Hens can ingest extruded polystyrene in rearing buildings and lay eggs contaminated with hexabromocyclododecane

Non-destructive egg breed separation using advanced VOC analytical techniques HSSE-GC-MS, PTR-TOF-MS, and SIFT-MS: Assessment of performance and systems' complementarity

Over the past decade, advanced analytical techniques have been utilized to examine volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in eggs. These VOCs offer valuable insights into factors such as freshness, fertility, the presence of cracks, embryo sex, and breed. In our study, we assessed three mass spectrometry-based systems (headspace sorptive extraction gas chromatography-mass spectrometry; HSSE-GC-MS, proton transfer reaction time-of-flight-mass spectrometry; PTR-TOF-MS; and selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry; SIFT-MS) to analyze and identify VOCs present in intact hatching eggs from three distinct breeds (Dekalb white layer, Shaver brown layer, and Ross 308 broiler). The eggs were sampled on incubation days 2 and 8, to identify VOCs that distinguish breeds irrespective of incubation day. VOC measurements were conducted on 15 eggs per breed by placing them together with PDMS-coated stir bars inside inert Teflon® air sampling bags. After an accumulation period of 2 h, the headspace was analyzed using PTR-TOF-MS and SIFT-MS, while the VOCs adsorbed onto the stir bars were analyzed using GC-MS for additional compound identification. Partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) models were constructed for breed differentiation, and variable selection was performed. As a result, 111 VOCs were identified using HSSE-GC-MS, with alcohols and esters being the most abundant. The PLS-DA models demonstrated the efficacy of breed discrimination, with the HSSE-GC-MS and the PTR-TOF-MS exhibiting the highest balanced accuracy of 95.5 % using a reduced set of 11 VOCs and 5 product ions, respectively. The SIFT-MS model had a balanced accuracy of 92.8 % with a reduced set of 11 product ions. Furthermore, complementarity was observed between HSSE-GC-MS, which primarily selected higher molecular weight VOCs, and PTR-TOF-MS and SIFT-MS. A higher correlation was found for compound abundances between the HSSE-GC-MS and the PTR-TOF-MS relative to the SIFT-MS, indicating that the PTR-TOF-MS was better suited to quantify specific compounds identified by the HSSE-GC-MS. Finally, the findings support the presence of VOCs originating from both synthetic and natural sources, highlighting the ability of the VOC analysis systems to non-destructively perform quality control and reveal differences in management practices or biological information encoded in eggs.

The epigenetic hallmark of early-life α-hexabromocyclododecane exposure: From cerebellar 6-mA levels to locomotor performance in adulthood

There is a growing evidence that methylation at the N6 position of adenine (6-mA), whose modulation occurs primarily during development, would be a reliable epigenetic marker in eukaryotic organisms. The present study raises the question as to whether early-life exposure to α-hexabromocyclododecane (α-HBCDD), a brominated flame retardant, may trigger modifications in 6-mA epigenetic hallmarks in the brain during the development which, in turn could affect the offspring behaviour in adulthood. Pregnant Wistar rats were split into two groups: control and α-HBCDD (66 ng/kg/per os, G0-PND14). At PND1, α-HBCDD levels were assessed in brain and liver by LC-MS/MS. At PND14, DNA was isolated from the offspring's cerebellum. DNA methylation was measured by 6-mA-specific immunoprecipitation and Illumina® sequencing (MEDIP-Seq). Locomotor activity was finally evaluated at PND120. In our early-life exposure model, we confirmed that α-HBCDD can cross the placental barrier and be detected in pups at birth. An obvious post-exposure phenotype with locomotor deficits was observed when the rats reached adulthood. This was accompanied by sex-specific over-methylation of genes involved in the insulin signaling pathway, MAPK signaling pathway as well as serotonergic and GABAergic synapses, potentially altering the normal process of neurodevelopment with consequent motor impairments crystalized at adulthood.

Review: Production factors affecting the quality of chicken table eggs and egg products in Europe

The hen's egg (Gallus gallus) is an animal product of great agronomic interest, with a world production of 70.9 million tonnes in 2018. China accounted for 35% of world production, followed by North America (12% of world production), the European Union (7.0 million tonnes, 10% of world production) and India (5.0 million tonnes, 7% of world production). In France, 16-17 billion eggs are produced annually (14.5 billion for table eggs) and more than 1 200 billion worldwide. In 2019, egg production increased by 3.3% compared to 2018, mainly due to the increase in Asian production, which has risen by 42% since 2000. Chicken eggs are widely used either as a low-cost, high nutritional quality food cooked by the consumer (more than 100 billion eggs consumed in Europe), or incorporated as an ingredient in many food products. The various production methods have changed considerably over the last 15 years with the consideration of animal welfare and changes in European regulations. In Europe, fewer and fewer eggs are produced in confinement and there has been a strong growth in the number of systems giving access to an outdoor run. In this review, we describe the different ways in which eggs are produced and processed into egg products to meet the growing demand for ready-to-use food products. We analyse the effect of this evolution of hen-rearing systems on the set of characteristics of eggs and egg products that determine their quality. We describe the risks and benefits associated with these new production methods and their influence or lack of influence on commercial, nutritional, microbial and chemical contamination risk characteristics, as well as the evolution of the image for the consumer. The latter covers the ethical, cultural and environmental dimensions associated with the way the egg is produced.

Update of the risk assessment of hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDDs) in food

The European Commission asked EFSA to update its 2011 risk assessment on hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDDs) in food. HBCDDs, predominantly mixtures of the stereoisomers α-, β- and γ-HBCDD, were widely used additive flame retardants. Concern has been raised because of the occurrence of HBCDDs in the environment, food and in humans. Main targets for toxicity are neurodevelopment, the liver, thyroid hormone homeostasis and the reproductive and immune systems. The CONTAM Panel concluded that the neurodevelopmental effects on behaviour in mice can be considered the critical effects. Based on effects on spontaneous behaviour in mice, the Panel identified a lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL) of 0.9 mg/kg body weight (bw) as the Reference Point, corresponding to a body burden of 0.75 mg/kg bw. The chronic intake that would lead to the same body burden in humans was calculated to be 2.35 μg/kg bw per day. The derivation of a health-based guidance value (HBGV) was not considered appropriate. Instead, the margin of exposure (MOE) approach was applied to assess possible health concerns. Over 6,000 analytical results for HBCDDs in food were used to estimate the exposure across dietary surveys and age groups of the European population. The most important contributors to the chronic dietary LB exposure to HBCDDs were fish meat, eggs, livestock meat and poultry. The CONTAM Panel concluded that the resulting MOE values support the conclusion that current dietary exposure to HBCDDs across European countries does not raise a health concern. An exception is breastfed infants with high milk consumption, for which the lowest MOE values may raise a health concern.

Enantiomeric fraction of hexabromocyclododecanes in foodstuff from the Belgian market

Diet is considered a major route of human exposure to hexabromocyclododecane, a chiral environmental contaminant. A previous study reported on the occurrence of hexabromocyclododecane diastereoisomers in food items of animal origin collected in Belgium. The present study reports further results on corresponding enantiomeric fractions of the same samples. None of the samples could be considered as racemic for the α-isomer suggesting that foodstuff contamination occurred prior to death of the corresponding producing animal and was not the result of the food item being in contact with technical HBCDD. Non-racemic chiral signatures were also observed for β- and γ-isomers. We conclude that, depending on their dietary habits, different individuals might be overall exposed to non-racemic profiles. Considering that toxicological effects are enantiomer-dependent, this could modulate potential adverse effects.

Do farming conditions influence brominated flame retardant levels in pig and poultry products?

Brominated flame retardants (BFR) are primarily used as flame retardant additives in insulating materials. These lipophilic compounds can bioaccumulate in animal tissues, leading to human exposure via food ingestion. Although their concentration in food is not yet regulated, several of these products are recognised as persistent organic pollutants; they are thought to act as endocrine disruptors. The present study aimed to characterise the occurrence of two families of BFRs (hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE)) in hen eggs and broiler or pig meat in relation to their rearing environments. Epidemiological studies were carried out on 60 hen egg farms (34 without an open-air range, 26 free-range), 57 broiler farms (27 without an open-air range, 30 free-range) and 42 pig farms without an open-air range in France from 2013 to 2015. For each farm, composite samples from either 12 eggs, five broiler pectoral muscles or three pig tenderloins were obtained. Eight PBDE congeners and three HBCDD stereoisomers were quantified in product fat using gas chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry, or high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, respectively. The frequencies of PBDE detection were 28% for eggs (median concentration 0.278 ng/g fat), 72% for broiler muscle (0.392 ng/g fat) and 49% for pig muscle (0.403 ng/g fat). At least one HBCDD stereoisomer was detected in 17% of eggs (0.526 ng/g fat), 46% of broiler muscle (0.799 ng/g fat) and 36% of pig muscle (0.616 ng/g fat). Results were similar in concentration to those obtained in French surveillance surveys from 2012 to 2016. Nevertheless, the contamination of free-range eggs and broilers was found to be more frequent than that of conventional ones, suggesting that access to an open-air range could be an additional source of exposure to BFRs for animals. However, the concentration of BFRs in all products remained generally very low. No direct relationship could be established between the occurrence of BFRs in eggs and meat and the characteristics of farm buildings (age, building materials). The potential presence of BFRs in insulating materials is not likely to constitute a significant source of animal exposure as long as the animals do not have direct access to these materials.

A PBPK model to study the transfer of α-hexabromocyclododecane (α-HBCDD) to tissues of fast- and slow-growing broilers

A physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model was developed to investigate the production-specific factors involved in the transfer of α-hexabromocyclododecane (α-HBCDD) to broiler meat. The model describes growth and lipid deposition in tissues of fast- (FG) and slow- (SG) growing broilers from hatching to slaughter and simulates the exposure through the ingestion of contaminated feed or expanded polystyrene insulation material. Growth parameters were obtained from the literature while parameters relative to uptake, distribution, and elimination of α-HBCDD were adjusted using results of a previous experiment involving broilers exposed through feed throughout the rearing period or allowed to depurate before slaughter. The model was used to compare the two main edible tissues, breast and leg meat, as well as skin, and to investigate the variability within strain. Between strains and within strain, α-HBCDD assimilation efficiency (AE) is higher when the animals are slaughtered young or heavy. However, increasing slaughter age will lower α-HBCDD concentration in tissues, due to dilution. Based on fresh weight, the concentration of α-HBCDD in breast muscles and skin tends to be lower in SG than in FG broilers (-30 to +10%), while it is 10% to 80% higher in leg muscles. Compared to breast muscles, consuming leg muscles would elicit an exposure 9 and 16 times higher in FG and SG broilers, respectively. The consumption of skin together with muscles would multiply the exposure by up to 36 times compared to breast muscle alone. In case of acute exposure, the α-HBCDD concentration in tissues increased sharply, all the more since the animals are lighter in weight, and then decreased rapidly. In FG broilers, dilution through growth contributed for up to 37%, 28% and 97% to the decontamination of breast muscles, leg muscles and skin, respectively, depending on the duration of depuration before slaughter.

Assessment of Dechlorane Plus and related compounds in foodstuffs and estimates of daily intake from Lebanese population

Dechlorane Related Compounds (DRCs), including Dechlorane Plus (syn/anti-DP or syn/anti-DDC-CO) and related compounds (Dec-601 or DDC-ID, Dec-602 or DDC-DBF, Dec-603 or DDC-Ant and Chlordene Plus or DDC-PDD), are a group of polychlorinated flame retardants of concern since they were first reported in various environmental and biota matrices about one decade ago. In this work, we investigated the dietary intake of the Lebanese population to these lipophilic environmental contaminants upon the evaluation of selected foodstuff contamination. Collected food samples (n = 58) were selected to be representative of the lipid fraction of the whole diet of the Beiruti population. The samples were analysed using pressurized liquid extraction, silica multilayer column followed by gel permeation chromatography for purification and GC-EI-HRMS for separation and detection. Detection frequency of at least one compound among Dechlorane Plus (syn-DP and anti-DP), Dechlorane 602, 603 and Chlordene Plus) was 91%. The mean concentrations of ∑₆DRCs, by food group, ranged from 4.7 to 29.5 pg g^-1 wet weight in lowerbound (LB) and from 6.7 to 76.9 pg g^-1 wet weight in upperbound (UB). Based on food habits, the dietary intake of Beiruti adults was estimated to be between 3.71 (LB) and 5.61 (UB) ng day^-1. Dechlorane Plus and Dechlorane 602 were the dominant compounds, contributing to 70 and 24% of the total intake (LB value), respectively. This study reports for the first time the occurrence of Dechloranes in Lebanese foods and proposes corresponding deterministic dietary exposure scenario.

Occurrence of Dechlorane Plus and related compounds in catfish (Silurus spp.) from rivers in France

Dechlorane related compounds (DRCs), including Dechlorane Plus (syn-DP and anti-DP), Dechlorane-601, -602, -603 and Chlordene Plus (CP), constitute a group of polychlorinated flame retardants (FRs) that are still of industrial use. In particular, DRCs have been detected in various environmental matrices and in different aquatic and terrestrial biota, thus exhibiting bioaccumulation and biomagnification potentials. The present study aimed at producing first occurrence data of a range of DRCs in Silurus spp. samples from different rivers located in France. Determination was carried out by gas chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry after a sample clean-up based on a multilayer silica column and gel permeation chromatography. The concentration of monitored ΣDRCs ranged from 1.58 to 408 pg g^-1 wet weight (54-11100 pg g^-1 lipid weight). The fractional abundance of syn- and anti-DP stereoisomers was similar to that reported by other studies with an average equal to 0.60. Dec-601 was not detected in any sample. Detection frequencies ranged between 34 and 100% for other DRCs. Investigated correlations between DRCs and polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs) suggest a link with lipid content but independent contamination sources.