The content of butyl- and phenyltin derivatives in the sediment from the Port of Gdansk

The first observation of antifouling organotin compounds and booster biocides in sediments from Samsun Port area, Black Sea, Turkey

The distribution of antifouling organotin compounds (OTCs) and booster biocides in surface sediments of Samsun Port (Black Sea, Turkey) in September 2014 was investigated by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) method. The total organotin concentrations ranged from <1.0 to 669.6 ng/g, dw. Among the studied booster biocides, Diuron (<1.0-11.28 ng/g) was found in 70.58% of the investigated sediments, while Irgarol (<1.0-26.53 ng/g) was detected in two stations. Traces of fresh input organotin and high Irgarol were found at the park/repairment points of the port. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed that sediment characteristic types and Total Organic Carbon (TOC) were the main relevant parameters in the accumulation of antifouling contamination in the Port area. In comparison with several types of environmental sediment quality criteria, Samsun Port is highly polluted area. The concentrations of OTCs and Diuron maybe used as a baseline reference level for future monitoring programs in Turkish Ports.

Hazardous substances in the sediments and their pathways from potential sources in the eastern Gulf of Finland

Contamination by hazardous substances is one of the main environmental problems in the eastern Gulf of Finland, Baltic Sea. A trilateral effort to sample and analyse heavy metals (HMs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and organotins from bottom sediments in 2019-2020 were conducted along with harvesting historical data in Russian, Estonian and Finnish waters. We suggest that the input of organotins still occurs along the ship traffic routes. The tributyltin content exceeded the established quality criteria up to more than 300 times. High contamination by PAHs found near the ports, most likely originate from incomplete fuel incineration processes. The Neva River Estuary and Luga Bay might potentially suffer from severe cadmium contamination. The high ecological risk attributed to the HMs was detected at deep offshore areas. The simulated accumulation pattern qualitatively agrees with field observations of HMs in sediments, demonstrating the potential of numerical tools to tackle the hazardous substances problems.

Organotin compounds in touristic marinas of the northern Adriatic Sea: occurrence, speciation and potential recycling at the sediment-water interface

Butyltin compound (BTC) contamination was evaluated in two north Adriatic marinas, San Rocco (Italy) and Lucija (Slovenia). BTC sedimentary concentrations (121 ± 46 and 352 ± 30 ng Sn g^-1 in San Rocco and Lucija, respectively) evidenced the past use of antifouling paints, confirmed by the reduced tributyltin content (~ 46%) with respect to the sum of BTC. Elemental and organic carbon isotopic (δ¹³C) analyses of bulk sediments and its lipid and humic substances were performed in order to evaluate their role in BTC partitioning and preservation. The δ¹³C of sedimentary bulk and refractory organic matter suggested that diagenetic processes could play a role in the preservation or release of pollutants. No contamination was found in water collected from the benthic chamber and thus, fluxes at the sediment-water interface were not assessed, except for MBT efflux at Lucija (28.9 ng Sn m^-2 day^-1). Nevertheless, BTC concentrations in porewaters (up to 75 ng Sn l^-1) and rather low sediment-porewater partitioning coefficients (K_d) with respect to the data reported in the literature would suggest a potential risk of the reintroduction of BTC into the water column at both sites: at Lucija, sedimentary contamination is high despite the greater Log K_d, whilst at San Rocco, the low BTC concentration is associated with a reduced sediment affinity.

Organotin contamination in commercial and wild oysters from China: Increasing occurrence of triphenyltin

Organotin contamination in marine environment has been a public concern for many years due to its adverse impacts on biota and human health. This study investigated levels, distribution and health risks of six organotin compounds: tributyltin (TBT), dibutyltin (DBT), monobutyltin (MBT), triphenyltin (TPhT), diphenyltin (DPhT) and monophenyltin (MPhT) in commercial and wild oysters in China. The total organotin in commercial oysters ranged from 251 to 1949 ng Sn g^-1 dw (dry weight) >. Two endocrine disruptors TBT and TPhT were detected in these samples with the highest level of 68.1 ± 20.1 ng Sn g^-1 dw and 747 ± 7.3 ng Sn g^-1 dw, respectively. For wild oysters, the concentrations of total organotins varied from 33.3 to 2671 ng Sn g^-1 dw. Butyltins were dominated by TBT with the mean level of 26.1 ± 30.0 ng Sn·g^-1 dw and showed no significant spatial variation between the southern and northern coastal zones (p > 0.05). However, compared with the north, phenyltin levels especially TPhT were much higher in the south coastline (246-1484 ng Sn·g^-1 dw) due to the wider use of TPhT-based biocides in local mariculture and agriculture. Health risk assessment indicated that a daily exposure of TPhT-contaminated oysters (including commercial and wild ones) may pose adverse threats to human particularly children as the risk quotients (RQ) were higher than 1. Organotin contamination (e.g., TPhT) still occurs in the South China's coastal zones after the TBT ban, which deserves future research and effective measures to protect the marine ecosystem and human health.

Genotoxic, Histopathological and Oxidative Stress Responses in Catfish, Clarias gariepinus, Exposed to Two Antifouling Paints

BACKGROUND

Antifouling paints are enriched with biocides and employed in the maritime industry to protect moving and fixed surfaces from fouling activities of sea dwelling invertebrates. There is limited information on their effect on the non-target African catfish, Clarias gariepinus, a commonly consumed fish in Lagos.

OBJECTIVES

This study investigated the effects of two commonly used antifouling paints (Berger TBT-free (A/F783 (H)), reddish brown color and Silka Marine lead based paint, pale orange color) on a non-target catfish species, Clarias gariepinus.

METHODS

The study involved an initial 96-hour acute toxicity assay followed by chronic toxicity evaluation (using 1/10th and 1/100th 96-hour median lethal concentration (LC₅₀) values) for 28 days to determine the ability of the paints to induce micronucleus and red blood cell abnormalities, and histopathological as well as oxidative stress effects in the catfish.Examined anti-oxidative stress enzyme activities include superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), reduced glutathione (GSH) and glutathione-s-transferase (GST).

RESULTS

Acute toxicity evaluation results indicated that the Berger paint was 16.1-times more toxic than Silka paint with 96-hour LC₅₀ values of 0.71 mg/L and 11.49 mg/L, respectively. Results from the biochemical assay indicated significantly higher (P<0.05) levels of a lipid peroxidation product, malondialdehyde, in Silka-exposed catfish compared to the control. All enzymes showed significantly higher activities in Berger paint-exposed catfish compared to the control. There was evidence of micronucleated and binucleated cells in the red blood cells of fish exposed to both paints. Histopathological assessment indicated that the exposed fish gills showed evidence of abnormalities such as curved lamellae epithelial necrosis, epithelial lifting and hyperplasia. The liver samples of the catfish showed evidence of portal inflammation as well as mild to severe steatosis, while the gonads showed varying percentages of follicle degeneration.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study combined an array of biomarkers to determine the negative health impacts of two commonly used antifouling paints on non-target catfish inhabiting Lagos Lagoon. Further in situ studies are recommended to determine the current status of the lagoon fish.

ETHICS APPROVAL

Ethical approval was obtained from the Department of Zoology, University of Lagos, Post-Graduate Committee. Note that this work commenced before the establishment of the University of Lagos Ethical Committee for the use of animals and humans in scientific studies. The committee does not give retroactive approval but stands by existing approvals before its establishment. However, this study followed the World Medical Association principles on the treatment of animals used in research (https://www.wma.net/policies-post/wma-statement-on-animal-use-in-biomedical-research/), and also American Fisheries Society Guidelines for the Use of Fishes in Research (https://fisheries.org/policy-media/science-guidelines/guidelines-for-the-use-of-fishes-in-research/).

Managing dredged material in the coastal zone of the Baltic Sea

This article deals with the legal and practical recommendations for the management of dredged material in the riparian countries of the Baltic Sea. The recommendations are contained in three conventions: LC, 2000. London Convention (1972), Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea area (Helsinki Convention) (1992), the OSPAR Convention (1972). Different approaches to evaluating the contamination level of dredge spoils, used by the Baltic Sea riparian countries, have been characterized. The differences in those approaches manifest themselves by various concentration limits for contaminants, which form a basis for the classification of dredged material as either contaminated or non-contaminated, and thus determine how the spoils will be processed further. Based on the collected information about the concentration limits for contaminants of surface sediments in the coastal ports, it was pointed out that it is necessary to conduct routine monitoring of heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, tributyltin, and petroleum hydrocarbons in dredged sediments in all the Baltic Sea states. On the other hand, the monitoring of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/furans, organochlorine, and organophosphoric pesticides is only needed in locations that are suspected of historical or being the local contamination sources. Due to significant economic limitations of chemical determinations, it is important to consider a simple screening test of sediment that would say whether sediment may be "contaminated" and qualifies for more detailed and costly chemical research. It may be typical basic physical-chemical analysis of sediments or ecotoxicological classification of sediments.Despite environmentally friendly tendencies, the practical application of dredged material within the Baltic Sea area is very limited. Dredged material is most frequently stored at the specifically designated sites. From among the practical uses of dredge spoils, beach nourishment is of the highest significance.In the conclusion, the new proposed management procedure of dredged material was presented.

The occurrence of endocrine disrupting compounds in off-shore sediments from the southern Baltic Sea

This paper presents the study on the occurrence and spatial distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), butyltin compounds (BTCs), bisphenol A (BPA), and alkylphenols (APs) in sediments. The study focused mainly on off-shore surface sediments collected from the southern Baltic Sea. The pollutant concentrations were as follows: <LOQ-0.158 μg kg(-1) dw ∑9PBDEs, 0.02-1.06 μg kg(-1) dw BDE-209; <LOQ-20.13 μg Sn kg(-1) dw ∑BTCs and 2.7-1001 μg kg(-1) dw nonylphenols (NPs). The spatial distribution of the analyzed compounds was highly related to the organic matter content in the sediments. Only BDE-209 concentrations were the highest in sandy sediments collected near the point source of pollution. This suggests the fresh anthropogenic input of BDE-209 into the marine environment. The principal component analysis (PCA) confirms these observations-the distribution of ∑BTCs, NPs, and ∑9PBDEs was mainly determined by the physicochemical properties of the sediments, while the distribution of BDE-209 was also related to other factors, such as proximity to the pollution source. According to the environmental standards applied in this work, NPs, and to a lesser extent TBT, might pose a risk to aquatic life in the present study area as they occur in some sediments in concentrations higher than those that might cause adverse effects on biota.

Distribution of tributyltin in surface sediments from transitional marine-lagoon system of the south-eastern Baltic Sea, Lithuania

The current research paper presents the results of contamination by tributyltin (TBT) compounds in Klaipėda Port, which is situated in a unique marine-lagoon water interaction zone. One hundred fifty-four surface sediment samples have been taken along the whole transition path from lagoon to the sea and analysed in order to quantify the contamination rate in specific environment of high anthropogenic pressure. The detected TBT concentrations ranged from 1 to 5,200 ng Sn g(-1) of dry weight of sediment. The back-trace of horizontal distribution of TBT-contaminated sediments show obvious increase of tributyltin concentrations closer to port areas dealing with ship repair and places of dry-docking facilities. This is a clear indication that those activities are the main source of contamination in the study area. The estimated correlation of TBT concentration in sediments with total organic carbon and the amount of fine fraction (<0.063 mm) was significant for most of the stations. The TBT concentration in those sites varies from 1 to 100 ng Sn g(-1). This fact indicates that the most intensive accumulation of tributyltin is related to potential contamination source areas (ship repairing, dockyards) due to direct input of hazardous substances into the water.

Organotin compounds in surface sediments of the Southern Baltic coastal zone: a study on the main factors for their accumulation and degradation

Sediment samples were collected in the Gulf of Gdańsk, and the Vistula and Szczecin Lagoons-all located in the coastal zone of the Southern Baltic Sea-just after the total ban on using harmful organotins in antifouling paints on ships came into force, to assess their butyltin and phenyltin contamination extent. Altogether, 26 sampling stations were chosen to account for different potential exposure to organotin pollution and environmental conditions: from shallow and well-oxygenated waters, shipping routes and river mouths, to deep and anoxic sites. Additionally, the organic carbon content, pigment content, and grain size of all the sediment samples were determined, and some parameters of the near-bottom water (oxygen content, salinity, temperature) were measured as well. Total concentrations of butyltin compounds ranged between 2 and 182 ng Sn g(-1) d.w., whereas phenyltins were below the detection limit. Sediments from the Gulf of Gdańsk and Vistula Lagoon were found moderately contaminated with tributyltin, whereas those from the Szczecin Lagoon were ranked as highly contaminated. Butyltin degradation indices prove a recent tributyltin input into the sediments adjacent to sites used for dumping for dredged harbor materials and for anchorage in the Gulf of Gdańsk (where two big international ports are located), and into those collected in the Szczecin Lagoon. Essential factors affecting the degradation and distribution of organotins, based on significant correlations between butyltins and environmental variables, were found in the study area.

Seasonal changes in organotin compounds in water and sediment samples from the semi-closed Port of Gdynia

The effect of seasonal changes on the distribution of organotin compounds (OTC) in the sediments and seawater from the docks of the Port of Gdynia was investigated. Sediment and seawater samples were collected from four industrial docks in February (winter) and June (summer) in 2009. The samples were analyzed for butyltin, phenyltin, octyltin, and tricyclohexyltin (total of 9 OTC derivatives). The fine fraction (<0.063 mm) accumulated the highest concentration of OTC, although it was not the dominant fraction in the sediment samples from the Port of Gdynia. The average concentration of TBT, DBT and MBT in collected samples were as follows: 4400; 2188; 730 ng cation g⁻¹ d.w. (February) 3638; 1590; 474 ng cation g⁻¹ d.w. (June) in the fine sediment samples, 2805; 1266; 485 ng cation g⁻¹ d.w. (February) in <2.00 mm sediment fractions and 118.6; 39.2; 25.3 ng cation L⁻¹ (February) and 46.5; 12.6; 8.2 ng cation L⁻¹ (June) in the water samples. Higher concentrations of butyltin derivatives (BT) were observed in samples collected in February than in those collected in June. Seasonal changes in BT correlate well with changes in the water pH and concentrations of organic matter and can be attributed to sorption/desorption to sediments, photodegradation and biodegradation. Although the Port of Gdynia does not represent the natural features of a marine environment, seasonal variations recorded in the pH values as well as BT, organic carbon and biogenic element concentrations seem to be influenced by temperature and microbial activity.

Phenyltins in surface sediments of the Visakhapatnam harbour, India

Twenty-two surface sediment samples were collected from Visakhapatnam harbour, east coast of India, and analysed for monophenyltin (MPT), diphenyltin (DPT), triphenyltin (TPT), total bacteria, and TPT tolerant bacteria. Concentrations of MPT, DPT and TPT varied between 1-26, 3-28, and 0.31-145 ng Sn g(-1) dry wt, respectively. Phenyltin concentrations were influenced by ship related activities, agricultural waste and sewage. These phenyltin concentrations indicate sediments are contaminated. Abundance of TPT tolerant bacteria was strongly influenced by the levels of phenyltins.

Organotin compounds in surface sediments from seaports on the Gulf of Gdańsk (southern Baltic coast)

Sediment samples were collected in two Polish ports of international significance--the Port of Gdańsk and the Port of Gdynia (Gulf of Gdańsk, Baltic Sea)--in order to assess their butyltin and phenyltin contamination; this was done in 2008, just after the total ban on using harmful organotins in antifouling paints on ships came into force. Altogether, 21 sampling stations were chosen to present a diversity of port sites: from port canals and shipyards to anchorages and dumping sites. The organic carbon content and grain size of all the sediment samples were determined, and some environmental parameters (oxygen content, salinity) were measured as well. Total concentrations of butyltin compounds in sediment samples were very different and ranged between 1 and 18,520 ng Sn g(-1) d.w. Phenyltin contents were distinctly lower and ranged from below the limit of detection (most samples) to 660 ng Sn g(-1) d.w. The highest concentrations of organotins were found in the shipyards, the maximum total organotin content (19,180 ng Sn g(-1) d.w.) being found in the Gdańsk Ship Repair Yard 'Remontowa'. Butyltin degradation indices indicate a recent tributyltin input into the port sediments. The results obtained from this work prove that the international ban on using organotins may not be enough to protect the marine environment. It is necessary to monitor organotin contamination in ports and establish concentration limits of these compounds for the disposal of dredged material at sea.

Testes specific accumulation of tributyltin in turbot Scophthalmus maximus from the southern Baltic Sea

Concentrations of tributyltin (TBT) and its breakdown products, dibutyltin (DBT) and monobutyltin (MTB), were measured in tissues of male turbot Scophthalmus maximus from the Gulf of Gdańsk (GDA) and the Pomeranian Bay (POM) in the southern Baltic Sea. The fish (n=206) were collected during the spawning seasons of 2008-2009. All specimens were at the same maturity stage and in full breeding condition. The ripe testes of the turbot appeared to be a target tissue for TBT accumulation. We report that TBT is extensively eliminated at the specific whole-body level and that the males from TBT-contaminated location (GDA) reach this specific level at 23-24 cm in total length.

Enzymatic activities in spermatozoa and butyltin concentrations in Baltic turbot (Scophthalmus maximus)

Spermatozoal enzymes of fish (NAD+- and NADP-dependent dehydrogenases and creatine kinase (CK)) were previously determined to be sensitive to tributyltin (TBT) in laboratory experiments and were thus indicated for use as biomarkers for TBT exposure. However, the potential ability of spermatozoal enzymes as biomarkers of TBT exposure has never been recapitulated in a field study. For this purpose, the kinetic activities of spermatozoal enzymes of the natural turbot Scophthalmus maximus population from the Gulf of Gdańsk (GDA) and the Pomeranian Bay (POM) in the southern Baltic Sea were measured. Gas chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry was used to determine the concentrations of TBT and its breakdown products, dibutyltin (DBT) and monobutyltin (MBT), in the muscle, liver and testes of the male turbot. Males from GDA had significantly higher enzymatic activities and butyltin (BT) content in tissues than those from POM. A general linear model (GLM) showed that lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), malate dehydrogenase (MDH), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) and CK activities increased significantly with BT concentration in the testes and liver. We indicate the potential effects of TBT pollution on the spermatozoal enzymes of Baltic turbot.

Three decades of TBT contamination in sediments around a large scale shipyard

Tributyltin (TBT) contamination in sediments was investigated in the vicinity of a large-scale shipyard in the years after the implementation of a total ban on the use of TBT based antifouling paints in Korea. Extremely high level of TBT (36,292ng Sn/g) in surface sediment was found at a station in front of a drydock and near surface runoff outfall of the shipyard. TBT concentration in surface sediments of Gohyeon Bay, where the shipyard is located, showed an apparent decreased TBT concentration gradient from the shipyard towards the outer bay. The vertical distribution of TBT contamination derived from a sediment core analysis demonstrated a significant positive correlation (r(2)=0.88; p<0.001) with the annual tonnage of ship-construction in the shipyard within the past three decades. TBT concentrations at six stations surveyed before (2003) and seven years after (2010) the total ban showed no significant differences (p>0.05). Despite the ban on the use of TBT, including ocean going vessels, surface sediments are still being heavily contaminated with TBT, and its levels well exceeded the sediment quality guideline or screening values.

Butyltin contamination in sediments and seawater from Kaohsiung Harbor, Taiwan

The distribution of butyltin (BT) compounds in the sediments and seawater, at the river outfalls, fishing ports, shipyards, and industrial zone docks of Kaohsiung Harbor, Taiwan were investigated. Twenty sediment and seawater samples were collected from various locations in the Harbor in 2006 and analyzed for monobutyltin (MBT), dibutyltin (DBT), and tributyltin (TBT). Results showed that the concentration of total BTs varied from 1.5 to 151 ng/g in sediment samples, with TBT being the major component of the sediment samples. This suggests that sediments could be the most possible sink of TBT brought by the sorption mechanism. The concentrations of BTs ranged from 9.7 to 270 ng/L in seawater samples, whereas DBT and MBT, the degradation byproducts of TBT, were mainly the most abundant BT compounds of the seawater samples. This indicates that the abiotic or biotic degradation potential of TBT was significant. Spatially, the highest concentrations of BTs were observed in both water and sediment samples collected from the shipyard and fishing port areas. This indicates that the shipping-related activities (e.g., navigation, ship repair, and ship building) would contribute most of BTs in the environment. Results show that the concentrations of degradation products (DBT and MBT) were related closely to temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen (DO), and chlorophyll-a of the seawater. This implies that seasonal changes of the water parameters controlled the degradation of TBT in seawater. The observed levels of BT compounds in both seawater and sediments were much higher than those required to induce toxic effects on marine organisms, suggesting that appropriate TBT control strategies should be taken in Kaohsiung Harbor.

Development of the extraction method for the simultaneous determination of butyl-, phenyl- and octyltin compounds in sewage sludge

The toxicity and bioaccumulation of organotin compounds (OTCs) led to the development of sensitive and selective analytical methods for their determination. In the past much attention was assigned to the study of OTCs in biological samples, water and sediments, coming mostly from marine environment. Little information about OTCs pollution of terrestrial ecosystems is available. In order to optimise the extraction method for simultaneous determination of butyl-, phenyl- and octyltin compounds in sewage sludge five different extractants (tetramethylammonium hydroxide, HCl in methanol, glacial acetic acid, mixture of acetic acid and methanol (3:1), and mixture of acetic acid, methanol and water (1:1:1)), the presence or not of a complexing agent (tropolone), and the use of different modes of extraction (mechanical stirring, microwave and ultrasonic assisted extraction) were tested. Extracted OTCs were derivatised with sodium tetraethylborate and determined by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometer. Quantitative extraction of butyl-, phenyl- and octyltin compounds was obtained by the use of glacial acetic acid as extractant and mechanical stirring for 16h or sonication for 30 min. The limits of detection and quantification for OTCs investigated in sewage sludge were in the ng S ng(-1) range.