Habitual daily intake of a sweet and fatty snack modulates reward processing in humans

The bioSocial Cognitive Theory of eating (bSCT-e): Applying and elaborating on a biopsychosocial substance use theory for food addiction

Obesity rates are increasing globally, and food addiction (FA1) may be an important contributing factor but there is a lack of understanding of the key psychological mechanisms that contribute to FA. The bioSocial Cognitive Theory (bSCT) proposes that substance use is predicted by biologically based personality traits and their influence on social cognitive mechanisms. While validated in substance use, bSCT has not been applied to a behavioural or non-substance addiction. However, the bSCT does not include a negative affective personality component, of which there is clear theoretical and empirical support as risk factors for FA. Thus, this study sought to test both the original bSCT model and an elaborated version related to eating (bSCT-e) that included direct and indirect punishment sensitivity pathways to identify the individual risk factors of FA. Data were collected from 204 university students (75.5% female; Mage = 24.82, SD = 9.17) via an online survey. Both original bSCT and bSCT-e models provided a good fit to the data, with the latter providing slightly better fit and accounting for more variance in FA. The findings suggest that individuals who are more reward driven and punishment sensitive hold exaggerated beliefs about the reinforcing and emotion regulation effects of eating, which may undermine eating control and increase risk of FA. This study provides potential new insights into the complex biopsychosocial mechanisms of FA, and points to potential intervention targets.

Intake of Added Sugar from Different Sources and Risk of All-Cause Mortality and Cardiovascular Diseases: The Role of Body Mass Index

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have shown an ascending trend in global added sugar consumption. Evidence for the long-term consequences of added sugar from different sources on all-cause mortality and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) remains limited.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to examine the associations between added sugar from various sources and the risk of all-cause mortality and CVDs, and to determine whether genetic predisposition and body mass index (BMI, in kg/m2) influence or mediate these associations.

METHODS

We included 196,414 UK Biobank participants who completed a 24-h food survey between 2009 and 2012. Sugar contents were collected from the Composition of Foods Integrated Data set (CoFID). The National Death Registries and hospital records provided data on death and the disease diagnosis. We employed a polygenic risk score (PRS) to assess the genetic predisposition. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to analyze the associations.

RESULTS

Totally, 10,081 deaths, 38,563 hypertension cases, 12,306 ischemic heart diseases (IHD), and 5491 cerebrovascular diseases were documented. Compared with the lowest quartile group of added sugar intake, the hazard ratios for all-cause mortality in the highest quartile were 1.21 (95% CI: 1.14, 1.30) for total added sugar, 1.03 (95% CI: 0.97, 1.10) for solids, and 1.16 (95% CI: 1.10, 1.23) for beverages. For CVDs, significant associations were observed in total added sugar and beverage sources. These associations were not altered by PRS, and individuals at greatest risk showed higher PRS along with excessive added sugar consumption (Ptrend < 0.001). BMI was found to mediate the highest proportion of the association between added sugar and hypertension (19.10% for total; 36.95% for beverages).

CONCLUSIONS

Higher intake of added sugar, especially from beverages, is associated with an increased risk of all-cause mortality and CVDs. BMI mediates a proportion of these associations.

Orexin neurons mediate temptation-resistant voluntary exercise

Despite the well-known health benefits of physical activity, many people underexercise; what drives the prioritization of exercise over alternative options is unclear. We developed a task that enabled us to study how mice freely and rapidly alternate between wheel running and other voluntary activities, such as eating palatable food. When multiple alternatives were available, mice chose to spend a substantial amount of time wheel running without any extrinsic reward and maintained this behavior even when palatable food was added as an option. Causal manipulations and correlative analyses of appetitive and consummatory processes revealed this preference for wheel running to be instantiated by hypothalamic hypocretin/orexin neurons (HONs). The effect of HON manipulations on wheel running and eating was strongly context-dependent, being the largest in the scenario where both options were available. Overall, these data suggest that HON activity enables an eat-run arbitration that results in choosing exercise over food.

Obesity-induced tissue alterations resist weight loss: A mechanistic review

Interventions aimed at weight control often have limited effectiveness in combating obesity. This review explores how obesity-induced dysfunction in white (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT), skeletal muscle, and the brain blunt weight loss, leading to retention of stored fat. In obesity, increased adrenergic stimulation and inflammation downregulate β-adrenoreceptors and impair catecholaminergic signalling in adipocytes. This disrupts adrenergic-mediated lipolysis, diminishing lipid oxidation in both white and brown adipocytes, lowering thermogenesis and blunting fat loss. Emerging evidence suggests that WAT fibrosis is associated with worse weight loss outcomes; indeed, limiting collagen and laminin-α4 deposition mitigates WAT accumulation, enhances browning, and protects against high-fat-diet-induced obesity. Obesity compromises mitochondrial oxidative capacity and lipid oxidation in skeletal muscle, impairing its ability to switch between glucose and lipid metabolism in response to varying nutrient levels and exercise. This dysfunctional phenotype in muscle is exacerbated in the presence of obesity-associated sarcopenia. Additionally, obesity suppresses sarcolipin-induced sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase (SERCA) activation, resulting in reduced oxidative capacity, diminished energy expenditure, and increased adiposity. In the hypothalamus, obesity and overnutrition impair insulin and leptin signalling. This blunts central satiety signals, favouring a shift in energy balance toward energy conservation and body fat retention. Moreover, both obese animals and humans demonstrate impaired dopaminergic signalling and diminished responses to nutrient intake in the striatum, which tend to persist after weight loss. This may result in enduring inclinations toward overeating and a sedentary lifestyle. Collectively, the tissue adaptations described pose significant challenges to effectively achieving and sustaining weight loss in obesity.

Does sweetness exposure drive 'sweet tooth'?

It is widely believed that exposure to sweetened foods and beverages stimulates the liking and desire for sweetness. Here we provide an updated review of the empirical evidence from human research examining whether exposure to sweet foods or beverages influences subsequent general liking for sweetness (‘sweet tooth’), based on the conclusions of existing systematic reviews and more recent research identified from a structured search of literature. Prior reviews have concluded that the evidence for a relationship between sweet taste exposure and measures of sweet taste liking is equivocal, and more recent primary research generally does not support the view that exposure drives increased liking for sweetness, in adults or children. In intervention trials using a range of designs, acute exposure to sweetness usually has the opposite effect (reducing subsequent liking and desire for sweet taste), while sustained exposures have no significant effects or inconsistent effects. Recent longitudinal observational studies in infants and children also report no significant associations between exposures to sweet foods and beverages with measures of sweet taste preferences. Overall, while it is widely assumed that exposure to sweetness stimulates a greater liking and desire for sweetness, this is not borne out by the balance of empirical evidence. While new research may provide a more robust evidence base, there are also a number of methodological, biological and behavioural considerations that may underpin the apparent absence of a positive relationship between sweetness exposure and liking.

How Sugar Labeling Affects Consumer Sugar Reduction: A Case of Sucrose Grade Labels in China

The effectiveness of sugar labeling depends not only on direct sugar reduction but also on the extent to which compensatory eating occurs. This study focuses on the use of sucrose grade labels in the Chinese market to investigate not only consumers' willingness to pay (WTP) for different sucrose labels but also the consistency of their sugar control behavior when confronted with unlabeled processed foods. The findings reveal that consumers are willing to pay approximately 4%, 7%, and 7% more for yogurt labeled as "low sucrose", "no sucrose", and "no sucrose with sugar substitutes", respectively, compared to yogurt labeled as "regular sucrose." Furthermore, when subsequently presented with unlabeled toast, a significant proportion of consumers who initially chose "no sucrose" yogurt continued to select wholewheat toast, which contains less sugar than white and coconut toast. This indicates their commitment to maintaining their sugar control behavior. The study provides valuable experimental evidence for researchers, food manufacturers, and policymakers regarding the efficacy of sucrose grade labels. In particular, it offers policymakers insights into guiding consumers to promote sustainable healthy diets.

Practical strategies to manage obesity in type 2 diabetes

The rising phenomenon of obesity, a major risk factor for the development and progression of type 2 diabetes, is a complex and multifaceted issue that requires a comprehensive and coordinated approach to be prevented and managed. Although novel pharmacological measures to combat obesity have achieved unprecedented efficacy, a healthy lifestyle remains essential for the long-term success of any therapeutic intervention. However, this requires a high level of intrinsic motivation and continued behavioural changes in the face of multiple metabolic, psychological and environmental factors promoting weight gain, particularly in the context of type 2 diabetes. This review is intended to provide practical recommendations in the context of a holistic, person-centred approach to weight management, including evidence-based and expert recommendations addressing supportive communication, shared decision-making, as well as nutritional and pharmacological therapeutic approaches to achieve sustained weight loss.

Dietary intake in children and adolescents with food addiction: A systematic review

Food addiction (FA) is characterized by behavioral changes related to the consumption of palatable foods, marked by dependence, impulsivity, and compulsion. Children and adolescents are more vulnerable to FA owing to their significant consumption of ultra-processed foods. This review aims to investigate the differences in dietary intake in pediatric populations with and without FA. We conducted a systematic literature review. PubMed, ScienceDirect, and PsycINFO databases were searched up to July 2023. Potentially eligible studies were independently checked by two researchers. The methodological quality of the included studies was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Checklist for analytical cross-sectional studies. Of the 4868 articles identified, six studies were included. All the included studies had high methodological quality. High consumption of calories and fat was observed in children and adolescents with FA. A diet quality analysis showed that the consumption of ultra-processed foods, such as sugary drinks, sweets, and chips, was related to FA. Given these findings, we concluded that FA in childhood may be associated with higher energy consumption and, consequently, higher intake of macronutrients. Few studies have examined the relationship between FA and food intake in childhood, and more studies are required.

Defining a vitamin A5/X specific deficiency - vitamin A5/X as a critical dietary factor for mental health

A healthy and balanced diet is an important factor to assure a good functioning of the central and peripheral nervous system. Retinoid X receptor (RXR)-mediated signaling was identified as an important mechanism of transmitting major diet-dependent physiological and nutritional signaling such as the control of myelination and dopamine signalling. Recently, vitamin A5/X, mainly present in vegetables as provitamin A5/X, was identified as a new concept of a vitamin which functions as the nutritional precursor for enabling RXR-mediated signaling. The active form of vitamin A5/X, 9-cis-13,14-dehydroretinoic acid (9CDHRA), induces RXR-activation, thereby acting as the central switch for enabling various heterodimer-RXR-signaling cascades involving various partner heterodimers like the fatty acid and eicosanoid receptors/peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), the cholesterol receptors/liver X receptors (LXRs), the vitamin D receptor (VDR), and the vitamin A(1) receptors/retinoic acid receptors (RARs). Thus, nutritional supply of vitamin A5/X might be a general nutritional-dependent switch for enabling this large cascade of hormonal signaling pathways and thus appears important to guarantee an overall organism homeostasis. RXR-mediated signaling was shown to be dependent on vitamin A5/X with direct effects for beneficial physiological and neuro-protective functions mediated systemically or directly in the brain. In summary, through control of dopamine signaling, amyloid β-clearance, neuro-protection and neuro-inflammation, the vitamin A5/X - RXR - RAR - vitamin A(1)-signaling might be "one of" or even "the" critical factor(s) necessary for good mental health, healthy brain aging, as well as for preventing drug addiction and prevention of a large array of nervous system diseases. Likewise, vitamin A5/X - RXR - non-RAR-dependent signaling relevant for myelination/re-myelination and phagocytosis/brain cleanup will contribute to such regulations too. In this review we discuss the basic scientific background, logical connections and nutritional/pharmacological expert recommendations for the nervous system especially considering the ageing brain.

Comparing body composition between the sweet-liking phenotypes: experimental data, systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Legislation aimed at reducing sugar intake assumes that sweet-liking drives overconsumption. However, evidence that a greater liking for sweet taste is associated with unhealthier body size is mixed and complicated by relatively small samples, an overreliance on body mass index (BMI) and lack of classification using sweet-liking phenotypes.

METHODS

We first examined body size data in two larger samples with sweet-liking phenotyping: extreme sweet-likers, moderate sweet-likers and sweet-dislikers. Adults (18-34yrs), attended a two-session lab-based experiment involving phenotyping for sweet-liking status and a bioelectrical impedance body composition measurement (Experiment One: N = 200; Experiment Two: N = 314). Secondly, we conducted an individual participant data (IPD) meta-analysis: systematic searches across four databases identified 5736 potential articles. Of these, 53 papers met our search criteria: a taste assessment that measured liking using sucrose (>13.7% w/v), which allowed sweet-liking phenotyping and included either BMI, body fat percentage (BF%), fat-free mass (FFM) or waist-circumference.

RESULTS

A significant effect of sweet-liking phenotype on FFM was found in both Experiment One and Two, with extreme sweet-likers having significantly higher FFM than sweet-dislikers. In Experiment One, sweet-dislikers had a significantly higher BF% than extreme sweet-likers and moderate sweet-likers. However, as these data are from one research group in a young, predominantly westernised population, and the results did not perfectly replicate, we conducted the IPD meta-analyses to further clarify the findings. Robust one-stage IPD meta-analyses of 15 studies controlling for sex revealed no significant differences in BF% (n = 1836) or waist-circumference (n = 706). For BMI (n = 2368), moderate sweet-likers had slightly lower BMI than extreme sweet-likers, who had the highest overall BMI. Most interestingly, for FFM (n = 768), moderate sweet-likers and sweet-dislikers showed significantly lower FFM than extreme sweet-likers.

CONCLUSION

The higher BMI often seen in sweet-likers may be due to a larger FFM and questions the simple model where sweet liking alone is a risk factor for obesity.

Determinants of obesity in Latin America

Obesity rates are increasing almost everywhere in the world, although the pace and timing for this increase differ when populations from developed and developing countries are compared. The sharp and more recent increase in obesity rates in many Latin American countries is an example of that and results from regional characteristics that emerge from interactions between multiple factors. Aware of the complexity of enumerating these factors, we highlight eight main determinants (the physical environment, food exposure, economic and political interest, social inequity, limited access to scientific knowledge, culture, contextual behaviour and genetics) and discuss how they impact obesity rates in Latin American countries. We propose that initiatives aimed at understanding obesity and hampering obesity growth in Latin America should involve multidisciplinary, global approaches that consider these determinants to build more effective public policy and strategies, accounting for regional differences and disease complexity at the individual and systemic levels.

Sucrose overconsumption impairs AgRP neuron dynamics and promotes palatable food intake

Rapid gut-brain communication is critical to maintain energy balance and is disrupted in diet-induced obesity. In particular, the role of carbohydrate overconsumption in the regulation of interoceptive circuits in vivo requires further investigation. Here, we report that an obesogenic high-sucrose diet (HSD) selectively blunts silencing of hunger-promoting agouti-related protein (AgRP) neurons following intragastric delivery of glucose, whereas we previously showed that overconsumption of a high-fat diet (HFD) selectively attenuates lipid-induced neural silencing. By contrast, both HSD and HFD reversibly dampen rapid AgRP neuron inhibition following chow presentation and promote intake of more palatable foods. Our findings reveal that excess sugar and fat pathologically modulate feeding circuit activity in both macronutrient-dependent and -independent ways and thus may additively exacerbate obesity.

The role of psychosocial well-being and emotion-driven impulsiveness in food choices of European adolescents

BACKGROUND

It is unclear whether a hypothetical intervention targeting either psychosocial well-being or emotion-driven impulsiveness is more effective in reducing unhealthy food choices. Therefore, we aimed to compare the (separate) causal effects of psychosocial well-being and emotion-driven impulsiveness on European adolescents' sweet and fat propensity.

METHODS

We included 2,065 participants of the IDEFICS/I.Family cohort (mean age: 13.4) providing self-reported data on sweet propensity (score range: 0 to 68.4), fat propensity (range: 0 to 72.6), emotion-driven impulsiveness using the UPPS-P negative urgency subscale, and psychosocial well-being using the KINDLR Questionnaire. We estimated, separately, the average causal effects of psychosocial well-being and emotion-driven impulsiveness on sweet and fat propensity applying a semi-parametric doubly robust method (targeted maximum likelihood estimation). Further, we investigated a potential indirect effect of psychosocial well-being on sweet and fat propensity mediated via emotion-driven impulsiveness using a causal mediation analysis.

RESULTS

If all adolescents, hypothetically, had high levels of psychosocial well-being, compared to low levels, we estimated a decrease in average sweet propensity by 1.43 [95%-confidence interval: 0.25 to 2.61]. A smaller effect was estimated for fat propensity. Similarly, if all adolescents had high levels of emotion-driven impulsiveness, compared to low levels, average sweet propensity would be decreased by 2.07 [0.87 to 3.26] and average fat propensity by 1.85 [0.81 to 2.88]. The indirect effect of psychosocial well-being via emotion-driven impulsiveness was 0.61 [0.24 to 1.09] for average sweet propensity and 0.55 [0.13 to 0.86] for average fat propensity.

CONCLUSIONS

An intervention targeting emotion-driven impulsiveness, compared to psychosocial well-being, would be marginally more effective in reducing sweet and fat propensity in adolescents.

The influence of ultra-processed food consumption on reward processing and energy intake: Background, design, and methods of a controlled feeding trial in adolescents and young adults

BACKGROUND

The greatest age-related weight gain occurs in the early/mid-20s. Overall dietary quality among adolescents and emerging adults (age 18-25) is poor, with ultra-processed foods (UPF) representing more than two-thirds of adolescents' total energy intake (i.e., 68%). UPF consumption may impact cognitive and neurobiological factors that influence dietary decision-making and energy intake (EI). To date, no research has addressed this in this population.

METHODS

Participants aged 18-25 will undergo two 14-day controlled feeding periods (81% UPF, 0% UPF) using a randomly assigned crossover design, with a 4-week washout between conditions. Brain response to a UPF-rich milkshake, as well as behavioral measures of executive function, will be evaluated before and after each diet. Following each diet, measurements include ad libitum buffet meal EI, food selection, eating rate, and eating in the absence of hunger (EAH). Prior to initiating recruitment, controlled diet menus, buffet, and EAH snacks were developed and evaluated for palatability. Sensory and texture attributes of buffet and EAH snack foods were also evaluated.

RESULTS

Overall diet palatability was rated "like very much" (8)/"like moderately"(7) (UPF: 7.6 ± 1.0; Non-UPF: 6.8 ± 1.5). Subjective hardness rating (range = 1-9 [1 = soft, 9 = hard] was similar between UPF and Non-UPF buffet and snack items (UPF:4.22 ± 2.19, Non-UPF: 4.70 ± 2.03), as was the objective measure of hardness (UPF: 2874.33 ± 2497.06 g, Non-UPF: 2243.32 ± 1700.51 g).

CONCLUSIONS

Findings could contribute to an emerging neurobiological understanding of the effects of UPF consumption including energy overconsumption and weight gain among individuals at a critical developmental stage.

Unveiling the influence of daily dietary patterns on brain cortical structure: insights from bidirectional Mendelian randomization

Cognitive impairment is a significant concern in aging populations. This study utilized Mendelian randomization analysis to explore the impact of dietary habits and macro-nutrients on cortical structure. A bidirectional Mendelian randomization approach was employed, incorporating large-scale genetic data on dietary habits and brain cortical structure. The results did not reveal significant causal relationships between dietary factors and overall cortical structure and thickness. However, specific dietary factors showed associations with cortical structure in certain regions. For instance, fat intake affected six cortical regions, while milk, protein, fruits, and water were associated with changes in specific regions. Reverse analysis suggested that cortical thickness influenced the consumption of alcohol, carbohydrates, coffee, and fish. These findings contribute to understanding the potential mechanisms underlying the role of dietary factors in cognitive function changes and provide evidence supporting the existence of the gut-brain axis.

Sweetness preference and its impact on energy intake and body weight - a review of evidence

In the last few years, several approaches have been postulated for tackling the global increase in overweight and obesity rates, including different dietary macronutrient compositions or the timing of meals. Recently, taste modulation has come into focus as a possible approach for influencing dietary behavior. The perception of sweet taste is innate and an evolutionary protection mechanism to prevent primates from eating poisonous plants. It is hypothesized that this innate sweetness preference could be modulated by dietary sweetness, including sweet foods and beverages, which results in a learned sweetness preference that affects energy intake and body weight. However, this hypothesis is not supported by unanimous scientific evidence. This review provides an update of the current literature, regarding the modulation of sweetness preference as a possible new approach in the prevention of overweight and obesity. In general, results from observation as well as interventional studies in all age groups are heterogeneous. The majority showed no effect of dietary sweetness modulation on sweetness preference, energy intake or anthropometric measures. Therefore, the modulation of sweetness preference due to diet, foods or beverages is still a hypothesis and not scientifically proven. However, due to the lack of data, more research is necessary.

Obesity-mediated Lipoinflammation Modulates Food Reward Responses

Accumulation of white adipose tissue (WAT) during obesity is associated with the development of chronic low-grade inflammation, a biological process known as lipoinflammation. Systemic and central lipoinflammation accumulates pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α in plasma and also in brain, disrupting neurometabolism and cognitive behavior. Obesity-mediated lipoinflammation has been reported in brain regions of the mesocorticolimbic reward circuit leading to alterations in the perception and consumption of ultra-processed foods. While still under investigation, lipoinflammation targets two major outcomes of the mesocorticolimbic circuit during food reward: perception and motivation ("Wanting") and the pleasurable feeling of feeding ("Liking"). This review will provide experimental and clinical evidence supporting the contribution of obesity- or overnutrition-related lipoinflammation affecting the mesocorticolimbic reward circuit and enhancing food reward responses. We will also address neuroanatomical targets of inflammatory profiles that modulate food reward responses during obesity and describe potential cellular and molecular mechanisms of overnutrition linked to addiction-like behavior favored by brain lipoinflammation.

Liraglutide restores impaired associative learning in individuals with obesity

Survival under selective pressure is driven by the ability of our brain to use sensory information to our advantage to control physiological needs. To that end, neural circuits receive and integrate external environmental cues and internal metabolic signals to form learned sensory associations, consequently motivating and adapting our behaviour. The dopaminergic midbrain plays a crucial role in learning adaptive behaviour and is particularly sensitive to peripheral metabolic signals, including intestinal peptides, such as glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1). In a single-blinded, randomized, controlled, crossover basic human functional magnetic resonance imaging study relying on a computational model of the adaptive learning process underlying behavioural responses, we show that adaptive learning is reduced when metabolic sensing is impaired in obesity, as indexed by reduced insulin sensitivity (participants: N = 30 with normal insulin sensitivity; N = 24 with impaired insulin sensitivity). Treatment with the GLP-1 receptor agonist liraglutide normalizes impaired learning of sensory associations in men and women with obesity. Collectively, our findings reveal that GLP-1 receptor activation modulates associative learning in people with obesity via its central effects within the mesoaccumbens pathway. These findings provide evidence for how metabolic signals can act as neuromodulators to adapt our behaviour to our body's internal state and how GLP-1 receptor agonists work in clinics.

Evaluating Bidirectional Predictive Pathways between Dietary Restraint and Food Addiction in Adolescents

The relationship between food addiction, an important emerging construct of excessive eating pathology, and dietary restraint has yet to be fully understood. Eating disorder models commonly posit that dietary restraint exacerbates loss of control eating (e.g., binge episodes) and may also play a causal role in the development of food addiction. However, dietary restraint as a reaction to consequences of food addiction (e.g., uncontrollable eating or weight gain) represents another plausible pathway. Existing studies indicate that the association between food addiction and dietary restraint may be more significant during adolescence than adulthood, but are limited by cross-sectional study designs. A longitudinal study using an adolescent sample is ideal for investigating potential pathways underlying links between food addiction and dietary restraint. This study examined temporal pathways between food addiction and dietary restraint in a sample of one hundred twenty-seven adolescents (M = 14.8, SD = 1.1) at three timepoints spanning two years. This is the first study to examine longitudinal cross-lagged panel associations between food addiction and dietary restraint. In this adolescent sample, food addiction significantly predicted future dietary restraint (b = 0.25, SE = 0.06, p < 0.001), but dietary restraint did not significantly predict future food addiction (b = 0.06, SE = 0.05, p > 0.05). These findings support the theory that dietary restraint may be a reaction to deleterious effects of food addiction during adolescence.

Diet and obesity effects on cue-driven food-seeking: insights from studies of Pavlovian-instrumental transfer in rodents and humans

Our modern environment is said to be obesogenic, promoting the consumption of calorically dense foods and reducing energy expenditure. One factor thought to drive excess energy intake is the abundance of cues signaling the availability of highly palatable foods. Indeed, these cues exert powerful influences over food-related decision-making. Although obesity is associated with changes to several cognitive domains, the specific role of cues in producing this shift and on decision-making more generally, remains poorly understood. Here we review the literature examining how obesity and palatable diets affect the ability of Pavlovian cues to influence instrumental food-seeking behaviors by examining rodent and human studies incorporating Pavlovian-instrumental transfer (PIT) protocols. There are two types of PIT: (a) general PIT that tests whether cues can energize actions elicited in the pursuit of food generally, and (b) specific PIT which tests whether cues can elicit an action that earns a specific food outcome when faced with a choice. Both types of PIT have been shown to be vulnerable to alterations as a result of changes to diet and obesity. However, effects appear to be driven less by increases in body fat and more by palatable diet exposure per se. We discuss the limitations and implications of the current findings. The challenges for future research are to uncover the mechanisms underlying these alterations to PIT, which appear unrelated to excess weight itself, and to better model the complex determinants of food choice in humans.