Non-porous membrane-assisted liquid–liquid extraction of UV filter compounds from water samples

Prospecting toxicity of the avobenzone sunscreen in plants

Avobenzone (AVO) is a sunscreen with high global production and is constantly released into the environment. Incorporating sewage biosolids for fertilization purposes, the leaching from cultivated soils, and the use of wastewater for irrigation explain its presence in the soil. There is a lack of information about the impact of this sunscreen on plants. In the present study, the ecotoxicity of AVO was tested at concentrations 1, 10, 100, and 1,000 ng/L. All concentrations caused a reduction in root growth of Allium cepa, Cucumis sativus, and Lycopersicum esculentum seeds, as well as a mitodepressive effect, changes in the mitotic spindle and a reduction in root growth of A. cepa bulbs. The cell cycle was disturbed because AVO disarmed the enzymatic defense system of root meristems, leading to an accumulation of hydroxyl radicals and superoxides, besides lipid peroxidation in cells. Therefore, AVO shows a high potential to cause damage to plants and can negatively affect agricultural production and the growth of non-cultivated plants.

Acute toxicity assessment of nine organic UV filters using a set of biotests

UV filters in environmental compartments are a source of concern related to their ecotoxicological effects. However, little is known about UV filters' toxicity, particularly those released into the environment as mixtures. Acute toxicity of nine organic UV filters benzophenone-1, benzophenone-2, benzophenone-3, 4-methoxy benzylidene camphor, octocrylene, ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate, 2-ethylhexyl salicylate, homosalate, and butyl methoxydibenzoylmethane was determined. UV filter solutions were tested as single, binary, and ternary mixtures of various compositions. Single solutions were tested using a set of bio tests, including tests on saline crustaceans (Artemia franciscana), freshwater crustaceans (Daphnia magna), marine bacteria (Aliivibrio fischeri), and freshwater plants (Lemna minor). The tests represent different stages of the trophic chain, and hence their overall results could be used to risk assessment concerning various water reservoirs. The toxicity of binary and ternary mixtures was analyzed using the standardized Microtox® method. Generally, organic UV filters were classified as acutely toxic. Octocrylene was the most toxic for Arthemia franciscana (LC50 = 0.55 mg L-1) and Daphnia magna (EC50 = 2.66-3.67 mg L-1). The most toxic against freshwater plants were homosalate (IC50 = 1.46 mg L-1) and octocrylene (IC50 = 1.95 mg L-1). Ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate (EC50 = 1.38-2.16 mg L-1) was the most toxic for marine bacteria. The least toxic for crustaceans and plants were benzophenone-1 (EC50 = 6.15-46.78 mg L-1) and benzophenone-2 (EC50 = 14.15-54.30 mg L-1), while 4-methoxy benzylidene camphor was the least toxic for marine bacteria (EC50 = 12.97-15.44 mg L-1). Individual species differ in their sensitivity to the tested organic UV filters. An assessment of the toxicity of mixtures indicates high and acute toxicity to marine bacteria after exposition to a binary mixture of benzophenone-2 with octocrylene, 2-ethylhexyl salicylate, or homosalate. The toxicity of mixtures was lower than single solutions predicting antagonistic interaction between chemicals.

Graphical abstract

Acute toxicity characterization of organic UV-filters and chronic exposure revealing multigenerational effects in DAPHNIA MAGNA

Organic ultraviolet (UV) filters have often been detected in aquatic ecosystems in concentrations ranging from ng/L to μg/L. However, both their acute and chronic effects on aquatic organisms have been insufficiently explored. This study aimed to evaluate acute toxicity of some of the main UV filters used worldwide (2-ethylhexyl,4-methoxycinnamate/EHMC, avobenzone/AVO, benzophenone-3/BP-3, and octocrylene/OC), in three aquatic organisms (Artemia salina, Desmodesmus subspicatus, and Daphnia magna), and to further investigate multigenerational effects in D. magna. After acute toxicity was confirmed, daphnids were chronically exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of UV filters for two consecutive generations (F0 and F1), and reproductive endpoints, as well as catalase (CAT) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activities, were assessed. EHMC showed the most toxic potential, with the lowest EC₅₀ values for the three organisms. On the other hand, reproductive delays and a decrease in the reproduction rate were observed in the F1 generation exposed to AVO (4.4 µg/L), BP-3 (0.17 µg/L), EHMC (0.2 µg/L), and MIX. An increase of the CAT activity in organisms exposed to BP-3 and EHMC suggested induction of the antioxidant system. Although no reproductive effect was observed in the first generation, toxic effects obtained in the F1 revealed the importance of multigenerational studies and the potential harm of UV filters to the life cycle of D. magna, even at environmentally relevant concentrations. This emphasizes the need for further studies considering these levels of exposure and more realistic experimental designs to better understand their potential risks. Environmentally relevant concentrations of Organic UV filters are not lethal to aquatic organisms, however may affect reproductive parameters in Daphnia magna though multigenerational exposures.

Evaluation of the degradation capacity of WWTP sludge enrichment cultures towards several organic UV filters and the isolation of octocrylene-degrading microorganisms

Organic UV filters are present in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) due to the use of these compounds in many personal care products (PCPs) and their subsequent release into the wastewater system from showering/bathing. Once in the wastewater system, organic UV filters generally partition into the solid phase but might also undergo other processes, such as degradation by microorganisms. To further understand the fate of organic UV filters in WWTPs, the degradation of 7 UV filters by WWTP sludge was investigated The UV filters 2-ethylhexyl salicylate (ES), homosalate (HS), butyl methoxydibenzoylmethane (BM) and octocrylene (OC) were degraded after 20-60 days. The rest of the filters tested, namely, bis-ethylhexyloxyphenol methoxyphenyl triazine (BEMT), methylene bis-benzotriazolyl tetramethylbutylphenol (MBBT) and diethylhexyl butamido triazone (DBT), did not degrade even after 120 days of incubation. The microbial community from the microcosms degrading ES, HS, OC and BM was transferred every 30 days into new microcosms to enrich for microorganisms capable of utilizing the individual UV filters for growth. The enrichment cultures continued to degrade throughout 20 transfers. The microbial community was clearly different between the enrichments degrading ES, HS, OC and BM, meaning that the microbial community was strongly influenced by the UV filter present. Furthermore, several strains were isolated from OC-degrading cultures and two of these strains, Gordonia sp. strain OC_S5 and Sphingopyxis sp. strain OC_4D, degraded OC with and without other carbon sources present. These experiments show that several organic UV filters can be degraded by a specific set of microorganisms. The lack of degradation observed for BEMT, MBBT and DBT is probably due to limited bioavailability. Indeed, this is the first biodegradation study of these filters, in addition to being the first description of ES and HS degradation in microcosm experiments.

Review of the environmental fate and effects of two UV filter substances used in cosmetic products

Sunscreens containing UV filters, such as octocrylene (OCR) and butyl-methoxydibenzoylmethane (BMDBM), have been increasingly used to protect human skin against UV radiation. Both substances have been detected in monitoring studies in the freshwater and marine environment, and there has been concern about potential effects on aquatic organisms. In the present work, the environmental fate and occurrence, bioaccumulation and ecotoxicity including endocrine effects of OCR and BMDBM are reviewed focusing on the aquatic environment. The two UV filters have low water solubilities and a high sorption potential. The available data indicate that OCR is poorly biodegradable. BMDBM lacks anaerobic and inherent biodegradability. However, it was biodegraded to variable degrees in simulation studies. Measured concentrations in the freshwater and marine environment were found to vary considerably between sites, depending on the extent of recreational activities or wastewater discharges. While the bioconcentration factor of OCR in fish is below the threshold value for bioaccumulation according to EU REACH, the available data for BMDBM do not allow a definitive conclusion on its bioaccumulation potential. Analysis of the aquatic toxicity data showed that data quality was often limited, e.g. in the case of effect concentrations substantially exceeding maximum achievable dissolved concentrations. Up to their limit of water solubility, OCR and BMDBM showed no toxicity to microorganisms, algae, and corals, and no acute toxicity to daphnids and fish. In chronic daphnid tests, OCR was highly toxic, whereas BMDBM lacked toxicity. Reliable water-sediment toxicity tests are required to further evaluate possible effects on benthic invertebrates. The available data do not provide evidence for endocrine effects of the two UV filters on fish. In order to assess potential environmental risks caused by OCR and BMDBM, a validated exposure model for estimating direct emission of UV filters into the aquatic environment and data from systematic, longer-term monitoring studies are needed.

The presence of selected UV filters in a freshwater recreational reservoir and fate in controlled experiments

UV filters present in sunscreen and other cosmetics are directly released into the environment during aquatic recreational activities. The extent to which the wide range of UV filters pose a risk to the environment remains unclear. This study investigated the occurrence and dissipation of selected organic UV filters at a recreational site (Enoggera Reservoir, Queensland, Australia) over 12 h. Furthermore, different possible degradation processes were investigated in a controlled off-site experiment with surface water exposed to natural light. Half-lives were estimated for ten UV filters. In Enoggera Reservoir, seven UV filters were detected, of which the most prevalent were octocrylene, avobenzone (BMDBM) and enzacamene (4-MBC). Summed concentrations of the seven UV filters ranged from 7330 ng L^-1 at 13:00 h to 2550 ng L^-1 at 21:00 h. In the degradation experiment, four UV filters showed no significant change over time. The fate of these compounds in the environment is likely to be mainly influenced by dispersion. Half-lives of the remaining UV filters were 6.6 h for amiloxate (IMC), 20 h for benzophenone 1, 23 h for octinoxate (EHMC), 30 h for 3-benzylidene camphor, 34 h for 4-MBC and 140 h for dioxybenzone (BP8). The degree of susceptibility to photodegradation and biodegradation was generally consistent within a structural class. The fate and half-lives of UV filters are variable and should be considered on a per site basis when assessing environmental risk.

A Systematic Review on Occurrence and Ecotoxicity of Organic UV Filters in Aquatic Organisms

The growing production of cosmetic products such as organic UV filters (OUVFs) in recent years has raised concern regarding their safety to human and environmental health. The inability of wastewater treatment plants in removing these chemical entities and their high octanol-water partition coefficient values tend to result in the persistence of OUVFs in several environmental matrices, leading these to be categorized as "emerging environmental contaminants" because of their unknown risk. Besides aquatic ecosystem contamination, the application of sludge disposal equally threatens terrestrial biota. Besides, the available reviews focusing on levels of OUVFs in aqueous systems (freshwater and marine), instrumental analysis from various samples, and specific toxicity effects, compiled information on the ecotoxicity of OUVFs is currently lacking. Hence, the present manuscript systematically reviews the ecotoxicity of OUVFs in freshwater and marine organisms occupying lower to higher trophic levels, including the underlying mechanisms of action and current knowledge gaps. The available scientific evidence suggests that OUVFs are a prime candidate for environmental concern due to their potential toxic effects. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first document detailing the toxicological effects of OUVFs in aquatic organisms.

Emerging contaminants in aquatic environments and coastal waters affected by urban wastewater discharge in Thailand: An ecological risk perspective

Emerging contaminants such as synthetic musks and UV-filters as ingredients personal care products were widely used in human daily life in Thailand. The occurrence and fate of four synthetic musks and nine UV-filters were investigated in eight full-scale sewage treatment plants (STPs) and their receiving aquatic environments in Bangkok and Pattaya, Thailand. All target compounds were detected in every single sample from STPs and surface water with magnitude from ng/L to μg/L. HHCB-lactone and HMS were found as the predominant musk and UV filter in influent and effluent of STPs, respectively. HHCB-lactone was also found with the highest concentration up to 79501 ng/g (dw) in the sludge. Low removal efficiency range from -37% (HHCB-lactone) to 58% (AHTN) were found for four musks in the STPs. The total emission of Σ₄musks and Σ₉UV-filters were estimated to be up to 16.7 mg/person/day and 0.28 mg/person/day by the STPs. Three synthetic musks and seven UV-filters were detected in fish from the receiving river. Concentration and emission of musks and UV filters found in this study from Thailand were much higher than those reported in many other countries worldwide. The preliminary ecological risk assessment showed that Musk xylene, 4-MBC and OC may pose high risk to aquatic organisms in the riverine and estuarine environment in Thailand.

Organic Micropollutants in Wastewater Effluents and the Receiving Coastal Waters, Sediments, and Biota of Lyttelton Harbour (Te Whakaraupō), New Zealand

Coastal ecosystems are receiving environments for micropollutants due to high levels of associated anthropogenic activities. Effluent discharges from wastewater treatment plants are a significant source of micropollutants to coastal environments. Wastewater effluents, seawater, sediments, and green-lipped mussels (Perna canaliculus) in Lyttelton Harbour (Te Whakaraupō), Christchurch, New Zealand, were analysed for a suite of personal care products and steroid hormones during a 1-year period. In wastewater effluents, the concentration of methyl paraben (mParaben), ethyl paraben (eParaben), propyl paraben (pParaben), butyl paraben (bParaben), 4-t-octylphenol (OP), 4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC), benzophenone-3 (BP-3), benzophenone-1 (BP-1), triclosan, methyl triclosan (mTric), Bisphenol A (BPA), Estrone (E1), 17β-estradiol (E2), 17α-ethinyl estradiol (EE2), and Estriol (E3) ranged from < 0.6 to 429 ng L^-1 and was dominated by OP, 4-MBC, BP-3, triclosan, BP-1, and BPA. In seawater, 4-MBC, BP-3, BPA, and E1 were the most frequently detected contaminants (< 0.2-9.4 ng L^-1). Coastal sediment samples contained mParaben, OP, 4-MBC, BP-3, BP-1, BPA, OMC, and E1 (< 0.2-11 ng g^-1 d.w.), and mParaben, OP, and BP-3 were found to bioaccumulate (3.8-21.3 ng g^-1 d.w.) in green lipped mussels.

Membrane Removal of Emerging Contaminants from Water: Which Kind of Membranes Should We Use?

Membrane technologies are nowadays widely used; especially various types of filtration or reverse osmosis in households, desalination plants, pharmaceutical applications etc. Facing water pollution, they are also applied to eliminate emerging contaminants from water. Incomplete knowledge directs the composition of membranes towards more and more dense materials known for their higher selectivity compared to porous constituents. This paper evaluates advantages and disadvantages of well-known membrane materials that separate on the basis of particle size, usually exposed to a large amount of water, versus dense hydrophobic membranes with target transport of emerging contaminants through a selective barrier. In addition, the authors present several membrane processes employing the second type of membrane.

Solar photodegradation of the UV filter 4-methylbenzylidene camphor in the presence of free chlorine

UV filters are essential ingredients in sunscreens and many personal care products. The coexposure of UV filters to solar photolysis and free chlorine (solar/free chlorine) is inevitable in outdoor swimming pools and many other aquatic matrices, and this study aims to investigate the degradation mechanism of one specific UV filter, 4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4MBC), under solar/free chlorine system. Under solar irradiation alone, 4MBC only undergoes isomerization from (E)- to (Z)-4MBC; however, in the solar/free chlorine system, 4MBC was significantly degraded, with a pseudo-first-order rate constant of 0.0137 s^-1 (pH = 7). The effects of the initial free chlorine concentration, solution pH and water matrix (presence of dissolved organic matter, HCO₃^- and Cl^-) were studied. The results revealed that reactive chlorine species (RCS) are the dominant species influencing 4MBC degradation via solar/free chlorine, while OH and O₃ played minor roles. These species would likely react with the 4-methylstyrene moiety of 4MBC and subsequently lead to 4MBC degradation through hydroxylation, chlorine substitution, oxidation and demethylation. Nevertheless, the dramatic increase in acute toxicity (Microtox®) during solar/free chlorine degradation of 4MBC highlights the need to further explore the transformation byproducts as well as their associated risks to humans and the environment.

3-(4-Methylbenzylidene) camphor induced reproduction toxicity and antiandrogenicity in Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes)

To assess the toxic effects of 3-(4-Methylbenzylidene) camphor (4-MBC) at environmentally relevant concentrations on the reproduction and development of Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes), adult paired medaka (F0) were exposed to 5, 50, and 500 μg/L 4-MBC for 28 d in the current study. The fecundity and fertility were significantly decreased at 500 μg/L 4-MBC (p < 0.05). Histological observations showed that spermatogenesis in F0 males was significantly inhibited at 50 and 500 μg/L 4-MBC, similar to the effects obtained with all treatments of plasma 11-ketotestosterone (p < 0.05). Moreover, the plasma vitellogenin and estradiol levels in F0 females were significantly increased at 5 μg/L 4-MBC (p < 0.05). All the transcripts of hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis-related genes tested in the brains and gonads of males were significantly increased at all treatments, similar to the effects obtained for erα, erβ and vtg in the livers and in contrast to those found for arα in the livers (p < 0.05). Equal numbers of embryos were exposed to tap water and 4-MBC solutions. Significantly increased times to hatching, decreased hatching rates and decreased body lengths at 14-day post-hatching (dph) were obtained at 500 μg/L 4-MBC treatment (p < 0.05). The cumulative death rates at 14 dph were significantly increased with all the treatments (p < 0.05). Therefore, our results showed that long-term exposure to 50 and 500 μg/L 4-MBC causes reproductive and developmental toxicity and thus provide new insight into antiandrogenicity and the mechanism of 4-MBC in Japanese medaka.

Predicted no-effect concentrations determination and ecological risk assessment for benzophenone-type UV filters in aquatic environment

Benzophenones (BPs), a group of widely used ultraviolet filters, have been frequently detected out in multiple environment matrices even in organism bodies. Although a variety of toxicological effects of BPs have been disclosed recently, it is barely to evaluate the potential ecological risk of BPs due to lack of reference criteria. Therefore, the determination of predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) values is necessary for assessing ecological risk of BPs and for protecting safety of aquatic organisms. The toxicological data of 14 BPs from both in vivo tests on aquatic organisms and in vitro tests on strains/cell lines were collected from previous reports, and two methods including assessment factor (AF) and species sensitivity distribution (SSD) were applied to calculate PNECs, respectively. Four groups of PNECs were obtained and compared, a final PNEC value was recommended for each BP based on reliable and conservative consideration. With these PNECs values, the risk quotients of 8 BPs from 35 ambient freshwater samples were calculated, the results demonstrated that 3 BPs including 2,2',4,4'-tetrahydroxyl-BP, 2-hydroxyl-4-methoxyl- BP, and 2-hydroxyl-4-methoxyl-5-sulfonic acid-BP exhibited high ecological risk, and the ecological risk posed by BPs in River Tiff in UK was great. It is anticipated that these results would provide useful reference for assessing and managing BP-type compounds, and for selecting toxicity data and methods to derive PNECs for emerging contaminants.

Two-generation exposure to 2-ethylhexyl 4-methoxycinnamate (EHMC) in Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) and its reproduction and endocrine related effects

2-Ethylhexyl 4-methoxycinnamate (EHMC) is one of the most widely used UV-filters, and hence has been frequently detected in water environment. EHMC has been reported to induce short-term reproductive toxicity in fish, and thyroid disrupting effects in other animal studies. However, limited information is available for its long-term effects on fecundity, and thyroid disrupting effects in fish. In the present study, effects of EHMC on fecundity, measured as number of eggs, were evaluated in Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes), and its underlying mechanisms on sex and thyroid hormone disruption were explored. For this purpose, a five-month long (154 d) exposure to F0 generation was conducted on fertilized eggs (<24 h post-fertilization (hpf)), with nominal concentration of 0, 0.05, 0.158, 0.5, 1.58, or 5 mg/L EHMC, followed by a 3-8-d exposure of F1 generation. After >3 months exposure, significant decreases in reproductive performances were observed at all test concentrations as low as 0.05 mg/L. Reproduction effects were not accompanied with sex hormone changes, but up-regulation of vitellogenin gene was observed. Thyroid hormones were decreased by EHMC exposure in F1 fish at -38 day post-fertilization (dpf). In addition, down-regulation of type II iodothyronine deiodinase (dio2) and up-regulation of thyrotropin releasing hormone (trh) were observed in both F0 and F1 juvenile fish, suggesting thyroid disruption potential of EHMC. Our observation suggests that EHMC at the levels one to two orders of magnitude higher than those detected in ambient water may affect reproduction and thyroid hormonal balance of fish.

Toxicity effects of the organic UV-filter 4-Methylbenzylidene camphor in zebrafish embryos

Ultraviolet (UV) filters are widely used in personal care products and due to their lipophilicity these chemicals tend to bioaccumulate in the aquatic biota. 4-Methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC) is one of the most used UV-filters, and it is commonly detected in freshwater fish tissues. This substance is suspected to be an endocrine disruptor due to its interaction with Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Gonadal (HPG) and HP-Thyroid (HPT)-axis. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of 4-MBC on apical endpoints, biochemical markers and on genes involved in endocrine pathways in Danio rerio. Zebrafish embryos were exposed to 4-MBC (0.083-0.77 mg/l) from 0 to 96 h post-fertilization (hpf). Hatching, heart rate and malformations were the apical endpoints assessed. Alterations on neurotransmission and oxidative stress were evaluated through acetylcholinesterase (AChE), catalase (CAT) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) enzymatic activities. Endocrine effects were analysed by the expression of genes involved in HPG and HPT-axis of embryos exposed 96 h to the EC₁₀ of 4-MBC (0.19 mg/l). Exposure to 4-MBC induced morphological abnormalities during embryonic development, including notochord curvature, delayed absorption of yolk sac and pericardial oedema. Concentration of 0.77 mg/l 4-MBC decreased embryo heart rate at 48h. At neurotransmission level, an induction of AChE at concentrations above 0.15 mg/l was observed. Malformations and decreased heart rate along with alterations observed at neurotransmission level might have compromised zebrafish larvae equilibrium. Glutathione S-transferase induction above 0.15 mg/l 4-MBC suggests activation of detoxification processes. Furthermore, observed brain aromatase gene down-regulation by 4-MBC suggests impairment of normal functioning of HPG axis in zebrafish.

Pollution patterns and underlying relationships of benzophenone-type UV-filters in wastewater treatment plants and their receiving surface water

The environmental behaviors of emerging pollutants, benzophenone-type UV filters (BP-UV filters) and their derivatives were investigated in four wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), and their receiving surface waters in Shanghai. The concentration level of selected BP-UV filters in the WWTPs was detected from ngL^-1 to μgL^-1. BP (621-951ngL^-1) and BP-3 (841-1.32 × 10³ngL^-1) were the most abundant and highest detection frequency individuals among the target BP-UV filters in influents, whereas BP (198-400ngL^-1), BP-4 (93.3-288ngL^-1) and BP-3 (146-258ngL^-1) were predominant in effluents. BP-UV filters cannot be completely removed and the total removal efficiency varied widely (-456% to 100%) during the treatment process. It can be inferred that the usage of BP and BP-3 are higher than other BP-UV filters in the study area. The lowest and highest levels were BP-2 (ND-7.66ngL^-1) and BP-3 (68.5-5.01 × 10³ng L^-1) in the receiving surface water, respectively. Interestingly, the seasonal variation of BP-3 is larger than those of other BP-UV filters in surface water from Shanghai. There is no obvious pollution pattern of BP-UV filters in the surface water from the cosmetic factory area. The correlation analysis of BP-UV filters between WWTPs effluents and nearby downstream water samples suggested that BP-UV filters emitted from some WWTPs might be the main source of receiving surface water. Preliminary risk assessment indicated that the levels of BP-UV filters detected by the effluent posed medium to high risk to fish as well as other aquatic organisms.

Ecotoxicity of two organic UV-filters to the freshwater caddisfly Sericostoma vittatum

Organic ultraviolet filters (UV-filters) used for protection against radiation in personal care products and other materials (e.g. textiles, plastic products) are considered emerging contaminants of aquatic ecosystem. Benzophenone-3 (BP3) and 3-(4-methylbenzylidene)camphor (4-MBC) are the most commonly used organic UV-filters and have been reported in freshwater environments due to contamination through discharges from wastewater treatment plants and swimming pools or by direct contamination from recreational activities. Our aim was to evaluate the ecotoxicological effects of these UV-filters using the freshwater caddisfly Sericostoma vittatum' biochemical biomarkers and energy processing related endpoints (feeding behaviour, energy reserves and cellular metabolism). In laboratory trials, both compounds induced feeding inhibition of S. vittatum at 3.55 mg/kg of BP3 and at concentrations ≥2.57 mg/kg of 4-MBC, decreased carbohydrates content at 3.55 and 6.95 mg/kg of BP3 and 4-MBC respectively, and increased total glutathione levels at concentrations ≥1.45 and 1.35 mg/kg of BP3 and 4-MBC respectively. No significant effects were observed on endpoints associated with oxidative stress, antioxidant defences, phase II biotransformation or neurotoxicity after exposure to the two UV-filters. Our results show that environmental relevant concentrations of BP3 and 4-MBC, can negatively impact freshwater insects and demonstrate the importance of monitoring the ecological effects of organic UV-filters using non-model invertebrate species.

Effects of 4-MBC and triclosan in embryos of the frog Pelophylax perezi

The widespread and increasing use of personal care products (PCPs) have led to environmental contamination by substances included in these products. These substances have been detected in aquatic compartments and shown to cause adverse effects on non-target aquatic organisms. In this work toxicity of the antimicrobial triclosan (TCS) and of the UV-filter 3-(4-methylbenzylidene) camphor (4-MBC) was assessed in the embryos of Perez' frog Pelophylax perezi. Lethal and sub-lethal parameters were evaluated in embryos in Gosner stage 8-9 exposed to 0.00013-1.3 mg/l of 4-MBC and 0.25-2.50 mg/l of TCS during 144 h. Survival, malformations, length and hatching were evaluated as apical endpoints. Biomarkers of neurotransmission, oxidative stress, energy metabolism and estrogenicity were determined at the biochemical level through the activities of cholinesterase (ChE), catalase (CAT), glutathione S-transferase (GST), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and levels of lipid peroxidation (LPO) and vitellogenin (Vtg). Embryo exposure to 4-MBC led to few developmental malformations (up to 3%) and a GST induction at 0.013 mg/l. Triclosan exposure reduced survival, delayed hatching (at 72 h) and development and induced malformations. In addiction ChE was inhibited in the highest concentrations tested and GST and LDH were induced at 0.79 mg/l, the LOEC registered for TCS in Perez' frogs. Overall, our study showed that TCS might exert adverse effects on P. perezi early life stages, but only at four orders of magnitude above the concentrations found in environment. Furthermore, our results highlight the need to assess PCPs toxicity at different levels of biological organization.

The effects of binary UV filter mixtures on the midge Chironomus riparius

Organic ultraviolet (UV) filters are used in a wide variety of products, including cosmetics, to prevent damage from UV light in tissues and industrial materials. Their extensive use has raised concerns about potential adverse effects in human health and aquatic ecosystems that accumulate these pollutants. To increase sun radiation protection, UV filters are commonly used in mixtures. Here, we studied the toxicity of binary mixtures of 4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4MBC), octyl-methoxycinnamate (OMC), and benzophenone-3 (BP-3), by evaluating the larval mortality of Chironomus riparius. Also molecular endpoints have been analyzed, including alterations in the expression levels of a gene related with the endocrine system (EcR, ecdysone receptor) and a gene related with the stress response (hsp70, heat shock protein 70). The results showed that the mortality caused by binary mixtures was similar to that observed for each compound alone; however, some differences in LC50 were observed between groups. Gene expression analysis showed that EcR mRNA levels increased in the presence of 0.1mg/L 4MBC but returned to normal levels after exposure to mixtures of 4MBC with 0.1, 1, and 10mg/L of BP-3 or OMC. In contrast, the hsp70 mRNA levels increased after exposure to the combinations tested of 4MBC and BP-3 or OMC mixtures. These data suggest that 4MBC, BP-3, and OMC may have antagonist effects on EcR gene transcription and a synergistic effect on hsp70 gene activation. This is the first experimental study to show the complex patterned effects of UV filter mixtures on invertebrates. The data suggest that the interactions within these chemicals mixtures are complex and show diverse effects on various endpoints.

Effects of 4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC) on neuronal and muscular development in zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos

The negative effects of overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation in humans, including sunburn and light-induced cellular injury, are of increasing public concern. 4-Methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC), an organic chemical UV filter, is an active ingredient in sunscreen products. To date, little information is available about its neurotoxicity during early vertebrate development. Zebrafish embryos were exposed to various concentrations of 4-MBC in embryo medium for 3 days. In this study, a high concentration of 4-MBC, which is not being expected at the current environmental concentrations in the environment, was used for the purpose of phenotypic screening. Embryos exposed to 15 μM of 4-MBC displayed abnormal axial curvature and exhibited impaired motility. Exposure effects were found to be greatest during the segmentation period, when somite formation and innervation occur. Immunostaining of the muscle and axon markers F59, znp1, and zn5 revealed that 4-MBC exposure leads to a disorganized pattern of slow muscle fibers and axon pathfinding errors during the innervation of both primary and secondary motor neurons. Our results also showed reduction in AChE activity upon 4-MBC exposure both in vivo in the embryos (15 μM) and in vitro in mammalian Neuro-2A cells (0.1 μM), providing a possible mechanism for 4-MBC-induced muscular and neuronal defects. Taken together, our results have shown that 4-MBC is a teratogen and influences muscular and neuronal development, which may result in developmental defects.

Occurrence of PPCPs in the marine environment: a review

Little research has been conducted on the occurrence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in the marine environment despite being increasingly impacted by these contaminants. This article reviews data on the occurrence of PPCPs in seawater, sediment, and organisms in the marine environment. Data pertaining to 196 pharmaceuticals and 37 personal care products reported from more than 50 marine sites are analyzed while taking sampling strategies and analytical methods into account. Particular attention is focused on the most frequently detected substances at highest concentrations. A snapshot of the most impacted marine sites is provided by comparing the highest concentrations reported for quantified substances. The present review reveals that: (i) PPCPs are widespread in seawater, particularly at sites impacted by anthropogenic activities, and (ii) the most frequently investigated and detected molecules in seawater and sediments are antibiotics, such as erythromycin. Moreover, this review points out other PPCPs of concern, such as ultraviolet filters, and underlines the scarcity of data on those substances despite recent evidence on their occurrence in marine organisms. The exposure of marine organisms in regard to these insufficient data is discussed.

Distribution and seasonal occurrence of UV filters in rivers and wastewater treatment plants in Korea

The occurrence and distribution of eight UV filters benzophenone (BP), benzophenone-3 (BP-3), ethylhexyl methoxy cinnamate (EHMC), 4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC), 2-ethylhexyl 4-dimethylaminobenzoate (OD-PABA), 2-ethylhexyl salicylate (EHS), isoamyl benzoate, and benzyl cinnamate in eleven sites among three rivers, five sewage treatment plants (STPs), and four wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) located in different parts of Korea was investigated. The total concentrations of UV filters in the three sampled seasons were 62.9-412 ng L(-1) (river), 417-5055 ng L(-1) (STP influent), 108-2201 ng L(-1) (STP effluent), 122-4154 ng L(-1) (WWTP influent), and 120-849 ng L(-1) (WWTP effluent). The concentration of the target pollutants in the influent of the treatment systems was directly proportional to the resident population density. A seasonal increase of >27% was observed in the total concentration of the UV filters in the rivers and influents of the treatment plants (TPs) during summer. BP, BP-3, EHMC, 4-MBC, and EHS were the most dominant, showing a distinct distribution pattern that was dependent on the effectiveness of the treatment process and properties of each compound. The concentrations of the UV filters were higher in the TPs influents than in the rivers, and the most dominant UV filters in the rivers were those with low removal rate. Although biological treatment processes favored the removal of the UV filter compounds in the TPs, complete removal was not achieved before discharge into the rivers.

A review of organic UV-filters in wastewater treatment plants

UV-filters are a group of compounds which have been massively used in the past years due to the recent concerns with sunburns, premature skin ageing and the risk of developing skin cancer, related to sun exposure. At the moment, these compounds have been identified by the scientific community as emerging pollutants, due to their persistence in the environment, potential to accumulate in biota and potential threat as endocrine disruptors. At some point, the majority of sunscreens will find their way into wastewater (due to bathing and washing activities) and because wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are not able to remove and/or degrade them, consequently they find their way into rivers, lakes and ocean, so it is not surprising that UV-filters are found in the environment. Therefore, wastewater treatment plants should be the focus of the scientific community aiming to better understand the fate of the UV-filters and develop new technologies to remove them from wastewater and sludge. This review, aims to provide the current state of the art in the occurrence and fate of UV-filters in wastewater treatment plants and how the technologies that are being used are successfully removing these compounds from both wastewater and sludge.

Spoilt for choice: A critical review on the chemical and biological assessment of current wastewater treatment technologies

The knowledge we have gained in recent years on the presence and effects of compounds discharged by wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) brings us to a point where we must question the appropriateness of current water quality evaluation methodologies. An increasing number of anthropogenic chemicals is detected in treated wastewater and there is increasing evidence of adverse environmental effects related to WWTP discharges. It has thus become clear that new strategies are needed to assess overall quality of conventional and advanced treated wastewaters. There is an urgent need for multidisciplinary approaches combining expertise from engineering, analytical and environmental chemistry, (eco)toxicology, and microbiology. This review summarizes the current approaches used to assess treated wastewater quality from the chemical and ecotoxicological perspective. Discussed chemical approaches include target, non-target and suspect analysis, sum parameters, identification and monitoring of transformation products, computational modeling as well as effect directed analysis and toxicity identification evaluation. The discussed ecotoxicological methodologies encompass in vitro testing (cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, mutagenicity, endocrine disruption, adaptive stress response activation, toxicogenomics) and in vivo tests (single and multi species, biomonitoring). We critically discuss the benefits and limitations of the different methodologies reviewed. Additionally, we provide an overview of the current state of research regarding the chemical and ecotoxicological evaluation of conventional as well as the most widely used advanced wastewater treatment technologies, i.e., ozonation, advanced oxidation processes, chlorination, activated carbon, and membrane filtration. In particular, possible directions for future research activities in this area are provided.

Are sunscreens a new environmental risk associated with coastal tourism?

The world coastal-zone population and coastal tourism are expected to grow during this century. Associated with that, there will be an increase in the use of sunscreens and cosmetics with UV-filters in their formulation, which will make coastal regions worldwide susceptible to the impact of these cosmetics. Recent investigations indicate that organic and inorganic UV-filters, as well as many other components that are constituents of the sunscreens, reach the marine environment--directly as a consequence of water recreational activities and/or indirectly from wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) effluents. Toxicity of organic and inorganic UV filters has been demonstrated in aquatic organism. UV-filters inhibit growth in marine phytoplankton and tend to bioaccumulate in the food webs. These findings together with coastal tourism data records highlight the potential risk that the increasing use of these cosmetics would have in coastal marine areas. Nevertheless, future investigations into distribution, residence time, aging, partitioning and speciation of their main components and by-products in the water column, persistence, accumulation and toxicity in the trophic chain, are needed to understand the magnitude and real impact of these emerging pollutants in the marine system.

Advances in analytical methods and occurrence of organic UV-filters in the environment--A review

UV-filters are a group of compounds designed mainly to protect skin against UVA and UVB radiation, but they are also included in plastics, furniture, etc., to protect products from light damage. Their massive use in sunscreens for skin protection has been increasing due to the awareness of the chronic and acute effects of UV radiation. Some organic UV-filters have raised significant concerns in the past few years for their continuous usage, persistent input and potential threat to ecological environment and human health. UV-filters end up in wastewater and because wastewater treatment plants are not efficient in removing them, lipophilic compounds tend to sorb onto sludge and hydrophilics end up in river water, contaminating the existing biota. To better understand the risk associated with UV-filters in the environment a thorough review regarding their physicochemical properties, toxicity and environmental degradation, analytical methods and their occurrence was conducted. Higher UV-filter concentrations were found in rivers, reaching 0.3mg/L for the most studied family, the benzophenone derivatives. Concentrations in the ng to μg/L range were also detected for the p-aminobenzoic acid, cinnamate, crylene and benzoyl methane derivatives in lake and sea water. Although at lower levels (few ng/L), UV-filters were also found in tap and groundwater. Swimming pool water is also a sink for UV-filters and its chlorine by-products, at the μg/L range, highlighting the benzophenone and benzimidazole derivatives. Soils and sediments are not frequently studied, but concentrations in the μg/L range have already been found especially for the benzophenone and crylene derivatives. Aquatic biota is frequently studied and UV-filters are found in the ng/g-dw range with higher values for fish and mussels. It has been concluded that more information regarding UV-filter degradation studies both in water and sediments is necessary and environmental occurrences should be monitored more frequently and deeply.

UV filters bioaccumulation in fish from Iberian river basins

The occurrence of eight organic UV filters (UV-Fs) was assessed in fish from four Iberian river basins. This group of compounds is extensively used in cosmetic products and other industrial goods to avoid the damaging effects of UV radiation, and has been found to be ubiquitous contaminants in the aquatic ecosystem. In particular, fish are considered by the scientific community to be the most feasible organism for contamination monitoring in aquatic ecosystems. Despite that, studies on the bioaccumulation of UV-F are scarce. In this study fish samples from four Iberian river basins under high anthropogenic pressure were analysed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). Benzophenone-3 (BP3), ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate (EHMC), 4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4MBC) and octocrylene (OC) were the predominant pollutants in the fish samples, with concentrations in the range of ng/g dry weight (d.w.). The results indicated that most polluted area corresponded to Guadalquivir River basin, where maximum concentrations were found for EHMC (241.7 ng/gd.w.). Sediments from this river basin were also analysed. Lower values were observed in relation to fish for OC and EHMC, ranging from below the limits of detection to 23 ng/gd.w. Accumulation levels of UV-F in the fish were used to calculate biota-sediment accumulation factors (BSAFs). These values were always below 1, in the range of 0.04-0.3, indicating that the target UV-Fs are excreted by fish only to some extent. The fact that the highest concentrations were determined in predators suggests that biomagnification of UV-F may take place along the freshwater food web.

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products: A critical review of the impacts on fish reproduction

Research in environmental toxicology involving pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) has increased greatly over the last 10-15 years. Much research has been focused on the endocrine-disrupting potential of PPCPs, as they relate to negative population impacts of aquatic organisms. This review assesses the current data on the reported effects of PPCPs on fish reproduction with an emphasis on fecundity, a predictor of population effects. Studies of both individual PPCPs and PPCP mixtures are presented. As the majority of individual PPCP studies reviewed demonstrate negative effects on fish fecundity, we relate these findings to detected surface water concentrations of these compounds. Very few studies involving PPCP mixtures have been conducted; however, the need for these types of studies is warranted as fish are most likely exposed to mixtures of PPCPs in the wild. In addition, laboratory and field assessments of wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents, a major source of PPCPs, are reviewed. Much of the data provided from these assessments are variable and do not generally demonstrate negative impacts on reproduction, or the studies are unable to directly associate observed effects with WWTP effluents. Finally, future research considerations are outlined to provide an avenue into understanding how wild populations of fish are affected by PPCPs. These considerations are aimed at determining the adaptation potential of fish exposed to mixtures of PPCPs over multiple generations. As global use of PPCPs continually rises, the need to discern the effects of chronic exposure to PPCPs is greatly increased.

Personal care products and steroid hormones in the Antarctic coastal environment associated with two Antarctic research stations, McMurdo Station and Scott Base

Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) are a major source of micropollutants to the aquatic environment. Despite intense research on the fate and effects of PPCPs in temperate climates, there is a paucity of data on their presence in polar environments. This study reports the presence of selected PPCPs in sewage effluents from two Antarctic research stations, the adjacent coastal seawater, sea ice, and biota. Sewage effluents contained bisphenol-A, ethinylestradiol, estrone, methyl triclosan, octylphenol, triclosan, and three UV-filters. The maximum sewage effluent concentrations of 4-methyl-benzylidene camphor, benzophenone-1, estrone, ethinylestradiol, and octylphenol exceeded concentrations previously reported. Coastal seawaters contained bisphenol-A, octylphenol, triclosan, three paraben preservatives, and four UV-filters. The sea ice contained a similar range and concentration of PPCPs as the seawater. Benzophenone-3 (preferential accumulation in clams), estradiol, ethinylestradiol, methyl paraben (preferential accumulation in fish, with concentrations correlating negatively with fillet size), octylphenol, and propyl paraben were detected in biota samples. PPCPs were detected in seawater and biota at distances up to 25 km from the research stations WWTP discharges. Sewage effluent discharges and disposal of raw human waste through sea ice cracks have been identified as sources of PPCPs to Antarctic coastal environments.