Completely autotrophic nitrogen-removal over nitrite in lab-scale constructed wetlands: evidence from a mass balance study

Future trends and patterns in leachate biological treatment research from a bibliometric perspective

Leachate has become a great deal of concern due to its complex properties which are primarily caused by the high concentrations of organics and ammonia. Thus, proper leachate treatment is required prior to its discharge. Leachate can be treated in various ways, and biological treatment is one of the approaches. This treatment has been shown to be both effective and cost-efficient while offering the possibility of resource recovery in the form of bioenergy. In this study, the underlying patterns in publications related to leachate biological treatment were uncovered through bibliometric analysis. This study also lays the groundwork for a deeper understanding of the past, current, and future trends of the leachate biological treatment. Research publications from 1974 to 2021 were retrieved from the Scopus database, and it was identified that 2013 articles were published in the span of 47 years. From the analyzed publications, China played a leading role in publishing leachate biological treatment research articles as well as having the most productive institutions and authors. Meanwhile, the USA was found to be the most active country in initiating international collaborations with 33 countries. The research hotspots were also successfully identified using keyword co-occurrences analysis. Anaerobic digestion and constructed wetland were revealed to be the research hotspots. The critical role of biological treatment in removing nitrogen from leachate was also highlighted. Besides, numerous research gaps were identified in the application of aerobic granular sludge (AGS) for leachate treatment. This can be a potential area for research in the future. Finally, future research should be encouraged to focus on the use of sustainable treatment systems in which energy recovery in the form of biogases is promoted.

Purification mechanism of city tail water by constructed wetland substrate with NaOH-modified corn straw biochar

The pollution of corn straw to the environment had attracted much attention. The preparation and alkali modification of corn straw biochar as the constructed wetland (CW) substrate was conducive to solving the environment pollution caused by straw and improving the purification effect of CW. The NaOH modification mechanism of corn straw biochar was analyzed by measuring the surface morphology, element content, specific surface area (SSA), pore volume, crystal structure, surface functional groups and CO₂ adsorption. Biochar prepared under relatively optimal NaOH-modified conditions was used as the vertical flow CW substrate to treat city tail water. The results showed that controlling the modification condition of NaOH (< 1.0 mol·L^-1, ≤ 24 h) was conducive to prevent the biochar structure destruction and C element reduction. The SSA and pore volume of NaOH (0.1 mol·L^-1) modified biochar are 360 m²·g^-1 and 0.109 cm³·g^-1, respectively. The biochar adsorption for CO₂ conformed to the Langmuir and Freundlich isothermal adsorption theoretical model (R² > 0.9). The maximum adsorption capacity of CO₂ by modified biochar with NaOH (0.1 mol·L^-1) was 64.516 cm³·g^-1 and increased by 10.3%. The city tail water treated by CW with plants showed that the removal rates of ammonia nitrogen, total nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen reached about 90%. The research results improved the utilization value of straw, realized straw carbon sequestration and promoted the progress of CW technology.

Nitrogen Dynamics in Wetland Systems and Its Impact on Biodiversity

Wetlands are viable sinks for nitrate and have also been identified as a source of nitrous oxide, a product of two microbially regulated processes: nitrification and denitrification. Anthropogenic expansion of nitrogen is a leading cause of the eutrophication of water bodies and may also contribute to the deterioration of the ozone layer in the stratosphere. Wetlands ameliorate the quality of water percolating through them, by retaining nutrients and sequestering carbon, and simultaneously enhancing the flora and fauna diversity of these landscapes. Among the many services these wetlands provide, they also alleviate nitrate pollution by attenuating reactive nitrogen from agricultural drainage and ensure the effective reclamation of the wastewater. The literature regarding the viability of wetlands suggests a linear relationship between the removal of nitrogen and its loading rate, thereby suggesting a potential loss of nitrogen removal capacity due to the loss of wetland area. This review discusses the nitrogen removal mechanisms in existing wetlands along with the environmental variables affecting the optimum performance and management of these wetlands, in terms of greenhouse gas retention and biodiversity. Conservation of these wetlands should be contemplated to maintain the world-wide nitrogen cycle and diminish the negative repercussions of surplus nitrogen loading.

Novel microbial nitrogen transformation processes in constructed wetlands treating municipal sewage: a mini-review

Traditionally nitrogen transformation in constructed wetlands (CWs) has been attributed to the activities of aerobic autotrophic nitrifiers followed by anoxic heterotrophic denitrifiers. However, the nitrogen balances in such systems are far from being explained as a large fraction of the losses remain unaccounted for. The classical nitrification-denitrification theory has been successfully employed in certain unit processes by culturing fast-growing bacteria, but the CWs offer an ideal environment for slow-growing bacteria that may be beneficially exploited to achieve enhanced nitrogen removal by manipulating the environmental conditions in their favor. In the last three decades, many novel microorganisms have been isolated from CWs that have led to the discovery of some other routes that have made researchers believe could play a significant role in nitrogen transformation processes. The increased understanding of novel discerned pathways like anaerobic ammonium oxidation (ANAMMOX), heterotrophic nitrification and aerobic denitrification, which are mediated by specialized bacteria has indicated that these microorganisms could be enriched by applying selection pressures within CWs for achieving high rates of nitrogen removal. Understanding these novel nitrogen transformation processes along with the associated microbial population can provide new dimensions to the design of CWs for enhanced nitrogen removal.

Biogenic Fe(II-III) Hydroxycarbonate Green Rust Enhances Nitrate Removal and Decreases Ammonium Selectivity during Heterotrophic Denitrification

Nitrification-denitrification is the most widely used nitrogen removal process in wastewater treatment. However, this process can lead to undesirable nitrite accumulation and subsequent ammonium production. Biogenic Fe(II-III) hydroxycarbonate green rust has recently emerged as a candidate to reduce nitrite without ammonium production under abiotic conditions. The present study investigated whether biogenic iron(II-III) hydroxycarbonate green rust could also reduce nitrite to gaseous nitrogen during bacterial nitrate reduction. Our results showed that biogenic iron(II-III) hydroxycarbonate green rust could efficiently decrease the selectivity of the reaction towards ammonium during heterotrophic nitrate reduction by native wastewater-denitrifying bacteria and by three different species of Shewanella: S. putrefaciens ATCC 12099, S. putrefaciens ATCC 8071 and S. oneidensis MR-1. Indeed, in the absence of biogenic hydroxycarbonate green rust, bacterial reduction of nitrate converted 11–42% of the initial nitrate into ammonium, but this value dropped to 1–28% in the presence of biogenic hydroxycarbonate green rust. Additionally, nitrite accumulation did not exceed the 2–13% in the presence of biogenic hydroxycarbonate green rust, versus 0–28% in its absence. Based on those results that enhance the extent of denitrification of about 60%, the study proposes a water treatment process that couples the bacterial nitrite production with the abiotic nitrite reduction by biogenic green rust.

Nitrogen removal in vertical flow constructed wetlands: influence of bed depth and high nitrogen loadings

The aim of the study was to evaluate the nitrogen removal and its effects on the plant's growth and leaves morphology. using two subsurface vertical flow (VF bed), with different depths (0.24 m² × 0.70 m; 0.24 m² × 0.35 m) and nitrogen load increments. The VF bed were planted with Vetiveria zizanioides, filled with light expanded clay aggregates (Leca®NR 10/20) and fed in parallel mode with synthetic wastewater. High ammonium nitrogen concentration ([NH₄ ⁺-N] from 68 ± 3 to 290 ± 8 mg L^-1) was used without toxicity symptoms in plants, although the effects of ammonium nitrogen load were stopped the growth of the plants. Significant differences between ammonium nitrogen removed in each VF bed obtained for total nitrogen (TN_infl.) ≥ 27 ± 0.8 g m^-2 d^-1. The nitrification was contributed to ammonium nitrogen removal because was found higher values of nitrate and nitrite in the effluent. These values were more higher in VF bed 1 than in the VF bed 2, since ammonium nitrogen removal were also more higher in VF bed 1 than in the VF bed 2. Total nitrogen mass balance was carried out and the results show that the nitrification/denitrification process occurred with nitrogen plants uptake. It was observed that the VF bed depth has an influence on all nitrogen removal processes. As higher the depth root system it is seemed to favour the creation of zones with different oxidations conditions that allow the nitrogen compounds to be removed intensively.

Constructed wetland microcosms as sustainable technology for domestic wastewater treatment: an overview

Constructed wetland microcosms (CWMs) are artificially designed ecosystem which utilizes both complex and ordinary interactions between supporting media, macrophytes, and microorganisms to treat almost all types of wastewater. CWMs are considered as green and sustainable techniques which require lower energy input, less operational and maintenance cost and provide critical ecological benefits such as wildlife habitat, aquaculture, groundwater recharge, flood control, recreational uses, and add aesthetic value. They are good alternatives to conventional treatment systems particularly for smaller communities as well as distant and decentralized locations. The pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), and temperature are the key controlling factors while several other parameters such as hydraulic loading rates (HLR), hydraulic retention time (HRT), diversity of macrophytes, supporting media, and water depth are critical to achieving better performance. From the literature survey, it is evaluated that the removal performance of CWMs can be improved significantly through recirculation of effluent and artificial aeration (intermittent). This review paper presents an assessment of CWMs as a sustainable option for treatment of wastewater nutrients, organics, and heavy metals from domestic wastewater. Initially, a concise note on the CWMs and their components are presented, followed by a description of treatment mechanisms, major constituents involved in the treatment process, and overall efficiency. Finally, the effects of ecological factors and challenges for their long-term operations are highlighted.

Bioaugmented soil aquifer treatment for P-nitrophenol removal in wastewater unique for cold regions

P-nitrophenol (PNP) is a toxic and recalcitrant organic pollutant and a usual intermediate in the production of fine chemicals, which has posed a significant threat to subsurface environment safety. Soil aquifer treatment (SAT) is a promising method to remove and remediate contamination in vadose zone with low cost and high efficiency. However, there are still research gaps for the treatment of recalcitrant contaminants by SAT in cold regions, such as un-robust indigenous microbes and low temperature constraint in vadose zone. The bioaugmentation technology was first introduced into SAT in order to enhance the removal ability of PNP by SAT operated in cold regions in this study. A high-efficiency PNP-degrading bacterium was successfully isolated, which can efficiently degrade PNP below 200 mg L^-1 with a degradation rate above 99% at 15 °C close to the real subsurface temperature in cold regions, and added into SAT for bioaugmentation. The feasibility of bioaugmented SAT and associated PNP removal process were investigated by laboratory sand columns, along with effects of the SAT operative parameters (namely PNP loading concentration, flow rate and soil saturation level of SAT). Within the range of PNP loading stresses tested (1-200 mg L^-1), PNP removal efficiency was optimal at constant flow rate of 219 mL d^-1 in unsaturated operating condition of SAT under 15 °C among all the investigated experimental conditions. Longer hydraulic residence time increased the PNP removal rate, although the accumulated mass removed reduced and the removal efficiencies remained constant in unsaturated operating condition of SAT. It is found from the comparison between the PNP removals via both unsaturated and saturated columns that slight difference only in the removal rate of PNP was observed and the highly efficient bioaugmented SAT can completely degrade PNP of 10 mg L^-1 within 5 wetting/drying cycles under both scenarios.

Enhancement of the complete autotrophic nitrogen removal over nitrite process in a modified single-stage subsurface vertical flow constructed wetland: Effect of saturated zone depth

This study was conducted to explore enhancement of the complete autotrophic nitrogen removal over nitrite (CANON) process in a modified single-stage subsurface vertical flow constructed wetland (VSSF) with saturated zone, and nitrogen transformation pathways in the VSSF treating digested swine wastewater were investigated at four different saturated zone depths (SZDs). SZD significantly affected nitrogen transformation pathways in the VSSF throughout the experiment. As the SZD was 45cm, the CANON process was enhanced most effectively in the system owing to the notable enhancement of anammox. Correspondingly, the VSSF had the best TN removal performance [(76.74±7.30)%] and lower N₂O emission flux [(3.50±0.22)mg·(m²·h)^-1]. It could be concluded that autotrophic nitrogen removal via CANON process could become a primary route for nitrogen removal in the VSSF with optimized microenvironment that developed as a result of the appropriate SZD.

Seasonal effects of pre-aeration on microbial processes for nitrogen removal in constructed wetlands

Seasonal effects of pre-aeration on microbial nitrogen performance in constructed wetlands (CWs) involved with anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox) process were investigated in this study. Slow natural re-aeration rate was the inhibiting factor for total nitrogen removal in CW without pre-aeration, and partial nitrification was the main way for nitrite generation. Besides partial nitrification, pre-aeration provided nitrite generation in CWs with an alternative way: nitrate reduction. Advantage of pre-aeration of influent was much different under various temperature ranges. Mean temperature of 15 °C seemed to be the turning point. With a mean temperature of or higher than 15 °C, nitrate in the influent effectively improved nitrogen removal in CWs. With a mean temperature lower than 15 °C, the nitrate reduction process in CWs was greatly inhibited. The benefit of pre-aeration was weak under this temperature range. Seasonal aeration pattern for the pre-treatment of HSSF CWs might be a more energy-saving alternative in in-suit domestic sewage treatment.

COD, nutrient removal and disinfection efficiency of a combined subsurface and surface flow constructed wetland: A case study

A constructed wetland system composed of a subsurface flow wetland, a surface flow wetland and a facultative pond was studied from July 2008 until May 2012. It was created to treat the domestic sewage produced by a hamlet of 150 inhabitants. Monthly physicochemical and microbiological analyses were carried out in order to evaluate the removal efficiency of each stage of the process and of the total treatment system. Pair-wise Student's t-tests showed that the mean removal of each considered parameter was significantly different (α = 0.05) between the various treatment phases. Two-way ANOVA and Tukey's HSD tests were used to find significant differences between wetland types and seasons in the removal efficiency of the considered water quality parameters. Significant differences in percent removal efficiency between the treatment phases were observed for total phosphorus, total nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen and organic load (expressed as Chemical Oxygen Demand). In general, the wastewater treatment was carried by the sub-superficial flow phase mainly, both in growing season and in quiescence season. Escherichia coli removal ranged from 98% in quiescence season to >99% in growing season (approximately 2-3 orders of magnitude). The inactivation of fecal bacteria was not influenced by the season, but only by the treatment phase.

Cr(VI) and COD removal from landfill leachate by polyculture constructed wetland at a pilot scale

Four subsurface horizontal-flow constructed wetlands (CWs) at a pilot scale planted with a polyculture of the tropical plants Gynerium sagittatum (Gs), Colocasia esculenta (Ce) and Heliconia psittacorum (He) were evaluated for 7 months. The CW cells with an area of 17.94 m(2) and 0.60 m (h) each and 0.5 m of gravel were operated at continuous gravity flow (Q = 0.5 m(3) day(-1)) and a theoretical HRT of 7 days each and treating landfill leachate for the removal of filtered chemical oxygen demand (CODf), BOD5, TKN, NH4 (+), NO3 (-), PO4 (3-)-P and Cr(VI). Three CWs were divided into three sections, and each section (5.98 m(2)) was seeded with 36 cuttings of each species (plant density of six cuttings per square metre). The other unit was planted randomly. The final distributions of plants in the bioreactors were as follows: CW I (He-Ce-Gs), CW II (randomly), CW III (Ce-Gs-He) and CW IV (Gs-He-Ce). The units received effluent from a high-rate anaerobic pond (BLAAT®). The results show a slightly alkaline and anoxic environment in the solid-liquid matrix (pH = 8.0; 0.5-2 mg L(-1) dissolved oxygen (DO)). CODf removal was 67 %, BOD5 80 %, and TKN and NH4 (+) 50-57 %; NO3 (-) effluents were slightly higher than the influent, PO4 (3-)-P (38 %) and Cr(VI) between 50 and 58 %. CW IV gave the best performance, indicating that plant distribution may affect the removal capacity of the bioreactors. He and Gs were the plants exhibiting a translocation factor (TF) of Cr(VI) >1. The evaluated plants demonstrated their suitability for phytoremediation of landfill leachate, and all of them can be categorized as Cr(VI) accumulators. The CWs also showed that they could be a low-cost operation as a secondary system for treatment of intermediated landfill leachate (LL).

Effects of seasonal temperature variation on nitrification, anammox process, and bacteria involved in a pilot-scale constructed wetland

Effects of seasonal temperature (especially low temperature) variation on nitrogen removal process and bacteria involved in an experimental domestic wastewater treatment wetland were investigated in this study. Three different functional groups of bacteria, namely anammox bacteria, ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB), and Nitrospira sp., were involved. Anammox process was seriously inhibited with mean temperature lower than 15 °C. However, obvious adaptation of anammox bacteria also appeared after a long time operation under low temperatures. Contrary to anammox bacteria, AOB were more abundant in winter than in summer. Nitrospira sp. was the least prevalent and showed the lowest level of variation. Distinct nitrate accumulation observed under winter temperatures was likely due to inhibition of anammox process, comparative advantage of Nitrospira sp. in winter, and the presence of cold-tolerant AOB species.

Nitrate-dependent anaerobic ferrous oxidation (NAFO) by denitrifying bacteria: a perspective autotrophic nitrogen pollution control technology

The nitrate-dependent anaerobic ferrous oxidation (NAFO) is an important discovery in the fields of microbiology and geology, which is a valuable biological reaction since it can convert nitrate into nitrogen gas, removing nitrogen from wastewater. The research on NAFO can promote the development of novel autotrophic biotechnologies for nitrogen pollution control and get a deep insight into the biogeochemical cycles. In this work, batch experiments were conducted with denitrifying bacteria as biocatalyst to investigate the performance of nitrogen removal by NAFO. The results showed that the denitrifying bacteria were capable of chemolithotrophic denitrification with ferrous salt as electron donor, namely NAFO. And the maximum nitrate conversion rates (qmax) reached 57.89 mg (g VSS d)−1, which was the rate-limiting step in NAFO. Fe/N ratio, temperature and initial pH had significant influences on nitrogen removal by NAFO process, and their optimal values were 2.0 °C, 30.15 °C and 8.0 °C, respectively.

Nitrogen behavior in a free water surface constructed wetland used as posttreatment for anaerobically treated swine wastewater effluent

The aim of this study was to evaluate the behavior of total nitrogen (TN) in its different forms in a Free Water Surface constructed wetland (FWS) used as posttreatment for anaerobically treated swine wastewater. The experiment was conducted in a glasshouse from July 2010 to November 2011. The system consists in a FWS mesocosm inoculated with Typha angustifolia L. using as pretreatment an UASB reactor (upflow anaerobic sludge blanket). The operation are based on the progressive increase of the nitrogen loading rate (NLR) (2.0-30.2 kg TN/ha·d) distributed in 12 loads, with an operational time of 20 d. The results indicate that the behavior of the TN in the FWS, mainly depends on the NLR applied, the amount of dissolved oxygen available and the seasonality. The FWS operated with an NLR between 2.0-30.2 kg TN/ha·d, presents average removal efficiency for TN of 54.8%, with a maximum removal (71.7%) between spring-summer seasons (17.3-21.7°C). The availability of dissolved oxygen hinders the nitrification/denitrification processes in the FWS representing a 0.3-5.6% of TN removed.The main route of TN removal is associated with ammonia volatilization processes (2.6-40.7%), mainly to NLR over 25.8 kg TN/ha· d and with temperatures higher than 18°C. In a smaller proportion, the incorporation of nitrogen via plant uptake was 10.8% whereas the TN accumulated in the sediments was a 5.0% of the TN applied during the entire operation (550 d). An appropriate control of the NLR applied, can reduce the ammonia volatilization processes and the phytotoxicity effects expressed as growth inhibition in 80.0% from 496.0 mg NH(+) 4-N/L (25.8 kg TN/ha·d).

A review on nitrogen and organics removal mechanisms in subsurface flow constructed wetlands: dependency on environmental parameters, operating conditions and supporting media

With the unique advantages of lower operational and maintenance cost, the applications of subsurface flow constructed wetlands for the treatment of wastewater have been increasing rapidly throughout the world. The removal of nitrogen and organics by such systems has gained substantial attention in recent years. In subsurface flow wetlands, the removal of pollutants often relies on a diverse range of co-existing physical, chemical and biological routes, which are vitally dependent on numerous environmental and operational parameters. This paper provides a comprehensive review of wetland structures, classic and novel nitrogen and organics removal mechanisms along with the key environmental parameters and operational conditions that enhance removal in subsurface flow wetland systems. The critical exploration identifies the major environmental parameters such as: pH, DO, and temperature, operational factors i.e. organic carbon availability, loading, feed mode, retention time, recirculation, harvesting, and the complex role (of both parameters) on classical nitrogen and organics removal pathways. Subsequently, the necessity of further extensive research on such factors, for promoting novel nitrogen removal routes in wetland systems has also been highlighted. The expansion of the review on the influence of the unconventional wetland matrix indicates that, the structural differences and inherent properties of these media can support substantial nitrogen and organics removal from wastewater, under optimal operating conditions. Overall, the critical review illustrates the necessity of a profound knowledge on the complicated inter-relationship between nitrogen and organics removal routes, governing environmental and operational parameters, and wetland matrix for improving the treatment performances of subsurface flow wetlands.

Treatment of tannery wastewater in a pilot-scale hybrid constructed wetland system in Bangladesh

This paper reports the pollutant removal performances of a hybrid wetland system in Bangladesh for the treatment of a tannery wastewater. The system consisted of three treatment stages: a subsurface vertical flow (VF) wetland, followed by a horizontal flow (HF) and a VF wetland. The wetlands were planted with common reed (Phragmites australis), but employed different media, including organic coco-peat, cupola slag and pea gravel. In the first stage, experimental results demonstrated significant removal of ammonia (52%), nitrate (54%), BOD (78%), and COD (56%) under high organics loading rate (690 g COD m(-2)d(-1)); simultaneous nitrification, denitrification, and organics degradation were attributed to the unique characteristics of the coco-peat media, which allowed greater atmospheric oxygen transfer for nitrification and organic degradation, and supply of organic carbon for denitrification. The second stage HF wetland produced an average PO(4) removal of 61%, primarily due to adsorption by the iron-rich cupola slag media. In the third treatment stage, which was filled with gravel media, further BOD removal (78%) from the tannery wastewater depleted organic carbon, causing the accumulation of NO(3) in the wastewater. Overall, the average percentage removals of NH(3)-N, NO(3)-N, BOD, COD, and PO(4) were 86%, 50%, 98%, 98% and 87%, respectively, across the whole hybrid system. The results provided a strong evidence to support widespread research and application of the constructed wetland as a low-cost, energy-efficient, wastewater treatment technology in Bangladesh.

Batch operation of biofilter--free-water surface wetland series for enhancing nitritation and anammox

This study compared two series of ecologically engineered treatment systems for nitrogen removal by enhancing nitritation and anammox. Each treatment series had two biofilters followed by one free-water surface (FWS) wetland. The first series included biofilters packed with marble chips and demonstrated a development process in nitrogen removal through the first 26 cycles of weekly batch operation. The series then stabilized at an average ammonium removal rate of 19.2 g N/m3 x d and total nitrogen removal rate of 10.6 g N/m3 x d during the latest 22 cycles. The second series, which consisted of biofilters packed with pea pebbles, experienced decreasing nitrogen removal rates. Anammox and heterotrophic denitrification accounted for 77% and 23%, respectively, of the total nitrogen removal in the marble biofilters. Nitrogen removal rates in the FWS wetlands increased significantly with ammonium loading rates increasing up to approximately 30 g N/m3.d. Ammonium and total nitrogen removal followed zero-order reaction kinetics. The marble biofilter-wetland series reached an ammonium removal rate of 30.3 g N/m3 x d and total nitrogen removal rate of 23.0 g N/m3 x d through the latest 22 cycles of batch operation at the average ammonium loading rate of 56.4 g N/m3 x d.

Enhanced denitrification and organics removal in hybrid wetland columns: comparative experiments

This study investigated three lab-scale hybrid wetland systems with traditional (gravel) and alternative substrates (wood mulch and zeolite) for removing organic, inorganic pollutants and coliforms from a synthetic wastewater, in order to investigate the efficiency of alternative substrates, and monitor the stability of system performance. The hybrid systems were operated under controlled variations of hydraulic load (q, 0.3-0.9 m3/m2 d), influent ammoniacal nitrogen (NH4-N, 22.0-80.0 mg/L), total nitrogen (TN, 24.0-84.0 mg/L) and biodegradable organics concentration (BOD5, 14.5-102.0 mg/L). Overall, mulch and zeolite showed promising prospect as wetland substrates, as both media enhanced the removal of nitrogen and organics. Average NH4-N, TN and BOD5 removal percentages were over 99%, 72% and 97%, respectively, across all three systems, indicating stable removal performances regardless of variable operating conditions. Higher Escherichia coli removal efficiencies (99.9%) were observed across the three systems, probably due to dominancy of aerobic conditions in vertical wetland columns of the hybrid systems.

Anammox bacteria community and nitrogen removal in a strip-like wetland in the riparian zone

A strip-like wetland was constructed in the riparian zone for investigation of ammonium nitrogen (NH(3)-N) removal in the Peach River. An inner zeolite layer was set in the wetland to adsorb NH(3)-N and further to remove total nitrogen (TN). An oxygen-deficient condition with dissolved oxygen of 0.87-1.60 mg L(-1) was observed in the zeolite layer, which benefits anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox) bacteria survival. The community structure of anammox bacteria was analyzed in the zeolite layer. The analysis shows that the anammox bacterial sequences are grouped into three known distinct clusters: Candidatus Brocadia fulgida, Candidatus Brocadia anammoxidans and Candidatus Jettenia asiatica. The intensified test driven by artificial pumping shows that average removal rates of NH(3)-N and TN are 41.6 mg m(-3)d(-1) and 63.2 mg m(-3)d(-1), respectively. The normal test driven by natural hydrodynamics also verifies that NH(3)-N removal mainly happens in the zeolite layer. Microbial mechanism of TN removal in the wetland involves both the autotrophic and heterotrophic process. These results suggest that the strip-like RW can be a cost-effective approach for NH(3)-N removal and can potentially be extended to similar rivers as no extra energy is required to maintain the wetland operation.

Co-existence of anammox and denitrification for simultaneous nitrogen and carbon removal--Strategies and issues

The discovery of anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox) has greatly improved the understanding of the nitrogen cycle. Anammox provides great promise for the removal of nitrogen from wastewater, containing high concentration of ammonium. However, the presence of organic carbon is considered as unfavorable to this autotrophic process, i.e. anammox. Most of the real wastewaters contain both organic carbon and nitrogen. Under this circumstance, several processes have been established primarily for the complete removal of organic carbon. Subsequently, the wastewater containing no or low organic carbon and nitrogen is treated via a variety of nitrogen removal processes. The co-existence of anammox and denitrification could be useful for the simultaneous removal of nitrogen and organic carbon in a single system rather than a sequential chain of treatment. This review addresses the microbiology, strategies, consequences and the future research challenges in the co-existence of anammox and denitrification.

Influence of recirculation in a lab-scale vertical flow constructed wetland on the treatment efficiency of landfill leachate

Landfill leachate taken from a landfill situated in the north-western region of Bulgaria has been treated in a laboratory scale vertical flow constructed wetland (VF-CW) at different flow rates (40, 60 and 82 ml min(-1)) and recirculation ratios (time of water running through wetland to time of quiet water - 1:1; 1:2; 1:3). Young Phragmites australis was planted on the top layer of the reactor. The low flow rate (40 ml min(-1)) and recirculation ratio of 1:3 allowed removal efficiencies of 96% for COD (in 8 days), 92% for BOD(5) (in 3 days), 100% for ammonia (in 5 days) and 100% for total phosphorus (in 2 days). At the highest flow rate studied (82 ml min(-1)) and shorter quiet period (recirculation ratio 1:1) the water needs longer period of treatment (2 days more according to COD). The results of this study indicate that both flow rate and recirculation ratio should be taken into account for proper design of VF-CW.

Organic matter and nitrogen removal within field-scale constructed wetlands: reduction performance and microbial identification studies

This study investigated organic matter and nitrogen reduction and transformation mechanisms within a field-scale hybrid natural purification system. The system included an oxidation pond, two serial surface-flow wetlands with a cascade in between, and a subsurface-flow wetland receiving secondary treated dormitory sewage. The average biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal was 81 and 48%, respectively. Microbial degradation was the primary process contributing to organic reduction. Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) and ammonium decreased from 7.1 to 3.9 and 5.58 to 3.25 mg/L, respectively, within the surface-flow wetlands. The results indicated that nitrification occurred within the aerobic compartments. The nitrate levels continued to decrease from 1.26 to 1.07 mg/L, indicating nitrate reduction occurred in the surface-flow wetland. Total nitrogen decreased from 8.61 to 5.12 mg/L, equivalent to a 41% reduction, within the surface-flow wetlands. Results revealed that denitrification might concurrently occur in the compartment of surface-flow wetland. Total nitrogen continued to decrease from 5.12 to 3.99 mg/L within the anoxic subsurface-flow wetlands through denitrification transformation. The significant total nitrogen reduction observed was 65%. The predominant reduction of total nitrogen might take place within the sediment of surface flow and the subsurface-flow wetland where denitrification occurred. The microbial identification results also indicated that nitrification/denitrification might occur concurrently within the sediments of surface-flow wetlands. The results of this study show that hybrid wetland systems are a viable option for organic matter and nitrogen transformation and removal in tropical regions where tertiary wastewater systems are too costly or unable to operate. Treated water from these systems can comply with local surface water criteria rendering water for reuse and groundwater recharge.

Microbial biomass, activity and community composition in constructed wetlands

The aim of the current article is to give an overview about microbial communities and their functioning but also about factors affecting microbial activity in the three most common types (surface flow and two types of sub-surface flow) of constructed wetlands. The paper reviews the community composition and structural diversity of the microbial biomass, analyzing different aspects of microbial activity with respect to wastewater properties, specific wetland type, and environmental parameters. A brief introduction about the application of different novel molecular techniques for the assessment of microbial communities in constructed wetlands is also given. Microbially mediated processes in constructed wetlands are mainly dependent on hydraulic conditions, wastewater properties, including substrate and nutrient quality and availability, filter material or soil type, plants, and different environmental factors. Microbial biomass is within similar ranges in both horizontal and vertical subsurface flow and surface flow constructed wetlands. Stratification of the biomass but also a stratified structural pattern of the bacterial community can be seen in subsurface flow systems. Microbial biomass C/N ratio is higher in horizontal flow systems compared to vertical flow systems, indicating the structural differences in microbial communities between those two constructed wetland types. The total activity of the microbial community is in the same range, but heterotrophic growth is higher in the subsurface (vertical flow) system compared to the surface flow systems. Available species-specific data about microbial communities in different types of wetlands is scarce and therefore it is impossible make any general conclusions about the dynamics of microbial community structure in wetlands, its relationship to removal processes and operational parameters.