Linalool bioactive properties and potential applicability in drug delivery systems

Short-term steaming during processing impacts the quality of Citri Reticulatae 'Chachi' peel

Citrus peel is a commonly used food-medicine material in the production of fast-moving consumer goods (FMCGs). For instance, Ganpu tea is manufactured by combining the peel of Citri Reticulatae 'Chachi' (PCRC) with Pu-erh tea. The alleviated irritation of PCRC through years of aging makes Citri reticulatae Pericarpium a traditional Chinese medicine. Herein, we introduced short-term steaming into the processing of PCRC to favor the quick removal of its irritation while retaining its food-medicine properties. Sensory evaluation and volatile component analysis showed that 60-s steaming reduced irritation of freshly prepared PCRC. Biological evaluations indicated no effects of steaming on the neuroprotective activity of PCRC. The process increased the contents of several bioactive ingredients, including hesperidin, nobiletin, tangeretin, and synephrine. In addition, physical indications of accelerating PCRC aging were observed. Taken together, our findings suggest that short-term steaming may offer a promising new possibility for enhancing the quality of citrus peel.

Effects of linalool on postoperative peritoneal adhesions in rats

The current study examines the effects of linalool in preventing postoperative abdominal adhesions. Twenty male Wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups. (1) Sham: in this group, the abdomen was approached, and without any manipulations, it was sutured. (2) Control: rats in this group underwent a surgical procedure to induce adhesions. This involved making three incisions on the right abdominal side and removing a 1×1-cm piece of the peritoneum on the left abdominal side. (3) Treatment groups: these groups underwent the same surgical procedure as the control group to induce adhesions. Animals in these groups received linalool orally with doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg, respectively, for a period of 14 days. Moreover, rats in the sham and control groups received normal saline via gavage for 14 days. The evaluation of TNF-α, TGF-β, VEGF, and caspase 3 was performed using western blot and IHC methods. Furthermore, oxidative stress biomarkers such as MDA, TAC, GSH, and NO were assessed in the peritoneal adhesion tissue. The findings revealed that linalool significantly reduced peritoneal adhesions by reducing TNF-α, TGF-β, VEGF, and caspase 3 levels. Moreover, MDA concentration was significantly decreased, while NO, TAC, and GSH levels were notably increased. Overall, linalool was effective in preventing adhesion formation and reduced inflammation, angiogenesis, apoptosis, and oxidative stress. Therefore, linalool as a potent antioxidant is suggested for reducing postoperative adhesions in rats.

Chemical profiling, toxicity assessment, anti-diarrhoeal, anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities of Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. (Burseraceae) bark in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The bark of Canarium schweinfurthii is used in ethnomedicine for the treatment of diabetes, pain, malaria, fever and diarrhoea.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The chemical phytoconstituents, antidiarrheal, anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects and safety profile of the aqueous extract of Canarium schweinfurthii bark (AECSB) were investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to analyse the phytochemical composition. In the acute toxicity test, AECSB were administered up to 2 g/kg by oral gavage. For the subacute toxicity test (28 days), rats in group 1 (control) received no AECSB, while rats in groups 2-4 were administered different doses of AECSB. Charcoal meal transit and castor oil-induced diarrhoea models were used to study the antidiarrheal effect, while egg albumin/carrageenan and acetic acid/tail immersion models were used for the anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive studies, respectively. With the exception of the acute toxicity experiment, AECSB was administered orally at doses of 200, 400 and 800 mg/kg.

RESULTS

Bioactive phytoconstituents identified include p-cymene, δ-terpinene, linalool and phytol. No adverse effects or mortality were observed in acute and subacute studies. Treatment with AECSB (28 days) had no significant effect on organ weight, biochemical, hematologic and histopathologic parameters compared to the control groups (p > 0.05). Comparable antidiarrheal and antinociceptive effects were observed in both AECSB- and standard drug-treated groups, while the 400 and 800 mg/kg AECSB-treated groups showed remarkable anti-inflammatory effects compared to the standard drug-treated and control groups (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

AECSB has antidiarrheal, antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects and can be safely used for therapeutic purposes.

Chemical composition and anti-proliferative activity of essential oils from some medicinal plants from Cachicadán, Región La Libertad, Perú

This study evaluated the chemical composition and anti-proliferative activity of essential oils (EOs) obtained by hydrodistillation from seven medicinal plants from Cachicadán, La Libertad Región, Perú. Limonene (0.64 to 44.43%) and linalool (0.36 to 2.12%) were identified in all EOs by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry analysis. The major components (relative intensity ≥ 10%) were cis-dihydro carvone, carvone, and cis-piperitone epoxide for Minthostachys mollis leaves; β-pinene, limonene, and ledol for Lepechinia heteromorpha leaves; limonene, neral, and geranial for Aloysia citriodora, both leaves and flowers; α-pinene, and limonene for Myrcianthes myrsinoides leaves; and α-pinene, β-myrcene, and (E)-β-Ocimene for Dalea carthagenensis leaves. Constituted by (Z)-β-ocimene, dihydrotagetone, (Z)-tagetone, and car-3-en-2-one, EO of Tagetes minuta leaves induced an irreversible cytostatic effect against MCF-7 human breast tumor cells. Further in vivo studies must be carried out to establish the safe and efficient dose of T. minuta EO as adjuvant treatment in oncological therapies.

Tumbo, an Andean fruit: Uses, nutrition, processing, and biomolecules

Tumbo fruit has potential for industrialization due to its nutritional and functional properties, but scientific knowledge of this species is still limited compared to other species of the same genus, Passiflora. This review compiles the latest scientific advances on Tumbo, which cover the food technological aspects of Tumbo fruit, its uses and its potential as a source of bioactives for different industries, especially food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics. The products (nectar, jellies, jams, wines, others) and by-products of the processing of the Tumbo fruit have various nutritional, sensory, and composition attributes for developing new food and non-food products. The potential applications of the fruit and its derivatives are broad, such as cosmetics, drugs, functional foods, and additives; these applications are due to its technological properties and its content of bioactive molecules. The Tumbo biorefinery presents an important perspective, especially for its bioactivity of high biological value for different industries.

Anti-fatigue activity of methyl dihydrojasmonate and linalool in a rat model evaluated by a novel index for neuro-immune and oxidative stress interactions

Avoiding fatigue is a long-standing challenge in both healthy and diseased individuals. Establishing objective standard markers of fatigue is essential to evaluate conditions in spatiotemporally different locations and individuals and identify agents to fight against fatigue. Herein, we introduced a novel method for evaluating fatigue using nervous system markers (including dopamine, adrenaline, and noradrenaline), various cytokine levels (such as interleukin [IL]-1β, tumor necrosis factor [TNF]-α, IL-10, IL-2, IL-5 and IL-17A), and oxidative stress markers (such as diacron-reactive oxygen metabolites [d-ROMs] and biological antioxidant potential [BAP]) in a rat fatigue model. Using this method, the anti-fatigue effects of methyl dihydrojasmonate (MDJ) and linalool, the fragrance/flavor compounds used in various products, were assessed. Our method evaluated the anti-fatigue effects of the aforementioned compounds based on the changes in levels of the nerves system markers, cytokines, and oxidative stress markers. MDJ exerted more potent anti-fatigue effects than linalool. In conclusion, the reported method could serve as a useful tool for fatigue studies and these compounds may act as effective therapeutic agents for abrogating fatigue symptoms.

Exploring the Volatile Composition and Antibacterial Activity of Edible Flower Hydrosols with Insights into Their Spontaneous Emissions and Essential Oil Chemistry

In the circular economy framework, hydrosols, by-products of the essential oil industry, are gaining attention for their potential in waste reduction and resource reuse. This study analyzed hydrosols from six edible flowers, investigating their chemical composition (VOC-Hyd) and antibacterial properties alongside volatile organic compounds of fresh flowers (VOC-Fs) and essential oils (EOs). Antirrhinum majus exhibited ketones as major VOC-Fs (62.6%) and VOC-Hyd (41.4%), while apocarotenoids dominated its EOs (68.0%). Begonia cucullata showed alkanes (33.7%) and aldehydes (25.7%) as primary VOC-Fs, while alkanes were prevalent in both extracts (65.6% and 91.7% in VOC-Hyd and in EOs, respectively). Calandula officinalis had monoterpenoids in VOC-Fs and VOC-Hyd (89.3% and 49.7%, respectively), while its EOs were rich in sesquiterpenoids (59.7%). Dahlia hortensis displayed monoterpenoid richness in both VOC-Fs and extracts. Monocots species' VOC-Fs (Polianthes tuberosa, Tulbaghia cominsii) were esters-rich, replaced by monoterpenoids in VOC-Hyd. P. tuberosa EO maintained ester richness, while T. cominsii EOs contained a significant percentage of sulfur compounds (38.1%). Antibacterial assays indicated comparable minimum inhibitory concentration profiles across VOC-Hyd: B. calcullata and P. tuberosa against Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella enterica ser. typhimurium, T. cominsii against Escherichia coli and S. enterica, A. majus and C. officinalis against S. aureus, and D. hortensis against S. enterica.

The Anticancer Activities of Natural Terpenoids That Inhibit Both Melanoma and Non-Melanoma Skin Cancers

The prevalence of two major types of skin cancer, melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancer, has been increasing worldwide. Skin cancer incidence is estimated to rise continuously over the next 20 years due to ozone depletion and an increased life expectancy. Chemotherapeutic agents could affect healthy cells, and thus may be toxic to them and cause numerous side effects or drug resistance. Phytochemicals that are naturally occurring in fruits, plants, and herbs are known to possess various bioactive properties, including anticancer properties. Although the effects of phytochemicals are relatively milder than chemotherapeutic agents, the long-term intake of phytochemicals may be effective and safe in preventing tumor development in humans. Diverse phytochemicals have shown anti-tumorigenic activities for either melanoma or non-melanoma skin cancer. In this review, we focused on summarizing recent research findings of the natural and dietary terpenoids (eucalyptol, eugenol, geraniol, linalool, and ursolic acid) that have anticancer activities for both melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancers. These terpenoids may be helpful to protect skin collectively to prevent tumorigenesis of both melanoma and nonmelanoma skin cancers.

Boosting Geranyl Diphosphate Synthesis for Linalool Production in Engineered Yarrowia lipolytica

Linalool is a pleasant-smelling monoterpenoid widely found in the essential oils of most flowers. Due to its biologically active properties, linalool has considerable commercial potential, especially in the food and perfume industries. In this study, the oleaginous yeast Yarrowia lipolytica was successfully engineered to produce linalool de novo. The (S)-linalool synthase (LIS) gene from Actinidia argute was overexpressed to convert geranyl diphosphate (GPP) into linalool. Flux was diverted from farnesyl diphosphate (FPP) synthesis to GPP by introducing a mutated copy of the native ERG20F88W-N119W gene, and CrGPPS gene from Catharanthus roseus on its own and as part of a fusion with LIS. Disruption of native diacylglycerol kinase enzyme, DGK1, by oligo-mediated CRISPR-Cas9 inactivation further increased linalool production. The resulting strain accumulated 109.6 mg/L of linalool during cultivation in shake flasks with sucrose as a carbon source. CrGPPS expression in Yarrowia lipolytica increased linalool accumulation more efficiently than the ERG20F88W-N119W expression, suggesting that the increase in linalool production was predominantly influenced by the level of GPP precursor supply.

Molecular structure, vibrational spectral, electron density analysis on linaloe oil and molecular docking efficacy against the therapeutic target on human immunodeficiency virus-1 organism (VIRAL protein)

Natural traditional medicine extensively uses certain terpenes and gives plants their flavor, aroma, and color. Treatments for bacterial infections, malaria, and cardiovascular disorders, anti-inflammatory, promote circulation, and heal wounds. 3,7-Dimethyl-1,6-octadien-3-ol (Linalool) is a naturally occurring monoterpene alcohol with no cycle and is a colorless liquid. Spectral analysis such as UV absorption spectra, NMR for structure determination, and IR and Raman for vibrational analysis. The Quantum mechanical approach uses DFT, ELF, and LOL-promolecular electron density, non-relaxed, and atomic density analysis. The biomolecular studies such as molecular dynamics using protein-ligand complex with HIV-1 organism (energy minimization). ADMET for the usage of linalool in different metabolism studies and Molecular docking for binding affinity, its reactive site estimation, and macromolecules that come into contact with protein receptors and conclude ligand binding affinity with protein.

First investigation of the chemical composition, antioxidant, antimicrobial and larvicidal activities of the essential oil of the subspecies Ononis angustissima Lam. subsp. filifolia Murb

This study is the first to explore the essential oil of Ononis angustissima Lam. subsp. filifolia Murb., a subspecies growing in the Algerian northeastern Sahara. The chemical composition was evaluated by GC/GC-EIMS. Antioxidant activity was evaluated using two methods. Thirty-four (91.6%) individual components were identified. The main constituents were linalool (12.6%), hexahydrofarnesylacetone (8.4%), β-eudesmol (6.6%), α-cadinol (6.4%) and T-cadinol (6.1%). The findings provide a chemical basis for understanding relationships between North African subspecies, supporting botanical and genetic classification. The oil exhibited moderate scavenging activity against DPPH radicals (IC50 = 102.30 µg/ml) and high activity in the β-carotene bleaching assay (91.346%). Antimicrobial tests revealed effectiveness against Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 and ATCC 43300), limited impact on Gram-negative bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 and Escherichia coli ATCC 25922), and good inhibition against Aspergillus niger and Scedosporium apiospermum. A notable larvicidal activity was observed against Date Moth, particularly on L2 larvae.

Investigation of Volatile Components and Assessment of Antioxidant Potential in Seven Lamiaceae Plant Hydrosols

Aromatic plants of the family Lamiaceae, especially of the genus Thymus, have promising antioxidant applications in pharmacology, medicine, food, cosmetology, and aromatherapy. Hydrosols (HDs) were extracted by hydrodistillation from seven species of Lamiaceae, including Thymus vulgaris, Thymus mongolicus, Mentha × piperita, Melissa officinalis, Rosmarinus officinali, Salvia elegans, and Leonurus artemisia. In total, 369 volatile components were determined and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Among them, alcohols (2.86-28.48%), ethers (2.46-10.69%), and phenols (0.11-21.78%) constituted a large proportion, mainly linalool (0.28-19.27%), eucalyptol (0.16-6.97%), thymol (0-19.54%), and carvacrol (0-26.82%). Multivariate statistical analyses were performed and 27 differential metabolites were screened. Three different methods (ABTS+•, DPPH•, and FRAP) were used to determine the in vitro antioxidant activity of seven HDs. Thymus vulgaris hydrosols (Tv HDs) and Thymus mongolicus hydrosols (Tm HDs) had the strongest antioxidant activity and their stronger antioxidant capacity was related to their high levels of phenolic constituents, mainly thymol. The antioxidant activity of the other five Lamiaceae HDs was associated with their high alcohol (mainly linalool and eucalyptol) content, and the alcohol constituents may synergistically affect their antioxidant capacity. Therefore, the present study suggests that Lamiaceae plants can be utilized as antioxidant products or antioxidants in different industrial sectors including pharmaceuticals, food, cosmetics, and agrochemicals.

Terpenes-Modified Lipid Nanosystems for Temozolomide, Improving Cytotoxicity against Glioblastoma Human Cancer Cells In Vitro

Currently, increasing the efficiency of glioblastoma treatment is still an unsolved problem. In this study, a combination of promising approaches was proposed: (i) an application of nanotechnology approach to create a new terpene-modified lipid system (7% w/w), using soybean L-α-phosphatidylcholine, N-carbonyl-methoxypolyethylene glycol-2000)-1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine for delivery of the chemotherapy drug, temozolomide (TMZ, 1 mg/mL); (ii) use of TMZ associated with natural compounds-terpenes (1% w/w) abietic acid and Abies sibirica Ledeb. resin (A. sibirica). Different concentrations and combinations of terpene-lipid systems were employed to treat human cancer cell lines T 98G (glioblastoma), M-Hela (carcinoma of the cervix) and human liver cell lines (Chang liver). The terpene-lipid systems appeared to be unilamellar and of spherical shape under transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The creation of a TMZ-loaded terpene-lipid nanosystem was about 100 nm in diameter with a negative surface charge found by dynamic light scattering. The 74% encapsulation efficiency allowed the release time of TMZ to be prolonged. The modification by terpenes of TMZ-loaded lipid nanoparticles improved by four times the cytotoxicity against human cancer T 98G cells and decreased the cytotoxicity against human normal liver cells. Terpene-modified delivery lipid systems are of potential interest as a combination therapy.

Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Profiling of Volatile Metabolites Produced by Some Bacillus spp. and Evaluation of Their Antibacterial and Antibiotic Activities

Bacillus species produce different classes of antimicrobial and antioxidant substances: peptides or proteins with different structural compositions and molecular masses and a broad range of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), some of which may serve as biomarkers for microorganism identification. The aim of this study is the identification of biologically active compounds synthesized by five Bacillus species using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The current study profoundly enhances the knowledge of antibacterial and antioxidant metabolites ensuring the unambiguous identification of VOCs produced by some Bacillus species, which were isolated from vegetable samples of potato, carrot, and tomato. Phylogenetic and biochemical studies were used to identify the bacterial isolates after culturing. Phylogenetic analysis proved that five bacterial isolates BSS12, BSS13, BSS16, BSS21, and BSS25 showed 99% nucleotide sequence similarities with Bacillus safensis AS-08, Bacillus cereus WAB2133, Bacillus acidiproducens NiuFun, Bacillus toyonesis FORT 102, and Bacillus thuringiensis F3, respectively. The crude extract was prepared from bacterial isolates to assess the antibiotic resistance potency and the antimicrobial potential against various targeted multidrug-resistant strains, including yeast strains such as Candida albicans, Candida krusei, and bacterial strains of Enterococcus hirae, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus group B, Streptococcus mutans, Shigella sonnei, Salmonella enteritidis, Serratia marcescens, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Proteus vulgaris. GC-MS analysis of bacterial strains found that VOCs from Bacillus species come in a variety of chemical forms, such as ketones, alcohols, terpenoids, alkenes, etc. Overall, 69 volatile organic compounds were identified from five Bacillus species, and all five were found to share different chemical classes of volatile organic components, which have a variety of pharmacological applications. However, eight antibacterial compounds with different concentrations were commonly found in all five species: acetoin, acetic acid, butanoic acid, 2-methyl-, oxime-, methoxy-phenyl, phenol, 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, bis(2-methylpropyl) ester, nonanoic acid, and hexadecanoic acid, methyl. The present study has demonstrated that bacterial isolates BSS25, BSS21, and BSS16 display potent inhibitory effects against Candida albicans, while BSS25, BSS21, and BSS13 exhibit the ability to restrain the growth and activity of Candida krusei. Notably, BSS25 and BSS21 are the only isolates that demonstrate substantial inhibitory activity against Klebsiella aerogenes. This disparity in inhibitory effects could be attributed to the higher concentrations of acetoin in BSS25 and BSS21, whereas BSS16 and BSS13 have relatively elevated levels of butanoic acid, 2-methyl-. Certainly, the presence of acetoin and butanoic acid, 2-methyl-, contributes to the enhanced antibacterial potential of these bacterial strains, in conjunction with other organic volatile compounds and peptides, among other factors. The biology and physiology of Bacillus can be better understood using these results, which can also be used to create novel biotechnological procedures and applications. Moreover, because of its exceptional ability to synthesize and produce a variety of different antibacterial compounds, Bacillus species can serve as natural and universal carriers for antibiotic compounds in the form of probiotic cultures and strains to fight different pathogens, including mycobacteria.

Proteomics reveals energy limitation and amino acid consumption as antibacterial mechanism of linalool against Shigella sonnei and its application in fresh beef preservation

Meat is often contaminated by food-borne pathogens, resulting in significant economic losses. Linalool from plant essential oils (EOs) has been reported to have excellent antibacterial properties. Therefore, this study aims to elucidate the mechanism of linalool against Shigella sonnei (S. sonnei) based on proteomic and physiological indicators. The results indicated that linalool severely perturbed the expression levels of intracellular proteins, of which 208 were up-regulated and 49 were down-regulated. Moreover, linalool exerted its inhibitory effect mainly through the induction of amino acid limitation and insufficient energy levels based on the pathways involved in differential expressed proteins (DEPs). After 8 h, alkaline phosphatase (AKP) leakage increased 20.96 and 21.52-fold in the MIC and 2MIC groups while protein leakage increased 2.17 and 2.50-fold, respectively, which revealed the potential of linalool on cell structure damage combined with nucleic acid leakage. In addition, the ATP content decreased to 36.92% and 18.84% in the MIC and 2MIC groups, respectively when processed for 8 h. In particular, linalool could effectively control the quality change of fresh beef by measuring pH, total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N), total viable counts (TVC) while not affecting its sensory acceptability based on the result of sensory evaluation. This research provides theoretical insights for the development of linalool as a new natural antibacterial agent.

Evaluation of growth adaptation of Cinnamomum camphora seedlings in ionic rare earth tailings environment

The root system is an important organ for nutrient uptake and biomass accumulation in plants, while biomass allocation directly affects essential oils content, which plays an essential role in plant growth and development and resistance to adverse environmental conditions. This study was undertaken to investigate the differences and correlation of biomass allocation, root traits and essential oil content (EOC), as well as the adaptations of camphor tree with different chemical types to the ionic rare earth tailing sand habitats. Data from 1-year old cutting seedlings of C. camphora showed that the biomass of C. camphora cuttings was mainly distributed in root system, with the ratio of root biomass 49.9-72.13% and the ratio of root to canopy 1.00-2.64. The total biomass was significantly positively correlated with root length (RL), root surface area (RSA) and dry weight of fine roots (diameter ≤ 2 mm) (P < 0.05). Root biomass and leaf biomass were negatively and positively with specific root length (SRL) and specific root surface area (SRSA), respectively. Leaf biomass presented a positive effect on EOC (P < 0.05), with the correlation coefficient of 0.808. The suitability sort of these camphor trees was as follows: C. camphora β-linalool, C. camphora α-linaloolII, C. camphora α-linaloolI being better adapted to the ionic rare earth tailings substrate, C. camphora citral being the next, and C. porrectum β-linalool and C. camphora borneol being the least adaptive. EOC played a positive role in the adaptation of C. camphora (R2 = 0.6099, P < 0.05). Therefore camphor tree with linalool type is the appropriate choice in the ecological restoration of ionic rare earth tailings. The study could provide scientific recommendations for the ecological restoration of ionic rare earth tailings area combined with industrial development.

Component Composition and Biological Activity of Oleo-Gum Resin from Boswellia serrata (Burseraceae)

The review summarizes the published data on identification of biologically active compounds (BACs) and the pharmacological potential of various components of oleo-gum resin from the Indian frankincense Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. Boswellia oleo-gum resin contains a wide range of BACs from the classes of mono-, sesqui-, di-, and triterpenes. Numerous in vivo and in vitro studies demonstrated their anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative effects. Boswellic acids (BAs), which belong to the tetra- and pentacyclic triterpenoid classes, showed the highest anti-inflammatory activity. The frankincense resin is traditionally used in Ayurvedic and Unani medicine and can provide a promising source to design drugs effective in treating musculoskeletal disorders.

Phytochemical Screening, Phenolic Content, and Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Foeniculum vulgare Seed Extract

Medicinal plants are promising sources of natural substances with biological functions and several drugs have been developed from traditional medicine. This study aimed to determine the chemical components of a hydromethanolic extract from Foeniculum vulgare seeds. Total phenolic, flavonoid, and flavonol contents were assessed, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis was performed. To investigate the anti-inflammatory activity of F. vulgare seed hydromethanolic extract, its effects on protein denaturation, protease activity, membrane stabilization, and heat-induced hemolysis in red blood cells were evaluated in vitro. F. vulgare seed extract showed significant inhibition of protein denaturation (35.68±0.4%), protease activity (58.09±0.1%), and heat-induced hemolysis in red blood cells (9.67±0.3%) at concentrations of 200, 250, and 200 μg/mL, respectively, compared to the reference drug indomethacin (P<0.001). This remarkable anti-inflammatory activity may be attributable to the abundance of flavonoids in the F. vulgare seed extract. GC-MS confirmed the presence of linalool and fatty acids (palmitic and oleic acids), which have potential anti-inflammatory activities. Therefore, the hydromethanolic extract of F. vulgare seeds may be a valuable anti-inflammatory candidate in the years ahead.

Widely Targeted Volatilomics and Metabolomics Analysis Reveal the Metabolic Composition and Diversity of Zingiberaceae Plants

Zingiberaceae plants are widely used in the food and pharmaceutical industries; however, research on the chemical composition and interspecific differences in the metabolome and volatilome of Zingiberaceae plants is still limited. In this study, seven species of Zingiberaceae plants were selected, including Curcuma longa L., Zingiber officinale Rosc., Alpinia officinarum Hance, Alpinia tonkinensis Gagnep, Amomum tsaoko Crevost et Lemarie, Alpinia hainanensis K. Schum. and Amomum villosum Lour. Myristica fragrans Houtt. was also selected due to its flavor being similar to that of the Zingiberaceae plant. The metabolome and volatilome of selected plants were profiled by widely targeted approaches; 542 volatiles and 738 non-volatile metabolites were detected, and β-myrcene, α-phellandrene and α-cadinene were detected in all the selected plants, while chamigren, thymol, perilla, acetocinnamone and cis-α-bisabolene were exclusively detected in certain Zingiberaceae plants. Differential analysis showed that some terpenoids, such as cadalene, cadalene-1,3,5-triene, cadalene-1,3,8-triene and (E)-β-farnesene, and some lipids, including palmitic acid, linoleic acid and oleic acid were amongst the most varied compounds in Zingiberaceae plants. In conclusion, this study provided comprehensive metabolome and volatilome profiles for Zingiberaceae plants and revealed the metabolic differences between these plants. The results of this study could be used as a guide for the nutrition and flavor improvement of Zingiberaceae plants.

Anti-arthritic effects of geranium essential oil loaded chitosan nanoparticles in Freund's complete adjuvant induced arthritic rats through down-regulation of inflammatory cytokines

Geranium essential oil (GEO) has been widely used in aromatherapy and traditional medicines. Nanoencapsulation, a novel technique has emerged to overcome the environmental degradation and less oral bioavailability of essential oils. This work was undertaken to encapsulate geranium essential oil in chitosan nanoparticles (GEO-CNPs) by ionic gelation technique and to explore anti-arthritic and anti-inflammatory potential in FCA-induced arthritic model in rats. The GEO was characterized by gas chromatography flame ionization detector (GCFID) and the nanosuspension was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-rays diffraction (XRD). The Wistar albino rats (n = 32) were separated into four groups; Group 1 and 2 were considered as normal and arthritic controls. Group 3 was positive control that received oral celecoxib for 21 days while Group 4 was treated with oral GEO-CNPs after the induction of arthritis. Hind paw ankle joints diameters were weekly measured throughout the study and significant decrease (5.5 ± 0.5 mm) was observed in GEO-CNPs treatment group in comparison to arthritic group (9.17 ± 0.52 mm). Blood samples were drawn at end for evaluation of hematological, biochemical and inflammatory biomarkers. A significant upregulation of red blood cells and hemoglobin while downregulation of white blood cells, interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), C-reactive protein (CRP) and rheumatoid factor (RF) was observed. Ankles were transected for the histopathological and radiographic examination after animals were sacrificed which confirmed the alleviation of necrosis along cellular infiltration. It was concluded that GEO-CNPs were found to possess excellent therapeutic potential and promising candidates to reduce FCA-induced arthritis.

Antifungal effect of (R) and (S)-citronellal enantiomers and their predictive mechanism of action on Candida albicans from voriconazole-resistant onychomycoses

Onychomycosis is the most common disease affecting the nail unit and accounts for at least 50% of all nail diseases. In addition, Candida albicans is responsible for approximately 70% of onychomycoses caused by yeasts. This study investigated the antifungal effect of (R) and (S)-citronellal enantiomers, as well as its predictive mechanism of action on C. albicans from voriconazole-resistant onychomycoses. For this purpose, in vitro broth microdilution and molecular docking techniques were applied in a predictive and complementary manner to the mechanisms of action. The main results of this study indicate that C. albicans was resistant to voriconazole and sensitive to the enantiomers (R) and (S)-citronellal at a dose of 256 and 32 µg/mL respectively. In addition, there was an increase in the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the enantiomers in the presence of sorbitol and ergosterol, indicating that these molecules possibly affect the integrity of the cell wall and cell membrane of C. albicans. Molecular docking with key biosynthesis proteins and maintenance of the fungal cell wall and plasma membrane demonstrated the possibility of (R) and (S)-citronellal interacting with two important enzymes: 1,3-β-glucan synthase and lanosterol 14α-demethylase. Therefore, the findings of this study indicate that the (R) and (S)-citronellal enantiomers are fungicidal on C. albicans from onychomycoses and probably these substances cause damage to the cell wall and cell membrane of these micro-organisms possibly by interacting with enzymes in the biosynthesis of these fungal structures.

Phytochemical Screening and Antioxidant Activity of Selected Estonian Galium Species

The aim of the present study was to examine three different Galium species from the native population of Estonia, Galium verum, Galium aparine, and Galium mollugo, to characterise their non-volatile and volatile phytochemical composition and antioxidant activity. The main groups of bioactive compounds in the plants were quantified by colorimetric tests, showing high concentrations of polyphenols (up to 27.2 ± 1.5 mg GAE/g), flavonoids (up to 7.3 ± 0.5 mg QE/g) and iridoids (up to 40.8 ± 2.9 mg AE/g). The species were compared using HPLC-DAD-MS/MS, revealing some key differences in the phytochemical makeup of the extracts. The most abundant compound in the extracts of Galium verum blossoms and herb was found to be asperuloside, in Galium aparine herb, asperulosidic acid, and in Galium mollugo herb, chlorogenic acid. Additionally, the composition of volatile compounds was analysed by SPME-GC-MS. The degree of variability between the samples was high, but three volatiles, hexanal, anethole, and β-caryophyllene, were quantified (≥1%) in all analysed samples. The antioxidative activity of all extracts was evaluated using the ORAC_FL method, demonstrating that the Galium species from Estonia all exhibit strong antioxidant capacity (up to 9.3 ± 1.2 mg TE/g). Out of the extracts studied, Galium verum blossoms contained the highest amounts of bioactives and had the strongest antioxidant capacity.

Genome-wide identification, expression profile and evolutionary relationships of TPS genes in the neotropical fruit tree species Psidium cattleyanum

Terpenoids are essential for plant growth, development, defense, and adaptation mechanisms. Psidium cattleyanum (Myrtaceae) is a fleshy fruit tree species endemics from Atlantic Forest, known for its pleasant fragrance and sweet taste, attributed to terpenoids in its leaves and fruits. In this study, we conducted genome-wide identification, evolutionary and expression analyses of the terpene synthase gene (TPS) family in P. cattleyanum red guava (var. cattleyanum), and yellow guava (var. lucidum Hort.) morphotypes. We identified 32 full-length TPS in red guava (RedTPS) and 30 in yellow guava (YlwTPS). We showed different expression patterns of TPS paralogous in the two morphotypes, suggesting the existence of distinct gene regulation mechanisms and their influence on the final essential oil content in both morphotypes. Moreover, the oil profile of red guava was dominated by 1,8-cineole and linalool and yellow guava was enriched in α-pinene, coincident in proportion to TPS-b1 genes, which encode enzymes that produce cyclic monoterpenes, suggesting a lineage-specific subfamily expansion of this family. Finally, we identified amino acid residues near the catalytic center and functional areas under positive selection. Our findings provide valuable insights into the terpene biosynthesis in a Neotropical Myrtaceae species and their potential involvement in adaptation mechanisms.

Efficacy of Aromatherapy at Relieving the Work-Related Stress of Nursing Staff from Various Hospital Departments during COVID-19

This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of aromatherapy in relieving the stress of nursing staff working in different departments during COVID-19. A total of 26 nursing staff from Taiwan were recruited for this study. Bergamot essential oil was diffused for over a four-week period in four different hospital departments. We assessed heart rate variability indicators, Nurse Stress Checklist, and Copenhagen Burnout Inventory before and after the intervention. The results of the analysis showed that during a high workload period, aromatherapy had no significant effect on regulating physical stress. Subjective measurements showed a significant impact on work concern and personal fatigue. Moreover, there were large differences among the four departments; the aromatherapy treatment had a weak effect on those with a heavy workload, whereas those with a lighter workload showed a stronger effect. Finally, this study provides practical results about aromatherapy stress reduction applied during the pandemic on first-line medical staff.

Ginger potency on the prevention and treatment of breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Cancer is a type of disease caused by the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells that can destroy body tissues. The use of traditional medicine naturally uses plants from ginger with the maceration method. The ginger plant is a herbaceous flowering plant with the Zingiberaceacea group.

METHODS

This study uses the literature review method by reviewing 50 articles from journals and databases.

RESULTS

A review of several articles, namely ginger has bioactive components such as gingerol. Ginger is used as a treatment in complementary therapies using plants. Ginger is a strategy with many benefits and functions as a nutritional complement to the body. This benefit has shown the effect of anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer against nausea and vomiting due to chemotherapy in breast cancer.

CONCLUSION

Anticancer in ginger is shown by polyphenols associated with anti-metastatic, anti-proliferative, antiangiogenic, anti-inflammatory, cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and autophagy. Therefore, consuming ginger regularly affects natural herbal therapy with the prevention and treatment of breast cancer and serves as a prevention against the effects of chemotherapy.

Natural Compounds in the Battle against Microorganisms-Linalool

The purpose of this article is to present recent studies on the antimicrobial properties of linalool, the mechanism of action on cells and detoxification processes. The current trend of employing compounds present in essential oils to support antibiotic therapy is becoming increasingly popular. Naturally occurring monoterpene constituents of essential oils are undergoing detailed studies to understand their detailed effects on the human body, both independently and in doses correlated with currently used pharmaceuticals. One such compound is linalool, which is commonly found in many herbs and is used to flavor black tea. This compound is an excellent fragrance additive for cosmetics, enhancing the preservative effect of the formulations used in them or acting as an anti-inflammatory on mild skin lesions. Previous studies have shown that it is extremely important due to its broad spectrum of biological activities, i.e., antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, cardioprotective and antimicrobial. Among opportunistic hospital strains, it is most active against Gram-negative bacteria. The mechanism of action of linalool against microorganisms is still under intensive investigation. One of the key aspects of linalool research is biotransformation, through which its susceptibility to detoxification processes is determined.

Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) Leaves as a Source of Bioactive Compounds

Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is an annual spicy plant generally utilized as a flavouring agent for food. Basil leaves also have pharmaceutical properties due to the presence of polyphenols, phenolic acids, and flavonoids. In this work, carbon dioxide was employed to extract bioactive compounds from basil leaves. Extraction with supercritical CO₂ (p = 30 MPa; T = 50 °C) for 2 h using 10% ethanol as a cosolvent was the most efficient method, with a yield similar to that of the control (100% ethanol) and was applied to two basil cultivars: “Italiano Classico” and “Genovese”. Antioxidant activity, phenolic acid content, and volatile organic compounds were determined in the extracts obtained by this method. In both cultivars, the supercritical CO₂ extracts showed antiradical activity (ABTS^●+ assay), caffeic acid (1.69–1.92 mg/g), linalool (35–27%), and bergamotene (11–14%) contents significantly higher than those of the control. The polyphenol content and antiradical activity measured by the three assays were higher in the “Genovese” cultivar than in the “Italiano Classico” cultivar, while the linalool content was higher (35.08%) in the “Italiano Classico” cultivar. Supercritical CO₂ not only allowed us to obtain extracts rich in bioactive compounds in an environmentally friendly way but also reduced ethanol consumption.

Respiratory Depression as Antibacterial Mechanism of Linalool against Pseudomonas fragi Based on Metabolomics

Linalool showed a broad-spectrum antibacterial effect, but few studies have elucidated the antibacterial mechanism of linalool on Pseudomonas fragi (P. fragi) to date. The present study aimed to uncover the antimicrobial activity and potential mechanism of linalool against P. fragi by determining key enzyme activities and metabolites combined with a high-throughput method and metabolomic pathway analysis. As a result, linalool had excellent inhibitory activity against P. fragi with MIC of 1.5 mL/L. In addition, the presence of linalool significantly altered the intracellular metabolic profile and a total of 346 differential metabolites were identified, of which 201 were up-regulated and 145 were down-regulated. The highlight pathways included beta-alanine metabolism, pantothenic acid and CoA metabolism, alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism, nicotinate and nicotinamide metabolism. Overall, linalool could cause metabolic disorders in cells, and the main metabolic pathways involved energy metabolism, amino acid metabolism and nucleic acid metabolism. In particular, the results of intracellular ATP content and related enzymatic activities (ATPase, SDH, and GOT) also highlighted that energy limitation and amino acid disturbance occurred intracellularly. Together, these findings provided new insights into the mechanism by which linalool inhibited P. fragi and theoretical guidance for its development as a natural preservative.

Linalool attenuated ischemic injury in PC12 cells through inhibition of caspase-3 and caspase-9 during apoptosis

Numerous studies have indicated the pharmacological properties of linalool, a volatile terpene alcohol found in many flowers and spice plants, including anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective activities. The aim of this study was to explore the mechanisms of neuroprotection provided by (±) linalool and its enantiomer, (R)-(-) linalool against oxygen, and glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R) in PC12 cells. PC12 cells were treated with (±) linalool and (R)-(-) linalool before exposure to OGD/R condition. Cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, malondialdehyde (MDA) level, DNA damage, and the levels of proteins related to apoptosis were evaluated using MTT, comet assay, and western blot analysis, respectively. IC₅₀ values for the PC12 cells incubated with (±) linalool and (R)-(-) linalool were 2700 and 2600 μM after 14 h, as well as 5440 and 3040 μM after 18 h, respectively. Survival of the ischemic cells pre-incubated with (±) linalool and (R)-(-) linalool (100 μM of both) increased compared to the cells subjected to the OGD/R alone (p < .001). ROS and MDA formation were also decreased following incubation with (±) linalool and (R)-(-) linalool compared to the OGD/R group (p < .01). In the same way, pre-treatment with (±) linalool and (R)-(-) linalool significantly reduced OGD/R-induced DNA injury compared to that seen in OGD/R group (p < .001). (±) Linalool and (R)-(-) linalool also restored Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and cleaved caspase-3 and caspase-9 (p < .001, p < .01) following ischemic injury. The neuroprotective effect of linalool against ischemic insult might be mediated by alleviation of oxidative stress and apoptosis.

Mixed consortium of microbial inoculants improves yield and essential oil profile of coriander

Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), one of the oldest spice plants globally, has wide usage, mainly owing to its essential oil content. This study investigated the effects of rhizobacteria, mycorrhizae, and their combination on the yield and essential oil profile of coriander. The treatments resulted in statistically higher yield properties and essential oil values than the control. The effects of the microorganism treatments on the yield characteristics were not statistically different. However, the treatments significantly affected the essential oil content and yield. While the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and combined application of the microorganisms were statistically equal, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi had a higher value in essential oil content and yield by 0.75% and 11.8 L ha^-1, respectively. The combined application resulted in higher values of linalool (9.47%) and γ-terpinene (6.75%), the components with the highest rate in the essential oil composition. The principal component analysis highlighted the importance of the combined application on the crucial components. In the light of the results, beneficial microorganism treatments were considered significant for yield and essential oil enhancement. Therefore, the wide use of these treatments will highly contribute to coriander cultivation.

Antifungal activity of linalool against fluconazole-resistant clinical strains of vulvovaginal Candida albicans and its predictive mechanism of action

Candida albicans is the most frequently isolated opportunistic pathogen in the female genital tract, with 92.3% of cases in Brazil associated with vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC). Linalool is a monoterpene compound from plants of the genera Cinnamomum, Coriandrum, Lavandula, and Citrus that has demonstrated a fungicidal effect on strains of Candida spp., but its mechanism of action is still unknown. For this purpose, broth microdilution techniques were applied, as well as molecular docking in a predictive manner for this mechanism. The main results of this study indicated that the C. albicans strains analyzed were resistant to fluconazole and sensitive to linalool at a dose of 256 µg/mL. Furthermore, the increase in the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of linalool in the presence of sorbitol and ergosterol indicated that this molecule possibly affects the cell wall and plasma membrane integrity of C. albicans. Molecular docking of linalool with proteins that are key in the biosynthesis and maintenance of the cell wall and the fungal plasma membrane integrity demonstrated the possibility of linalool interacting with three important enzymes: 1,3-β-glucan synthase, lanosterol 14α-demethylase, and Δ 14-sterol reductase. In silico analysis showed that this monoterpene has theoretical but significant oral bioavailability, low toxic potential, and high similarity to pharmaceuticals. Therefore, the findings of this study indicated that linalool probably causes damage to the cell wall and plasma membrane of C. albicans, possibly by interaction with important enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of these fungal structures, in addition to presenting low in silico toxic potential.

Exploring the medicinally important secondary metabolites landscape through the lens of transcriptome data in fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum L.)

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) is a self-pollinated leguminous crop belonging to the Fabaceae family. It is a multipurpose crop used as herb, spice, vegetable and forage. It is a traditional medicinal plant in India attributed with several nutritional and medicinal properties including antidiabetic and anticancer. We have performed a combined transcriptome assembly from RNA sequencing data derived from leaf, stem and root tissues. Around 209,831 transcripts were deciphered from the assembly of 92% completeness and an N50 of 1382 bases. Whilst secondary metabolites of medicinal value, such as trigonelline, diosgenin, 4-hydroxyisoleucine and quercetin, are distributed in several tissues, we report transcripts that bear sequence signatures of enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of such metabolites and are highly expressed in leaves, stem and roots. One of the antidiabetic alkaloid, trigonelline and its biosynthesising enzyme, is highly abundant in leaves. These findings are of value to nutritional and the pharmaceutical industry.

Terpenes Combinations Inhibit Biofilm Formation in Staphyloccocus aureus by Interfering with Initial Adhesion

The biofilm is a conglomerate of cells surrounded by an extracellular matrix, which contributes to the persistence of infections. The difficulty in removing the biofilm drives the research for new therapeutic options. In this work, the effect of terpenes (−)-trans-Caryophyllene, (S)-cis-Verbenol, (S)-(−)-Limonene, (R)-(+)-Limonene, and Linalool was evaluated, individually and in combinations on bacterial growth, by assay with resazurin; the formation of biofilm, by assay with violet crystal; and the expression of associated genes, by real-time PCR, in two clinical isolates of Staphyloccocus aureus, ST30-t019 and ST5-t311, responsible for more than 90% of pediatric infections by this pathogen in Paraguay. All combinations of terpenes can inhibit biofilm formation in more than 50% without affecting bacterial growth. The most effective combination was (−)-trans-Caryophyllene and Linalool at a 500 μg/mL concentration for each, with an inhibition percentage of 88%. This combination decreased the expression levels of the sdrD, spa, agr, and hld genes associated with the initial cell adhesion stage and quorum sensing. At the same time, it increased the expression levels of the cap5B and cap5C genes related to the production of capsular polysaccharides. The combinations of compounds tested are promising alternatives to inhibit biofilm formation in S. aureus.

In-Depth Study of Thymus vulgaris Essential Oil: Towards Understanding the Antibacterial Target Mechanism and Toxicological and Pharmacological Aspects

Questions have been raised apropos the emerging problem of microbial resistance, which may pose a great hazard to the human health. Among biosafe compounds are essential oils which captured consumer draw due to their multifunctional properties compared to chemical medication drugs. Here, we examined the chemical profile and the mechanism(s) of action of the Thymus vulgaris essential oil (TVEO) against a Gram-negative bacterium Salmonella enterica Typhimurium ATTCC 10028 (S. enterica Typhimurium ATTCC 10028) and two Gram-positive bacteria Staphyloccocus aureus ATCC 6538 (S. aureus ATCC 6538) and Listeria monocytogenes ATCC 19117 (L. monocytogenes ATCC 19117). Findings showed that TVEO was principally composed of thymol, o-cymene, and γ-terpinene with 47.44, 16.55, and 7.80%, respectively. Molecular docking simulations stipulated that thymol and β-sesquiphellandrene (a minor compound at 1.37%) could target multiple bacterial pathways including topoisomerase II and DNA and RNA polymerases of the three tested bacteria. This result pointed plausible impairments of the pathogenic bacteria cell replication and transcription processes. Through computational approach, the VEGA quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR) model, we revealed that among twenty-six TVEO compounds, sixteen had no toxic effects and could be safe for human consumption as compared to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drugs (ciprofloxacin and rifamycin SV). Assessed by the SwissADME server, the pharmacokinetic profile of all identified TVEO compounds define their absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) properties and were assessed. In order to predict their biological activity spectrum based on their chemical structure, all TVEO compounds were subjected to PASS (Prediction of Activity Spectra for Substances) online tool. Results indicated that the tested compounds could have multiple biological activities and various enzymatic targets. Findings of our study support that identified compounds of TVEO can be a safe and effective alternative to synthetic drugs and can easily combats hazardous multidrug-resistant bacteria.

Comparative proteomics reveals biochemical changes in Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge during sweating processing

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge is a bulk medicinal material used in traditional Chinese medicine, that can cure cardiovascular diseases, neurasthenia, and other conditions. Sweating is a frequently used method of processing S. miltiorrhiza for medical applications. We previously demonstrated changes to the metabolic profile of linoleic acid, glyoxylate, and dicarboxylate after Sweating. However, this alteration has not been explained at the molecular level.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fresh roots of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge were treated by the Sweating processing, and then the tandem mass tag technique was used to compare the proteome difference between Sweating S. miltiorrhiza and non-Sweating S. miltiorrhiza.

RESULTS

We identified a total of 850 differentially expressed proteins after Sweating treatment in S. miltiorrhiza, including 529 upregulated proteins and 321 downregulated proteins. GO enrichment analysis indicated that these differentially expressed proteins are involved in external encapsulating structure, cell wall, oxidoreductase activity, ligase activity, and others. Further analysis showed that CYP450, the pathogenesis-related protein Bet v 1 family, and the peroxidase domain were the major protein domains. KEGG enrichment identified 18 pathways, of which phenylpropanoid biosynthesis is the most important one related to the metabolite profile and is the principal chemical component of S. miltiorrhiza.

CONCLUSION

This study addressed potential molecular mechanisms in S. miltiorrhiza after Sweating, and the findings provide reasons for the changes in biochemical properties and metabolites changes which might cause pharmacological variation at the proteome level.

An update on the progress of microbial biotransformation of commercial monoterpenes

Monoterpenes, a class of isoprenoid compounds, are extensively used in flavor, fragrance, perfumery, and cosmetics. They display many astonishing bioactive properties of biological and pharmacological significance. All monoterpenes are derived from universal precursor geranyl diphosphate. The demand for new monoterpenoids has been increasing in flavor, fragrances, perfumery, and pharmaceuticals. Chemical methods, which are harmful for human and the environment, synthesize most of these products. Over the years, researchers have developed alternative methods for the production of newer monoterpenoids. Microbial biotransformation is one of them, which relied on microbes and their enzymes. It has produced many new desirable commercially important monoterpenoids. A growing number of reports reflect an ever-expanding scope of microbial biotransformation in food and aroma industries. Simultaneously, our knowledge of the enzymology of monoterpene biosynthetic pathways has been increasing, which facilitated the biotransformation of monoterpenes. In this article, we have covered the progress made on microbial biotransformation of commercial monoterpenes with a brief introduction to their biosynthesis. We have collected several reports from authentic web sources, including Google Scholar, Pubmed, Web of Science, and Scopus published in the past few years to extract information on the topic.

Linalool as a Therapeutic and Medicinal Tool in Depression Treatment: A Review

Depression is a prevalent disease worldwide, limiting psychosocial functioning and thequality of life. Linalool is the main constituent of some essential oils from aromatic plants, representing about 70% of these volatile concentrates. Evidence of the linalool activity on the central nervous system, mainly acting as an antidepressant agent, is increasingly abundant. This review aimed to extend the knowledge of linalool's antidepressant action mechanisms, which is fundamental for future research, intending to highlight this natural compound as a new antidepressant phytomedication. A critical analysis is proposed here with probable hypotheses of the synergic mechanisms that support the evidence of antidepressant effects of the linalool. The literature search has been conducted in databases for published scientific articles before December 2020, using relevant keywords. Several pieces of evidence point to the anticonvulsant, sedative, and anxiolytic actions. In addition to these activities, other studies have revealed that linalool acts on the monoaminergic and neuroendocrine systems, inflammatory process, oxidative stress, and neurotrophic factors, such as BDNF, resulting in considerable advances in the knowledge of the etiology of depression. In this context, linalool emerges as a promising bioactive compound in the therapeutic arsenal, capable of interacting with numerous pathophysiological factors and acting on several targets. This review claims to contribute to future studies, highlighting the gaps in the linalool knowledge, such as its kinetics, doses, routes of administration, and multiple targets of interaction, to clarify its antidepressant activity.

The Effect of Bergamot Essential Oil Aromatherapy on Improving Depressive Mood and Sleep Quality in Postpartum Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

The postpartum period is a physiologically and psychologically crucial transition phase for every woman who gives birth. Aromatherapy may improve mood and alleviate sleep challenges. However, few randomized controlled clinical trials have focused on the effect of aromatherapy in postpartum women.

PURPOSE

This study was designed to explore the effect of a bergamot essential oil aromatherapy intervention on depressive mood and sleep quality in postpartum women.

METHODS

This randomized controlled trial used consecutive sampling. The participants were all women in a postpartum care center in eastern Taiwan and were randomly assigned to either the experimental (n = 29) or control (n = 31) group. Bergamot essential oil aroma was used in the experimental group, and pure water aroma was used in the control group. The experimental and control interventions were both performed while the participants were residents at the postpartum care center in the afternoon for 15 minutes each day. Before the aroma intervention, pretests were conducted using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale and the Postpartum Sleep Quality Scale. The first and second posttests were conducted using the same two scales at 2 and 4 weeks after the intervention, respectively.

RESULTS

At both the first and second posttests, depressive mood was significantly lower (p < .001) in the experimental group than in the control group, supporting the positive effect of the bergamot essential oil aroma intervention on depressive mood in postpartum women. No significant intergroup difference in sleep quality (p > .05) was observed at either the first or second posttest, indicating an uncertain effect of the bergamot essential oil aroma intervention on sleep quality.

CONCLUSIONS/IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

The results of this study support the effectiveness of bergamot essential oil aromatherapy in alleviating depressive mood in postpartum women. In addition, the results provide a practical reference for clinical postpartum nursing care.

Potential antifungal impact of citral and linalool administered individually or combined with fluconazole against clinical isolates of Candida krusei

Introduction: Candida krusei is recognized as a major fungal pathogen in patients with immunodeficiency disorders. The present study aimed at investigating the anticandidal activities of citral and linalool combined with fluconazole (FLZ) against FLZ-resistant C. krusei strains. Methods: Antifungal activities were evaluated by the broth microdilution (MD) method to determine the minimum inhibitory and fungicidal concentrations (namely, MICs and MFCs) according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) M27-A3 document. The interactions were further evaluated using fractional inhibitory concentration indices (FICIs) for combinations of citral+FLZ and linalool+FLZ, calculated from checkerboard MD assays. Results: The mean ± standard deviation (SD) MIC values of citral, linalool, and FLZ against the C. krusei isolates were 70.23 ± 17, 150 ± 38.73, and 74.66 ± 36.95 μg/mL, respectively. Some fungicidal activities were also observed for citral (2.5) and linalool (1.53) against the C. krusei isolates. The FICI values of citral+FLZ and linalool+FLZ for the C. krusei isolates ranged from 0.4 to 1.00 and 0.19 to 0.63, respectively. The additive and synergistic interactions of linalool + FLZ were further observed in 12 (57.1%) and 9 (42.9%) C. krusei isolates. However, there was an additive interaction for citral + FLZ in 17 (80.9%) isolates. They also showed a synergistic interaction in only four (19.1%) isolates. Moreover, linalool and citral plus FLZ did not have any antagonistic effect on any isolates. Conclusion: The study findings support the possible capabilities of citral and linalool, as anticandidal agents, and FLZ might be supplemented with citral and/or linalool for treating FLZ-resistant C. krusei infections.

Ultrasonic Extraction of Bioactive Compounds from Green Soybean Pods and Application in Green Soybean Milk Antioxidants Fortification

Green soybean (Glycine max L.) pods (GSP) are agro-industrial waste from the production of frozen green soybean and milk. These pods contain natural antioxidants and various bioactive compounds that are still underutilized. Polyphenols and flavonoids in GSP were extracted by ultrasound technique and used in the antioxidant fortification of green soybean milk. The ultrasound extraction that yielded the highest total polyphenol content and antioxidant activities was 50% amplitude for 10 min. Response surface methodology was applied to analyze an optimum ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE) condition of these variables. The highest desirability was found to be 50% amplitude with an extraction time of 10.5 min. Under these conditions, the experimental total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, and antioxidant activity were well matched with the predicted values (R² > 0.70). Fortification of the GSP extracts (1-3% v/v) in green soybean milk resulted in higher levels of bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity in a dose-dependent manner. Procyanidins were found to be the main polyphenols in dried GSP crude extracts, which were present at a concentration of 0.72 ± 0.01 mg/100 g. The addition of GSP extracts obtained by using an ultrasound technique to green soybean milk increased its bioactive compound content, especially procyanidins, as well as its antioxidant activity.

Pulsed Electric Field-Assisted Extraction of Aroma and Bioactive Compounds From Aromatic Plants and Food By-Products

In this work, the effect of pulsed electric field (PEF) pre-treatment on the extractability in green solvents (i. e., ethanol–water mixture and propylene glycol) of target aroma and bioactive compounds, such as vanillin from vanilla pods, theobromine and caffeine from cocoa bean shells, linalool from vermouth mixture, and limonene from orange peels, was investigated. The effectiveness of PEF as a cell disintegration technique in a wide range of field strength (1–5 kV/cm) and energy input (1–40 kJ/kg) was confirmed using impedance measurements, and results were used to define the optimal PEF conditions for the pre-treatment of each plant tissue before the subsequent solid–liquid extraction process. The extracted compounds from untreated and PEF-treated samples were analyzed via GC-MS and HPLC-PDA analysis. Results revealed that the maximum cell disintegration index was detected for cocoa bean shells and vanilla pods (Z_p = 0.82), followed by vermouth mixture (Z_p = 0.77), and orange peels (Z_p = 0.55). As a result, PEF pre-treatment significantly enhanced the extraction yield of the target compounds in both solvents, but especially in ethanolic extracts of vanillin (+14%), theobromine (+25%), caffeine (+34%), linalool (+114%), and limonene (+33%), as compared with untreated samples. Moreover, GC-MS and HPLC-PDA analyses revealed no evidence of degradation of individual compounds due to PEF application. The results obtained in this work suggest that the application of PEF treatment before solid–liquid extraction with green solvents could represent a sustainable approach for the recovery of clean labels and natural compounds from aromatic plants and food by-products.

Anti-Diabetes, Anti-Gout, and Anti-Leukemia Properties of Essential Oils from Natural Spices Clausena indica, Zanthoxylum rhetsa, and Michelia tonkinensis

Essential oils (EOs) of Clausena indica fruits, Zanthoxylum rhetsa fruits, and Michelia tonkinensis seeds were analyzed for their phytochemical profiles and biological activities, including anti-diabetes, anti-gout, and anti-leukemia properties. Sixty-six volatile compounds were identified by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), in which, myristicin (68.3%), limonene (44.2%), and linalool (49.3%) were the most prominent components of EOs extracted from C. indica, Z. rhetsa, and M. tonkinensis, respectively. In addition, only EOs from C. indica inhibited the activities of all tested enzymes comprising α-amylase (IC₅₀ = 7.73 mg/mL), α-glucosidase (IC₅₀ = 0.84 mg/mL), and xanthine oxidase (IC₅₀ = 0.88 mg/mL), which are related to type 2 diabetes and gout. Remarkably, all EOs from C. indica, Z. rhetsa (IC₅₀ = 0.73 mg/mL), and M. tonkinensis (IC₅₀ = 1.46 mg/mL) showed a stronger anti-α-glucosidase ability than acarbose (IC₅₀ = 2.69 mg/mL), a known anti-diabetic agent. Moreover, the growth of leukemia cell Meg-01 was significantly suppressed by all EOs, of which, the IC₅₀ values were recorded as 0.32, 0.64, and 0.31 mg/mL for EOs from C. indica, Z. rhetsa, and M. tonkinensis, respectively. As it stands, this is the first report about the inhibitory effects of EOs from C. indica and Z. rhetsa fruits, and M. tonkinensis seeds on the human leukemia cell line Meg-01 and key enzymes linked to diabetes and gout. In conclusion, the present study suggests that EOs from these natural spices may be promising candidates for pharmaceutical industries to develop nature-based drugs to treat diabetes mellitus or gout, as well as malignant hematological diseases such as leukemia.