MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, 95817
| | - Maria N Schultz
- MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, 95817
| | - Tatiana M Kazdoba
- MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, 95817
| | - Jacqueline N Crawley
- MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, 95817
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22
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van Sadelhoff JHJ, Perez Pardo P, Wu J, Garssen J, van Bergenhenegouwen J, Hogenkamp A, Hartog A, Kraneveld AD. The Gut-Immune-Brain Axis in Autism Spectrum Disorders; A Focus on Amino Acids. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2019; 10:247. [PMID: 31057483 PMCID: PMC6477881 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2019.00247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a range of neurodevelopmental conditions that affect communication and social behavior. Besides social deficits, systemic inflammation, gastrointestinal immune-related problems, and changes in the gut microbiota composition are characteristic for people with ASD. Animal models showed that these characteristics can induce ASD-associated behavior, suggesting an intimate relationship between the microbiota, gut, immune system and the brain in ASD. Multiple factors can contribute to the development of ASD, but mutations leading to enhanced activation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) are reported frequently. Hyperactivation of mTOR leads to deficits in the communication between neurons in the brain and to immune impairments. Hence, mTOR might be a critical factor linking the gut-brain-immune axis in ASD. Pharmacological inhibition of mTOR is shown to improve ASD-associated behavior and immune functions, however, the clinical use is limited due to severe side reactions. Interestingly, studies have shown that mTOR activation can also be modified by nutritional stimuli, in particular by amino acids. Moreover, specific amino acids are demonstrated to inhibit inflammation, improve gut barrier function and to modify the microbiota composition. In this review we will discuss the gut-brain-immune axis in ASD and explore the potential of amino acids as a treatment option for ASD, either via modification of mTOR activity, the immune system or the gut microbiota composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joris H. J. van Sadelhoff
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Danone Nutricia Research, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Paula Perez Pardo
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Jiangbo Wu
- Laboratory of Neuroimmunology, Department of Symptom Research, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Johan Garssen
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Danone Nutricia Research, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Jeroen van Bergenhenegouwen
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Danone Nutricia Research, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Astrid Hogenkamp
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Anita Hartog
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Danone Nutricia Research, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Aletta D. Kraneveld
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Veterinary Pharmacology, Institute for Risk Assessment Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- *Correspondence: Aletta D. Kraneveld
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23
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Drozd HP, Karathanasis SF, Molosh AI, Lukkes JL, Clapp DW, Shekhar A. From bedside to bench and back: Translating ASD models. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2018; 241:113-158. [PMID: 30447753 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2018.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) represent a heterogeneous group of disorders defined by deficits in social interaction/communication and restricted interests, behaviors, or activities. Models of ASD, developed based on clinical data and observations, are used in basic science, the "bench," to better understand the pathophysiology of ASD and provide therapeutic options for patients in the clinic, the "bedside." Translational medicine creates a bridge between the bench and bedside that allows for clinical and basic science discoveries to challenge one another to improve the opportunities to bring novel therapies to patients. From the clinical side, biomarker work is expanding our understanding of possible mechanisms of ASD through measures of behavior, genetics, imaging modalities, and serum markers. These biomarkers could help to subclassify patients with ASD in order to better target treatments to a more homogeneous groups of patients most likely to respond to a candidate therapy. In turn, basic science has been responding to developments in clinical evaluation by improving bench models to mechanistically and phenotypically recapitulate the ASD phenotypes observed in clinic. While genetic models are identifying novel therapeutics targets at the bench, the clinical efforts are making progress by defining better outcome measures that are most representative of meaningful patient responses. In this review, we discuss some of these challenges in translational research in ASD and strategies for the bench and bedside to bridge the gap to achieve better benefits to patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayley P Drozd
- Program in Medical Neurobiology, Stark Neurosciences Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Sotirios F Karathanasis
- Program in Medical Neurobiology, Stark Neurosciences Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Andrei I Molosh
- Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Jodi L Lukkes
- Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - D Wade Clapp
- Department of Pediatrics, Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Anantha Shekhar
- Program in Medical Neurobiology, Stark Neurosciences Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States; Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States; Indiana Clinical and Translation Sciences Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States.
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24
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Dahlhaus R. Of Men and Mice: Modeling the Fragile X Syndrome. Front Mol Neurosci 2018; 11:41. [PMID: 29599705 PMCID: PMC5862809 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2018.00041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2017] [Accepted: 01/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) is one of the most common forms of inherited intellectual disability in all human societies. Caused by the transcriptional silencing of a single gene, the fragile x mental retardation gene FMR1, FXS is characterized by a variety of symptoms, which range from mental disabilities to autism and epilepsy. More than 20 years ago, a first animal model was described, the Fmr1 knock-out mouse. Several other models have been developed since then, including conditional knock-out mice, knock-out rats, a zebrafish and a drosophila model. Using these model systems, various targets for potential pharmaceutical treatments have been identified and many treatments have been shown to be efficient in preclinical studies. However, all attempts to turn these findings into a therapy for patients have failed thus far. In this review, I will discuss underlying difficulties and address potential alternatives for our future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina Dahlhaus
- Institute for Biochemistry, Emil-Fischer Centre, University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
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25
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Perez-Alvarez MJ, Villa Gonzalez M, Benito-Cuesta I, Wandosell FG. Role of mTORC1 Controlling Proteostasis after Brain Ischemia. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:60. [PMID: 29497356 PMCID: PMC5818460 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Intense efforts are being undertaken to understand the pathophysiological mechanisms triggered after brain ischemia and to develop effective pharmacological treatments. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms are complex and not completely understood. One of the main problems is the fact that the ischemic damage is time-dependent and ranges from negligible to massive, involving different cell types such as neurons, astrocytes, microglia, endothelial cells, and some blood-derived cells (neutrophils, lymphocytes, etc.). Thus, approaching such a complicated cellular response generates a more complex combination of molecular mechanisms, in which cell death, cellular damage, stress and repair are intermixed. For this reason, animal and cellular model systems are needed in order to dissect and clarify which molecular mechanisms have to be promoted and/or blocked. Brain ischemia may be analyzed from two different perspectives: that of oxygen deprivation (hypoxic damage per se) and that of deprivation of glucose/serum factors. For investigations of ischemic stroke, middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) is the preferred in vivo model, and uses two different approaches: transient (tMCAO), where reperfusion is permitted; or permanent (pMCAO). As a complement to this model, many laboratories expose different primary cortical neuron or neuronal cell lines to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). This ex vivo model permits the analysis of the impact of hypoxic damage and the specific response of different cell types implicated in vivo, such as neurons, glia or endothelial cells. Using in vivo and neuronal OGD models, it was recently established that mTORC1 (mammalian Target of Rapamycin Complex-1), a protein complex downstream of PI3K-Akt pathway, is one of the players deregulated after ischemia and OGD. In addition, neuroprotective intervention either by estradiol or by specific AT2R agonists shows an important regulatory role for the mTORC1 activity, for instance regulating vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) levels. This evidence highlights the importance of understanding the role of mTORC1 in neuronal death/survival processes, as it could be a potential therapeutic target. This review summarizes the state-of-the-art of the complex kinase mTORC1 focusing in upstream and downstream pathways, their role in central nervous system and their relationship with autophagy, apoptosis and neuroprotection/neurodegeneration after ischemia/hypoxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria J Perez-Alvarez
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain.,Departamento de Biología (Fisiología Animal), Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Madrid, Spain
| | - Mario Villa Gonzalez
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain.,Departamento de Biología (Fisiología Animal), Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Irene Benito-Cuesta
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco G Wandosell
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Madrid, Spain
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Insulin-Like Growth Factor II Targets the mTOR Pathway to Reverse Autism-Like Phenotypes in Mice. J Neurosci 2017; 38:1015-1029. [PMID: 29217683 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2010-17.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2017] [Revised: 10/18/2017] [Accepted: 11/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disability characterized by impairments in social interaction and repetitive behavior, and is also associated with cognitive deficits. There is no current treatment that can ameliorate most of the ASD symptomatology; thus, identifying novel therapies is urgently needed. We used male BTBR T+Itpr3tf /J (BTBR) mice, a model that reproduces most of the core behavioral phenotypes of ASD, to test the effects of systemic administration of insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II), a polypeptide that crosses the blood-brain barrier and acts as a cognitive enhancer. We show that systemic IGF-II treatments reverse the typical defects in social interaction, cognitive/executive functions, and repetitive behaviors reflective of ASD-like phenotypes. In BTBR mice, IGF-II, via IGF-II receptor, but not via IGF-I receptor, reverses the abnormal levels of the AMPK-mTOR-S6K pathway and of active translation at synapses. Thus, IGF-II may represent a novel potential therapy for ASD.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Currently, there is no effective treatment for autism spectrum disorder (ASD), a developmental disability affecting a high number of children. Using a mouse model that expresses most of the key core as well as associated behavioral deficits of ASD, that are, social, cognitive, and repetitive behaviors, we report that a systemic administration of the polypeptide insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II) reverses all these deficits. The effects of IGF-II occur via IGF-II receptors, and not IGF-I receptors, and target both basal and learning-dependent molecular abnormalities found in several ASD mice models, including those of identified genetic mutations. We suggest that IGF-II represents a potential novel therapeutic target for ASD.
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Eapen V, Nicholls L, Spagnol V, Mathew NE. Current status of biological treatment options in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Asian J Psychiatr 2017; 30:1-10. [PMID: 28704714 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajp.2017.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2017] [Revised: 06/08/2017] [Accepted: 07/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) are characterised by deficits in social communication and restricted and repetitive behaviours. With an onset in early childhood, ASDs are thought to be heterogeneous, both genetically and clinically. This has led to the notion that "autism" is "autisms", however, there has been limited progress in understanding the different subgroups and the unique pathogenesis that would then allow targeted intervention. Although existing treatments are mainly symptom focussed, research is beginning to unravel the underlying genetic and molecular pathways, structural and functional neuronal circuitry involvement and the associated neurochemicals. This paper will review selected biological models with regard to pharmacological targets while also covering some of the non-pharmacological treatments such as neuro-stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valsamma Eapen
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Academic Unit of Child Psychiatry South West Sydney and Ingham Institute, Liverpool Hospital, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
| | - Laura Nicholls
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Vanessa Spagnol
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Nisha E Mathew
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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28
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Tuchman R. What is the Relationship Between Autism Spectrum Disorders and Epilepsy? Semin Pediatr Neurol 2017; 24:292-300. [PMID: 29249509 DOI: 10.1016/j.spen.2017.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The association of epilepsy and autism spectrum disorders (ASD) is best understood by examining the relationship between social cognition, nonsocial cognition, and epilepsy. The relationship between ASD and epilepsy is bidirectional and is strongly linked to intellectual disability (ID). The risk of developing ASD in children with epilepsy is highest in children with early onset seizures, with a high prevalence in children with infantile spasms. The risk of developing epilepsy in children first diagnosed with ASD is highest in those with ID. The prevalence of seizures in ASD increases with age. When epilepsy and ASD coexist, they share common pathophysiological mechanisms. In epilepsy with and without ID, social-cognitive deficits are an important determinant of neurodevelopmental outcomes. Early recognition of social deficits is an important aspect of the comprehensive management of children with epilepsy. Treating the seizures in individuals with epilepsy and ASD is crucial but interventions that address social-cognitive deficits are necessary to maximize neurodevelopmental outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Tuchman
- From the Department of Neurology, Nicklaus Children's Hospital Miami Children's Health System, Miami, FL.
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29
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Lacivita E, Perrone R, Margari L, Leopoldo M. Targets for Drug Therapy for Autism Spectrum Disorder: Challenges and Future Directions. J Med Chem 2017; 60:9114-9141. [PMID: 29039668 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.7b00965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, and activities. Various factors are involved in the etiopathogenesis of ASD, including genetic factors, environmental toxins and stressors, impaired immune responses, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuroinflammation. The heterogeneity in the phenotype among ASD patients and the complex etiology of the condition have long impeded the advancement of the development of pharmacological therapies. In the recent years, the integration of findings from mouse models to human genetics resulted in considerable progress toward the understanding of ASD pathophysiology. Currently, strategies to treat core symptoms of ASD are directed to correct synaptic dysfunctions, abnormalities in central oxytocin, vasopressin, and serotonin neurotransmission, and neuroinflammation. Here, we present a survey of the studies that have suggested molecular targets for drug development for ASD and the state-of-the-art of medicinal chemistry efforts in related areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enza Lacivita
- Dipartimento di Farmacia-Scienze del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro , via Orabona 4, 70125, Bari, Italy
| | - Roberto Perrone
- Dipartimento di Farmacia-Scienze del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro , via Orabona 4, 70125, Bari, Italy
| | - Lucia Margari
- Dipartimento di Scienze Mediche di Base, Neuroscienze e Organi di Senso, Unità di Neuropsichiatria Infantile, Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro , Piazza Giulio Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Marcello Leopoldo
- Dipartimento di Farmacia-Scienze del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro , via Orabona 4, 70125, Bari, Italy
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Chadman KK. Animal models for autism in 2017 and the consequential implications to drug discovery. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2017; 12:1187-1194. [PMID: 28971687 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2017.1383982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by deficits in social communication and restricted interests/repetitive behaviors, for which there are currently no approved drug treatments. The core symptoms of ASD vary widely in severity and are often accompanied by other neuropsychiatric disorders. Drug discovery has been challenging because of the lack of understanding of the underlying pathophysiology of ASD as well as the heterogeneity of symptoms and symptom severity. Areas covered: In this review, the author discusses animal models of ASD used as targets for drug discovery, focusing primarily on non-syndromic models, primarily rodents. They highlight the wide range of drug targets examined in animal models. While very little of this work has resulted in drug therapy for the behavioral symptoms of ASD yet, it has increased our knowledge of the biology of ASD that is critical for driving drug discovery and has already provided many new drug targets for investigation. Expert opinion: The information gathered from the animal models of ASD is increasing our understanding of the underlying pathophysiology for ASD and is leading to better therapeutic targets. However, the issue of small sample size, heterogeneity within clinical samples, and a lack of replicable outcome measures must be addressed to move forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn K Chadman
- a Behavioral Pharmacology Laboratory , NYS Office for People with Developmental Disabilities, Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities , Staten Island , NY , USA
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31
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Delineating the Common Biological Pathways Perturbed by ASD's Genetic Etiology: Lessons from Network-Based Studies. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18040828. [PMID: 28420080 PMCID: PMC5412412 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18040828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Revised: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent decades it has become clear that Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) possesses a diverse and heterogeneous genetic etiology. Aberrations in hundreds of genes have been associated with ASD so far, which include both rare and common variations. While one may expect that these genes converge on specific common molecular pathways, which drive the development of the core ASD characteristics, the task of elucidating these common molecular pathways has been proven to be challenging. Several studies have combined genetic analysis with bioinformatical techniques to uncover molecular mechanisms that are specifically targeted by autism-associated genetic aberrations. Recently, several analysis have suggested that particular signaling mechanisms, including the Wnt and Ca2+/Calmodulin-signaling pathways are often targeted by autism-associated mutations. In this review, we discuss several studies that determine specific molecular pathways affected by autism-associated mutations, and then discuss more in-depth into the biological roles of a few of these pathways, and how they may be involved in the development of ASD. Considering that these pathways may be targeted by specific pharmacological intervention, they may prove to be important therapeutic targets for the treatment of ASD.
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Meyza KZ, Blanchard DC. The BTBR mouse model of idiopathic autism - Current view on mechanisms. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017; 76:99-110. [PMID: 28167097 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.12.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2016] [Revised: 12/17/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is the most commonly diagnosed neurodevelopmental disorder, with current estimates of more than 1% of affected children across nations. The patients form a highly heterogeneous group with only the behavioral phenotype in common. The genetic heterogeneity is reflected in a plethora of animal models representing multiple mutations found in families of affected children. Despite many years of scientific effort, for the majority of cases the genetic cause remains elusive. It is therefore crucial to include well-validated models of idiopathic autism in studies searching for potential therapeutic agents. One of these models is the BTBR T+Itpr3tf/J mouse. The current review summarizes data gathered in recent research on potential molecular mechanisms responsible for the autism-like behavioral phenotype of this strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Z Meyza
- Laboratory of Emotions' Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, 3 Pasteur Street, Warsaw, 02-093, Poland.
| | - D C Blanchard
- Department of Psychology, University of Hawaii at Manoa,1993 East-West Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
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Genetic and Pharmacological Reversibility of Phenotypes in Mouse Models of Autism Spectrum Disorder. ADVANCES IN ANATOMY, EMBRYOLOGY, AND CELL BIOLOGY 2017; 224:189-211. [PMID: 28551757 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-52498-6_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
As autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is largely regarded as a neurodevelopmental condition, long-time consensus was that its hallmark features are irreversible. However, several studies from recent years using defined mouse models of ASD have provided clear evidence that in mice neurobiological and behavioural alterations can be ameliorated or even reversed by genetic restoration or pharmacological treatment either before or after symptom onset. Here, we review findings on genetic and pharmacological reversibility of phenotypes in mouse models of ASD. Our review should give a comprehensive overview on both aspects and encourage future studies to better understand the underlying molecular mechanisms that might be translatable from animals to humans.
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Zhang J, Liu LM, Ni JF. Rapamycin modulated brain-derived neurotrophic factor and B-cell lymphoma 2 to mitigate autism spectrum disorder in rats. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2017; 13:835-842. [PMID: 28360521 PMCID: PMC5365326 DOI: 10.2147/ndt.s125088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The number of children suffered from autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is increasing dramatically. However, the etiology of ASD is not well known. This study employed mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitor rapamycin to explore its effect on ASD and provided new therapeutic strategies for ASD. ASD rat model was constructed and valproic acid (VPA) was injected intraperitoneally into rats on pregnancy day 12.5. Offspring from VPA group were divided into ASD group and ASD + rapamycin (ASD + RAPA) group. Compared with normal group, the frequency and duration of social behavior and straight times of ASD group were shortened, but the grooming times were extended. Meanwhile, in ASD group, the average escape latency and the frequency of crossing plates were decreased, the apoptotic index (AI) detected by TUNEL assay was increased, and the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) analyzed was decreased with great difference compared with normal group (P<0.01). However, rapamycin treatment in ASD rats mitigated the ASD-like social behavior, such as the frequencies of straight and grooming. Furthermore, rapamycin shortened the average escape latency, but increased the frequency of crossing plates of ASD rats. In hippocampus, rapamycin decreased the AI, but increased the levels of BDNF and Bcl-2 (P<0.01) of ASD rats. These findings revealed that rapamycin significantly mitigated the social behavior by enhancing the expression of BDNF and Bcl-2 to suppress the hippocampus apoptosis in VPA-induced ASD rats.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jin-Feng Ni
- Department of Pediatrics, Maternal and Children Hospital of Tangshan City, Tangshan, Hebei, People's Republic of China
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35
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Wu J, de Theije CGM, da Silva SL, Abbring S, van der Horst H, Broersen LM, Willemsen L, Kas M, Garssen J, Kraneveld AD. Dietary interventions that reduce mTOR activity rescue autistic-like behavioral deficits in mice. Brain Behav Immun 2017; 59:273-287. [PMID: 27640900 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2016.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2016] [Revised: 08/27/2016] [Accepted: 09/15/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Enhanced mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling in the brain has been implicated in the pathogenesis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Inhibition of the mTOR pathway improves behavior and neuropathology in mouse models of ASD containing mTOR-associated single gene mutations. The current study demonstrated that the amino acids histidine, lysine, threonine inhibited mTOR signaling and IgE-mediated mast cell activation, while the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine had no effect on mTOR signaling in BMMCs. Based on these results, we designed an mTOR-targeting amino acid diet (Active 1 diet) and assessed the effects of dietary interventions with the amino acid diet or a multi-nutrient supplementation diet (Active 2 diet) on autistic-like behavior and mTOR signaling in food allergic mice and in inbred BTBR T+Itpr3tf/J mice. Cow's milk allergic (CMA) or BTBR male mice were fed a Control, Active 1, or Active 2 diet for 7 consecutive weeks. CMA mice showed reduced social interaction and increased self-grooming behavior. Both diets reversed behavioral impairments and inhibited the mTOR activity in the prefrontal cortex and amygdala of CMA mice. In BTBR mice, only Active 1 diet reduced repetitive self-grooming behavior and attenuated the mTOR activity in the prefrontal and somatosensory cortices. The current results suggest that activated mTOR signaling pathway in the brain may be a convergent pathway in the pathogenesis of ASD bridging genetic background and environmental triggers (food allergy) and that mTOR over-activation could serve as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiangbo Wu
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Caroline G M de Theije
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Sofia Lopes da Silva
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; Nutricia Research, Uppsalalaan 12, 3584 CT Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Suzanne Abbring
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Hilma van der Horst
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Laus M Broersen
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; Nutricia Research, Uppsalalaan 12, 3584 CT Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Linette Willemsen
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Martien Kas
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Johan Garssen
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; Nutricia Research, Uppsalalaan 12, 3584 CT Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Aletta D Kraneveld
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 104, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Green TL, Burket JA, Deutsch SI. Age-dependent effects on social interaction of NMDA GluN2A receptor subtype-selective antagonism. Brain Res Bull 2016; 125:159-67. [PMID: 27378651 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2016] [Revised: 06/29/2016] [Accepted: 06/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
NMDA receptor-mediated neurotransmission is implicated in the regulation of normal sociability in mice. The heterotetrameric NMDA receptor is composed of two obligatory GluN1 and either two "modulatory" GluN2A or GluN2B receptor subunits. GluN2A and GluN2B-containing receptors differ in terms of their developmental expression, distribution between synaptic and extrasynaptic locations, and channel kinetic properties, among other differences. Because age-dependent differences in disruptive effects of GluN2A and GluN2B subtype-selective antagonists on sociability and locomotor activity have been reported in rats, the current investigation explored age-dependent effects of PEAQX, a GluN2A subtype-selective antagonist, on sociability, stereotypic behaviors emerging during social interaction, and spatial working memory in 4- and 8-week old male Swiss Webster mice. The data implicate an age-dependent contribution of GluN2A-containing NMDA receptors to the regulation of normal social interaction in mice. Specifically, at a dose of PEAQX devoid of any effect on locomotor activity and mouse rotarod performance, the social interaction of 8-week old mice was disrupted without any effect on the social salience of a stimulus mouse. Moreover, PEAQX attenuated stereotypic behavior emerging during social interaction in 4- and 8-week old mice. However, PEAQX had no effect on spontaneous alternations, a measure of spatial working memory, suggesting that neural circuits mediating sociability and spatial working memory may be discrete and dissociable from each other. Also, the data suggest that the regulation of stereotypic behaviors and sociability may occur independently of each other. Because expression of GluN2A-containing NMDA receptors occurs at a later developmental stage, they may be more involved in mediating the pathogenesis of ASDs in patients with histories of "regression" after a period of normal development than GluN2B receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torrian L Green
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, 825 Fairfax Avenue, Suite 710, Norfolk, VA, 23507, United States
| | - Jessica A Burket
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, 825 Fairfax Avenue, Suite 710, Norfolk, VA, 23507, United States
| | - Stephen I Deutsch
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, 825 Fairfax Avenue, Suite 710, Norfolk, VA, 23507, United States.
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37
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The mTOR signalling cascade: paving new roads to cure neurological disease. Nat Rev Neurol 2016; 12:379-92. [PMID: 27340022 DOI: 10.1038/nrneurol.2016.81] [Citation(s) in RCA: 262] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Defining the multiple roles of the mechanistic (formerly 'mammalian') target of rapamycin (mTOR) signalling pathway in neurological diseases has been an exciting and rapidly evolving story of bench-to-bedside translational research that has spanned gene mutation discovery, functional experimental validation of mutations, pharmacological pathway manipulation, and clinical trials. Alterations in the dual contributions of mTOR - regulation of cell growth and proliferation, as well as autophagy and cell death - have been found in developmental brain malformations, epilepsy, autism and intellectual disability, hypoxic-ischaemic and traumatic brain injuries, brain tumours, and neurodegenerative disorders. mTOR integrates a variety of cues, such as growth factor levels, oxygen levels, and nutrient and energy availability, to regulate protein synthesis and cell growth. In line with the positioning of mTOR as a pivotal cell signalling node, altered mTOR activation has been associated with a group of phenotypically diverse neurological disorders. To understand how altered mTOR signalling leads to such divergent phenotypes, we need insight into the differential effects of enhanced or diminished mTOR activation, the developmental context of these changes, and the cell type affected by altered signalling. A particularly exciting feature of the tale of mTOR discovery is that pharmacological mTOR inhibitors have shown clinical benefits in some neurological disorders, such as tuberous sclerosis complex, and are being considered for clinical trials in epilepsy, autism, dementia, traumatic brain injury, and stroke.
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Qin L, Dai X, Yin Y. Valproic acid exposure sequentially activates Wnt and mTOR pathways in rats. Mol Cell Neurosci 2016; 75:27-35. [PMID: 27343825 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2016.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2015] [Revised: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impaired social interaction, limited verbal communication and repetitive behaviors. Recent studies have demonstrated that Wnt signaling and mTOR signaling play important roles in the pathogenesis of ASD. However, the relationship of these two signaling pathways in ASD remains unclear. RESULTS We assessed this question using the valproic acid (VPA) rat model of autism. Our results demonstrated that VPA exposure activated mTOR signaling and suppressed autophagy in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum of autistic model rats, characterized by enhanced phospho-mTOR and phospho-S6 and decreased Beclin1, Atg5, Atg10, LC3-II and autophagosome formation. Rapamycin treatment suppressed the effect of VPA on mTOR signaling and ameliorated the autistic-like behaviors of rats in our autism model. The administration of VPA also activated Wnt signaling through up-regulating beta-catenin and phospho-GSK3beta. Suppression of the Wnt pathway by sulindac relieved autistic-like behaviors and attenuated VPA-induced mTOR signaling activation in autistic model rats. CONCLUSIONS Our results demonstrate that VPA exposure sequentially activates Wnt signaling and mTOR signaling in rats. Suppression of the Wnt signaling pathway relieves autistic-like behaviors partially by deactivating the mTOR signaling pathway in VPA-exposed rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liyan Qin
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Psychological Diagnosis and Educational Technology for Children with Special Needs, Chongqing 400047, China; Department of Blood Transfusion, Southwest Hospital of Third Military Medical University,Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Xufang Dai
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Psychological Diagnosis and Educational Technology for Children with Special Needs, Chongqing 400047, China; College of Education Science, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 400047, China.
| | - Yunhou Yin
- Guizhou Minzu University, Guiyang 550025, China
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Varghese F, Burket JA, Benson AD, Deutsch SI, Zemlin CW. Experimental Assessment of Mouse Sociability Using an Automated Image Processing Approach. J Vis Exp 2016. [PMID: 27213937 DOI: 10.3791/52508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Mouse is the preferred model organism for testing drugs designed to increase sociability. We present a method to quantify mouse sociability in which the test mouse is placed in a standardized apparatus and relevant behaviors are assessed in three different sessions (called session I, II, and III). The apparatus has three compartments (see Figure 1), the left and right compartments contain an inverted cup which can house a mouse (called "stimulus mouse"). In session I, the test mouse is placed in the cage and its mobility is characterized by the number of transitions made between compartments. In session II, a stimulus mouse is placed under one of the inverted cups and the sociability of the test mouse is quantified by the amounts of time it spends near the cup containing the enclosed stimulus mouse vs. the empty inverted cup. In session III, the inverted cups are removed and both mice interact freely. The sociability of the test mouse in session III is quantified by the number of social approaches it makes toward the stimulus mouse and by the number of times it avoids a social approach by the stimulus mouse. The automated evaluation of the movie detects the nose of the test mouse, which allows the determination of all described sociability measures in session I and II (in session III, approaches are identified automatically but classified manually). To find the nose, the image of an empty cage is digitally subtracted from each frame of the movie and the resulting image is binarized to identify the mouse pixels. The mouse tail is automatically removed and the two most distant points of the remaining mouse are determined; these are close to nose and base of tail. By analyzing the motion of the mouse and using continuity arguments, the nose is identified. Figure 1. Assessment of Sociability During 3 sessions. Session I (top): Acclimation of test mouse to the cage. Session II (middle): Test mouse moving freely in the cage while the stimulus mouse is enclosed in an inverted cup. Session III (bottom): Both test mouse and stimulus mouse are allowed to move freely and interact with each other.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frency Varghese
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Frank Reidy Center for Bioelectrics, Old Dominion University
| | - Jessica A Burket
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School
| | - Andrew D Benson
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School
| | - Stephen I Deutsch
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School
| | - Christian W Zemlin
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Frank Reidy Center for Bioelectrics, Old Dominion University;
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Burket JA, Young CM, Green TL, Benson AD, Deutsch SI. Characterization of gait and olfactory behaviors in the Balb/c mouse model of autism spectrum disorders. Brain Res Bull 2016; 122:29-34. [PMID: 26917431 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2016] [Revised: 02/17/2016] [Accepted: 02/19/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Abnormalities of gait and olfaction have been reported in persons with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), which could reflect involvement of the cerebellum and nodes related to olfaction (e.g., olfactory bulb and ventral temporal olfactory cortex) in neural circuits subserving social, cognitive, and motor domains of psychopathology in these disorders. We hypothesized that the Balb/c mouse model of ASD would express "abnormalities" of gait and olfaction, relative to the Swiss Webster comparator strain. Contrary to expectation, Balb/c and Swiss Webster mice did not differ in terms of quantitative measurements of gait and mouse rotarod behavior, and Balb/c mice displayed a shorter latency to approach an unscented cotton swab, suggesting that there was no disturbance of its locomotor behavior. However, Balb/c mice showed significant inhibition of locomotor activity in the presence of floral scents, including novel and familiar floral scents, and a socially salient odor (i.e., concentrated mouse urine); the inhibitory effect on the locomotor behavior of the Balb/c mouse was especially pronounced with the salient social odor. Unlike the Swiss Webster strain, mouse urine lacks social salience for the Balb/c mouse strain, a model of ASD, which does not appear to be an artifact of diminished olfactory sensitivity or impaired locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica A Burket
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA, United States
| | | | - Torrian L Green
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA, United States
| | - Andrew D Benson
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA, United States
| | - Stephen I Deutsch
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA, United States.
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Enriquez-Barreto L, Morales M. The PI3K signaling pathway as a pharmacological target in Autism related disorders and Schizophrenia. MOLECULAR AND CELLULAR THERAPIES 2016; 4:2. [PMID: 26877878 PMCID: PMC4751644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2015] [Accepted: 01/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2023]
Abstract
This review is focused in PI3K's involvement in two widespread mental disorders: Autism and Schizophrenia. A large body of evidence points to synaptic dysfunction as a cause of these diseases, either during the initial phases of brain synaptic circuit's development or later modulating synaptic function and plasticity. Autism related disorders and Schizophrenia are complex genetic conditions in which the identification of gene markers has proved difficult, although the existence of single-gene mutations with a high prevalence in both diseases offers insight into the role of the PI3K signaling pathway. In the brain, components of the PI3K pathway regulate synaptic formation and plasticity; thus, disruption of this pathway leads to synapse dysfunction and pathological behaviors. Here, we recapitulate recent evidences that demonstrate the imbalance of several PI3K elements as leading causes of Autism and Schizophrenia, together with the plausible new pharmacological paths targeting this signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilian Enriquez-Barreto
- Institut de Neurociències, Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Miguel Morales
- Institut de Neurociències, Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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Enriquez-Barreto L, Morales M. The PI3K signaling pathway as a pharmacological target in Autism related disorders and Schizophrenia. MOLECULAR AND CELLULAR THERAPIES 2016; 4:2. [PMID: 26877878 PMCID: PMC4751644 DOI: 10.1186/s40591-016-0047-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2015] [Accepted: 01/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
This review is focused in PI3K’s involvement in two widespread mental disorders: Autism and Schizophrenia. A large body of evidence points to synaptic dysfunction as a cause of these diseases, either during the initial phases of brain synaptic circuit’s development or later modulating synaptic function and plasticity. Autism related disorders and Schizophrenia are complex genetic conditions in which the identification of gene markers has proved difficult, although the existence of single-gene mutations with a high prevalence in both diseases offers insight into the role of the PI3K signaling pathway. In the brain, components of the PI3K pathway regulate synaptic formation and plasticity; thus, disruption of this pathway leads to synapse dysfunction and pathological behaviors. Here, we recapitulate recent evidences that demonstrate the imbalance of several PI3K elements as leading causes of Autism and Schizophrenia, together with the plausible new pharmacological paths targeting this signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilian Enriquez-Barreto
- Institut de Neurociències, Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Miguel Morales
- Institut de Neurociències, Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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Sato A. mTOR, a Potential Target to Treat Autism Spectrum Disorder. CNS & NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS DRUG TARGETS 2016; 15:533-43. [PMID: 27071790 PMCID: PMC5070418 DOI: 10.2174/1871527315666160413120638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2015] [Revised: 12/11/2015] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a key regulator in various cellular processes, including cell growth, gene expression, and synaptic functions. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is frequently accompanied by monogenic disorders, such as tuberous sclerosis complex, phosphatase and tensin homolog tumor hamartoma syndrome, neurofibromatosis 1, and fragile X syndrome, in which mTOR is hyperactive. Mutations in the genes involved in the mTOR-mediated signaling pathway have been identified in some cases of syndromic ASD. Evidences indicate a pathogenic role for hyperactive mTOR-mediated signaling in ASD associated with these monogenic disorders, and mTOR inhibitors are a potential pharmacotherapy for ASD. Abnormal synaptic transmission through metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 may underlie in a part of ASD associated with hyperactive mTOR-mediated signaling. In this review, the relationship between mTOR and ASD is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Sato
- Department of Pediatrics, The University of Tokyo Hospital, Addictive Substance Project, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Hongo 7-3-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113- 8655, Japan.
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Kazdoba TM, Leach PT, Crawley JN. Behavioral phenotypes of genetic mouse models of autism. GENES, BRAIN, AND BEHAVIOR 2016; 15:7-26. [PMID: 26403076 PMCID: PMC4775274 DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Revised: 08/27/2015] [Accepted: 09/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
More than a hundred de novo single gene mutations and copy-number variants have been implicated in autism, each occurring in a small subset of cases. Mutant mouse models with syntenic mutations offer research tools to gain an understanding of the role of each gene in modulating biological and behavioral phenotypes relevant to autism. Knockout, knockin and transgenic mice incorporating risk gene mutations detected in autism spectrum disorder and comorbid neurodevelopmental disorders are now widely available. At present, autism spectrum disorder is diagnosed solely by behavioral criteria. We developed a constellation of mouse behavioral assays designed to maximize face validity to the types of social deficits and repetitive behaviors that are central to an autism diagnosis. Mouse behavioral assays for associated symptoms of autism, which include cognitive inflexibility, anxiety, hyperactivity, and unusual reactivity to sensory stimuli, are frequently included in the phenotypic analyses. Over the past 10 years, we and many other laboratories around the world have employed these and additional behavioral tests to phenotype a large number of mutant mouse models of autism. In this review, we highlight mouse models with mutations in genes that have been identified as risk genes for autism, which work through synaptic mechanisms and through the mTOR signaling pathway. Robust, replicated autism-relevant behavioral outcomes in a genetic mouse model lend credence to a causal role for specific gene contributions and downstream biological mechanisms in the etiology of autism.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. M. Kazdoba
- MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - P. T. Leach
- MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - J. N. Crawley
- MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA, USA
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Kazdoba TM, Leach PT, Yang M, Silverman JL, Solomon M, Crawley JN. Translational Mouse Models of Autism: Advancing Toward Pharmacological Therapeutics. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2016; 28:1-52. [PMID: 27305922 PMCID: PMC5116923 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2015_5003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Animal models provide preclinical tools to investigate the causal role of genetic mutations and environmental factors in the etiology of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Knockout and humanized knock-in mice, and more recently knockout rats, have been generated for many of the de novo single gene mutations and copy number variants (CNVs) detected in ASD and comorbid neurodevelopmental disorders. Mouse models incorporating genetic and environmental manipulations have been employed for preclinical testing of hypothesis-driven pharmacological targets, to begin to develop treatments for the diagnostic and associated symptoms of autism. In this review, we summarize rodent behavioral assays relevant to the core features of autism, preclinical and clinical evaluations of pharmacological interventions, and strategies to improve the translational value of rodent models of autism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana M Kazdoba
- MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Room 1001A Research 2 Building 96, 4625 2nd Avenue, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Prescott T Leach
- MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Room 1001A Research 2 Building 96, 4625 2nd Avenue, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Mu Yang
- MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Room 1001A Research 2 Building 96, 4625 2nd Avenue, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Jill L Silverman
- MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Room 1001A Research 2 Building 96, 4625 2nd Avenue, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Marjorie Solomon
- MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Room 1001A Research 2 Building 96, 4625 2nd Avenue, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Jacqueline N Crawley
- MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Room 1001A Research 2 Building 96, 4625 2nd Avenue, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA.
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Abstract
Globally, greater than 30 million individuals are afflicted with disorders of the nervous system accompanied by tens of thousands of new cases annually with limited, if any, treatment options. Erythropoietin (EPO) offers an exciting and novel therapeutic strategy to address both acute and chronic neurodegenerative disorders. EPO governs a number of critical protective and regenerative mechanisms that can impact apoptotic and autophagic programmed cell death pathways through protein kinase B (Akt), sirtuins, mammalian forkhead transcription factors, and wingless signaling. Translation of the cytoprotective pathways of EPO into clinically effective treatments for some neurodegenerative disorders has been promising, but additional work is necessary. In particular, development of new treatments with erythropoiesis-stimulating agents such as EPO brings several important challenges that involve detrimental vascular outcomes and tumorigenesis. Future work that can effectively and safely harness the complexity of the signaling pathways of EPO will be vital for the fruitful treatment of disorders of the nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Maiese
- Cellular and Molecular Signaling, Newark, New Jersey 07101
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION Angelman syndrome (AS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder caused by deficiency of maternally inherited UBE3A, an ubiquitin E3 ligase. Despite recent progress in understanding the mechanism underlying UBE3A imprinting, there is no effective treatment. Further investigation of the roles played by UBE3A in the central nervous system (CNS) is needed for developing effective therapies. AREA COVERED This review covers the literature related to genetic classifications of AS, recent discoveries regarding the regulation of UBE3A imprinting, alterations in cell signaling in various brain regions and potential therapeutic approaches. Since a large proportion of AS patients exhibit comorbid autism spectrum disorder (ASD), potential common molecular bases are discussed. EXPERT OPINION Advances in understanding UBE3A imprinting provide a unique opportunity to induce paternal UBE3A expression, thus targeting the syndrome at its 'root.' However, such efforts have yielded less-than-expected rescue effects in AS mouse models, raising the concern that activation of paternal UBE3A after a critical period cannot correct all the CNS defects that developed in a UBE3A-deficient environment. On the other hand, targeting abnormal downstream cell signaling pathways has provided promising rescue effects in preclinical research. Thus, combined reinstatement of paternal UBE3A expression with targeting abnormal signaling pathways should provide better therapeutic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoning Bi
- a Department of Basic Medical Sciences, COMP , Western University of Health Sciences , Pomona , CA , USA
| | - Jiandong Sun
- a Department of Basic Medical Sciences, COMP , Western University of Health Sciences , Pomona , CA , USA
| | - Angela X Ji
- a Department of Basic Medical Sciences, COMP , Western University of Health Sciences , Pomona , CA , USA
| | - Michel Baudry
- b Graduate College of Biomedical Sciences , Western University of Health Sciences , Pomona , CA , USA
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Deutsch SI, Burket JA, Benson AD, Urbano MR. NMDA agonists for autism spectrum disorders: progress and possibilities. FUTURE NEUROLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.2217/fnl.15.28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Transgenic mice with NMDA-receptor (NMDAR) hypofunction display impaired sociability (i.e., diminished preference for exploring conspecifics), supporting a critical role for the NMDAR in regulation of sociability. The endogenous tone of NMDAR-mediated neurotransmission is altered in the Balb/c mouse model of autism spectrum disorders; thus, the effects of targeting the NMDAR in Balb/c mice on sociability, cognition and stereotypic behavior were explored. Positive effects of this pharmacotherapeutic strategy were observed in Balb/c and other relevant mouse strains displaying impaired sociability. Furthermore, in a preliminary translational clinical trial, D-cycloserine, a partial glycineB site agonist, improved sociability and diminished stereotypies in a sample of adolescents and young adults with autism spectrum disorders. The data encourage pharmacotherapeutic targeting of the NMDAR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen I Deutsch
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, 825 Fairfax Avenue, Suite 710, Norfolk, VA 23507–1912, USA
| | - Jessica A Burket
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, 825 Fairfax Avenue, Suite 710, Norfolk, VA 23507–1912, USA
| | - Andrew D Benson
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, 825 Fairfax Avenue, Suite 710, Norfolk, VA 23507–1912, USA
| | - Maria R Urbano
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, 825 Fairfax Avenue, Suite 710, Norfolk, VA 23507–1912, USA
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Liko D, Hall MN. mTOR in health and in sickness. J Mol Med (Berl) 2015; 93:1061-73. [DOI: 10.1007/s00109-015-1326-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2015] [Revised: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 07/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Sastre A, Campillo NE, Gil C, Martinez A. Therapeutic approaches for the future treatment of Fragile X. Curr Opin Behav Sci 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2015.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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