1
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Jolly RA, Cornwell PD, Noteboom J, Sayyed FB, Thapa B, Buckley LA. Estimation of acceptable daily intake values based on modeling and in vivo mutagenicity of NDSRIs of fluoxetine, duloxetine and atomoxetine. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2024; 152:105672. [PMID: 38968965 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2024.105672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2024] [Revised: 06/19/2024] [Accepted: 06/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/07/2024]
Abstract
Nitrosamine drug substance related impurities or NDSRIs can be formed if an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) has an intrinsic secondary amine that can undergo nitrosation. This is a concern as 1) nitrosamines are potentially highly potent carcinogens, 2) secondary amines in API are common, and 3) NDSRIs that might form from such secondary amines will be of unknown carcinogenic potency. Approaches for evaluating NDSRIs include read across, quantum mechanical modeling of reactivity, in vitro mutation data, and transgenic in vivo mutation data. These approaches were used here to assess NDSRIs that could potentially form from the drugs fluoxetine, duloxetine and atomoxetine. Based on a read across informed by modeling of physicochemical properties and mechanistic activation from quantum mechanical modeling, NDSRIs of fluoxetine, duloxetine, and atomoxetine were 10-100-fold less potent compared with highly potent nitrosamines such as NDMA or NDEA. While the NDSRIs were all confirmed to be mutagenic in vitro (Ames assay) and in vivo (TGR) studies, the latter data indicated that the potency of the mutation response was ≥4400 ng/day for all compounds-an order of magnitude higher than published regulatory limits for these NDSRIs. The approaches described herein can be used qualitatively to better categorize NDSRIs with respect to potency and inform whether they are in the ICH M7 (R2) designated Cohort of Concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Jolly
- Eli Lilly and Company, Inc. Indianapolis, IN, 46285, USA.
| | | | | | | | - Bishnu Thapa
- Eli Lilly and Company, Inc. Indianapolis, IN, 46285, USA
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2
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De S, Thapa B, Sayyed FB, Frank SA, Cornwell PD, Jolly RA. Quantum Mechanical Assessment of Nitrosamine Potency. Chem Res Toxicol 2024; 37:1011-1022. [PMID: 38804898 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.4c00087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
Nitrosamines are in the cohort of concern (CoC) as determined by regulatory guidance. CoC compounds are considered highly potent carcinogens that need to be limited below the threshold of toxicological concern, 1.5 μg/day. Nitrosamines like NDMA and NDEA require strict control, while novel nitrosamine drug substance-related impurities (NDSRIs) may or may not be characterized as potent carcinogens. A risk assessment based on the structural features of NDSRIs is important in order to predict potency because they lack substance-specific carcinogenicity. Herein, we present a quantum mechanical (QM)-based analysis on structurally diverse sets of nitrosamines to better understand how structure influences the reactivity that could result in carcinogenicity. We describe the potency trend through activation energies corresponding to α-hydroxylation, aldehyde formation, diazonium intermediate formation, reaction with DNA base, and hydrolysis reactions, and other probable metabolic pathways associated with the carcinogenicity of nitrosamines. We evaluated activation energies for selected cases such as N-nitroso pyrrolidines, N-nitroso piperidines, N-nitroso piperazines, N-nitroso morpholines, N-nitroso thiomorpholine, N-methyl nitroso aromatic, fluorine-substituted nitrosamines, and substituted aliphatic nitrosamines. We compare these results to the recent framework of the carcinogenic potency characterization approach (CPCA) proposed by health authorities which is meant to give guidance on acceptable intakes (AI) for NDSRIs lacking substance-specific carcinogenicity data. We show examples where QM modeling and CPCA are aligned and examples where CPCA both underestimates and overestimates the AI. In cases where CPCA predicts high potency for NDSRIs, QM modeling can help better estimate an AI. Our results suggest that a combined mechanistic understanding of α-hydroxylation, aldehyde formation, hydrolysis, and reaction with DNA bases could help identify the structural features that underpin the potency of nitrosamines. We anticipate this work will be a valuable addition to the CPCA and provide a more analytical way to estimate AI for novel NDSRIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sriman De
- Synthetic Molecule Design and Development, Eli Lilly Services India Pvt Ltd, Devarabeesanahalli , Bengaluru 560103, India
| | - Bishnu Thapa
- Discovery Chemistry Research and Technology, LRL, Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, Indiana 46285, United States
| | - Fareed Bhasha Sayyed
- Synthetic Molecule Design and Development, Eli Lilly Services India Pvt Ltd, Devarabeesanahalli , Bengaluru 560103, India
| | - Scott A Frank
- Synthetic Molecule Design and Development, Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, Indiana 46285, United States
| | - Paul D Cornwell
- Toxicology, LRL, Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, Indiana 46285, United States
| | - Robert A Jolly
- Toxicology, LRL, Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, Indiana 46285, United States
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3
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Kruhlak NL, Schmidt M, Froetschl R, Graber S, Haas B, Horne I, Horne S, King ST, Koval IA, Kumaran G, Langenkamp A, McGovern TJ, Peryea T, Sanh A, Siqueira Ferreira A, van Aerts L, Vespa A, Whomsley R. Determining recommended acceptable intake limits for N-nitrosamine impurities in pharmaceuticals: Development and application of the Carcinogenic Potency Categorization Approach (CPCA). Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2024; 150:105640. [PMID: 38754805 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2024.105640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
N-Nitrosamine impurities, including nitrosamine drug substance-related impurities (NDSRIs), have challenged pharmaceutical industry and regulators alike and affected the global drug supply over the past 5 years. Nitrosamines are a class of known carcinogens, but NDSRIs have posed additional challenges as many lack empirical data to establish acceptable intake (AI) limits. Read-across analysis from surrogates has been used to identify AI limits in some cases; however, this approach is limited by the availability of robustly-tested surrogates matching the structural features of NDSRIs, which usually contain a diverse array of functional groups. Furthermore, the absence of a surrogate has resulted in conservative AI limits in some cases, posing practical challenges for impurity control. Therefore, a new framework for determining recommended AI limits was urgently needed. Here, the Carcinogenic Potency Categorization Approach (CPCA) and its supporting scientific rationale are presented. The CPCA is a rapidly-applied structure-activity relationship-based method that assigns a nitrosamine to 1 of 5 categories, each with a corresponding AI limit, reflecting predicted carcinogenic potency. The CPCA considers the number and distribution of α-hydrogens at the N-nitroso center and other activating and deactivating structural features of a nitrosamine that affect the α-hydroxylation metabolic activation pathway of carcinogenesis. The CPCA has been adopted internationally by several drug regulatory authorities as a simplified approach and a starting point to determine recommended AI limits for nitrosamines without the need for compound-specific empirical data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi L Kruhlak
- US Food and Drug Administration (US FDA), Silver Spring, MD, USA.
| | | | - Roland Froetschl
- Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (BfArM), Bonn, Germany
| | - Stefan Graber
- Swiss Agency for Therapeutic Products (Swissmedic), Bern, Switzerland
| | - Bodo Haas
- Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (BfArM), Bonn, Germany
| | - Irene Horne
- Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA), Canberra, Australia
| | - Stephen Horne
- Pharmaceutical Drugs Directorate, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sruthi T King
- US Food and Drug Administration (US FDA), Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Iryna A Koval
- Medicines Evaluation Board (MEB), Utrecht, Netherlands
| | | | - Anja Langenkamp
- Swiss Agency for Therapeutic Products (Swissmedic), Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Tyler Peryea
- US Food and Drug Administration (US FDA), Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Alan Sanh
- French National Agency for Medicines and Health Products Safety (ANSM), Saint-Denis, France
| | | | | | - Alisa Vespa
- Pharmaceutical Drugs Directorate, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Rhys Whomsley
- European Medicines Agency (EMA), Amsterdam, Netherlands
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4
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Dieckhoff J, Bringezu F, Simon S. Metabolic activation of short-chain alkyl N-nitrosamines using Aroclor 1254 or phenobarbital/beta-naphthoflavone-induced rat or hamster S9 - A comparative analysis. Toxicol Rep 2024; 12:215-223. [PMID: 38322170 PMCID: PMC10844645 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2024.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 01/20/2024] [Indexed: 02/08/2024] Open
Abstract
N-nitrosamines, a very heterogeneous class of chemicals, may enter humans in small amounts through various sources and are produced endogenously, too. Some are known to be mutagenic carcinogens and have recently been detected as impurities in several marketed pharmaceuticals. Despite their known mutagenic properties, the suitability of the bacterial reverse mutation (Ames) assay and in particular the use of induced rat liver S9 to detect their mutagenic potential, is often discussed. Recently, it could be demonstrated that induced rat liver S9 is capable of metabolizing small alkyl nitrosamines to exert their mutagenic potential (Bringezu & Simon, 2022). In this project, the mutagenic potential of nitrosamines in vitro under different S9 conditions applying the preincubation protocol and OECD 471-compliant standard Ames test recommendations was investigated. These conditions included various amounts of S9 fraction from hamster and rat, uninduced or induced with Aroclor 1254 or Phenobarbital/beta-Naphthoflavone (PB/NF). The findings indicated that in addition to induced S9, uninduced hamster S9 also demonstrated effectiveness. Moreover, both rat and hamster S9 fractions exhibited suitable responses in terms of mutation frequencies. Increasing the S9 content did not increase the sensitivity of the Ames test. However, above 20% S9, reduced mutation frequency was observed in the higher concentration range suggesting cytotoxicity to the bacteria. Thus, limiting the S9 content to 10% provides reliable results and relates to a lower number of animals required for S9 production which is in concordance with the 3R principles (reduce, refine, replace) for animal testing. In addition, results obtained show that uninduced and induced hamster S9 are similarly effective, doubting the requirement of pretreating animals with enzyme inducers. Further investigations to compare mutagenicity data and rat and hamster S9 proteome analyses are ongoing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Dieckhoff
- Merck Healthcare KGaA, Frankfurter Straße 250, 64293 Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Frank Bringezu
- Merck Healthcare KGaA, Frankfurter Straße 250, 64293 Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Stephanie Simon
- Merck Healthcare KGaA, Frankfurter Straße 250, 64293 Darmstadt, Germany
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5
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Seo JE, Le Y, Revollo J, Miranda-Colon J, Xu H, McKinzie P, Mei N, Chen T, Heflich RH, Zhou T, Robison T, Bonzo JA, Guo X. Evaluating the mutagenicity of N-nitrosodimethylamine in 2D and 3D HepaRG cell cultures using error-corrected next generation sequencing. Arch Toxicol 2024; 98:1919-1935. [PMID: 38584193 PMCID: PMC11106104 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-024-03731-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
Human liver-derived metabolically competent HepaRG cells have been successfully employed in both two-dimensional (2D) and 3D spheroid formats for performing the comet assay and micronucleus (MN) assay. In the present study, we have investigated expanding the genotoxicity endpoints evaluated in HepaRG cells by detecting mutagenesis using two error-corrected next generation sequencing (ecNGS) technologies, Duplex Sequencing (DS) and High-Fidelity (HiFi) Sequencing. Both HepaRG 2D cells and 3D spheroids were exposed for 72 h to N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), followed by an additional incubation for the fixation of induced mutations. NDMA-induced DNA damage, chromosomal damage, and mutagenesis were determined using the comet assay, MN assay, and ecNGS, respectively. The 72-h treatment with NDMA resulted in concentration-dependent increases in cytotoxicity, DNA damage, MN formation, and mutation frequency in both 2D and 3D cultures, with greater responses observed in the 3D spheroids compared to 2D cells. The mutational spectrum analysis showed that NDMA induced predominantly A:T → G:C transitions, along with a lower frequency of G:C → A:T transitions, and exhibited a different trinucleotide signature relative to the negative control. These results demonstrate that the HepaRG 2D cells and 3D spheroid models can be used for mutagenesis assessment using both DS and HiFi Sequencing, with the caveat that severe cytotoxic concentrations should be avoided when conducting DS. With further validation, the HepaRG 2D/3D system may become a powerful human-based metabolically competent platform for genotoxicity testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Eun Seo
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Yuan Le
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Javier Revollo
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Jaime Miranda-Colon
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Hannah Xu
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Page McKinzie
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Nan Mei
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Tao Chen
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Robert H Heflich
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Tong Zhou
- Center for Veterinary Medicine, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD, 20855, USA
| | - Timothy Robison
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | - Jessica A Bonzo
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | - Xiaoqing Guo
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA.
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6
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Vikram HP, Kumar TP, Kumar G, Beeraka NM, Deka R, Suhail SM, Jat S, Bannimath N, Padmanabhan G, Chandan RS, Kumar P, Gurupadayya B. Nitrosamines crisis in pharmaceuticals - Insights on toxicological implications, root causes and risk assessment: A systematic review. J Pharm Anal 2024; 14:100919. [PMID: 38799236 PMCID: PMC11126534 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpha.2023.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 12/02/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
The presence of N-nitroso compounds, particularly N-nitrosamines, in pharmaceutical products has raised global safety concerns due to their significant genotoxic and mutagenic effects. This systematic review investigates their toxicity in active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), drug products, and pharmaceutical excipients, along with novel analytical strategies for detection, root cause analysis, reformulation strategies, and regulatory guidelines for nitrosamines. This review emphasizes the molecular toxicity of N-nitroso compounds, focusing on genotoxic, mutagenic, carcinogenic, and other physiological effects. Additionally, it addresses the ongoing nitrosamine crisis, the development of nitrosamine-free products, and the importance of sensitive detection methods and precise risk evaluation. This comprehensive overview will aid molecular biologists, analytical scientists, formulation scientists in research and development sector, and researchers involved in management of nitrosamine-induced toxicity and promoting safer pharmaceutical products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hemanth P.R. Vikram
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, JSS College of Pharmacy Mysuru, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research (JSSAHER), Mysuru, 570015, India
- Xenone Healthcare Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 110076, India
| | - Tegginamath Pramod Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutics, JSS College of Pharmacy Mysuru, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research (JSSAHER), Mysuru, 570015, India
| | - Gunjan Kumar
- Xenone Healthcare Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 110076, India
| | - Narasimha M. Beeraka
- Department of Human Anatomy, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University), Moscow, 119991, Russian Federation
- Department of Pharmacology, Raghavendra Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (RIPER), Ananthapuramu, 515721, India
- Herman B. Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Department of Pediatrics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA
| | - Rajashree Deka
- Animal Physiology and Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Gauhati University, Guwahati, 781014, India
| | - Sheik Mohammed Suhail
- Department of Pharmacology, JSS College of Pharmacy Mysuru, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research (JSSAHER), Mysuru, 570015, India
| | - Sandeep Jat
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)-Guwahati, Changsari, 781101, India
| | - Namitha Bannimath
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Galway, Galway, H91 TK33, Ireland
| | - Gayatiri Padmanabhan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, JSS College of Pharmacy Mysuru, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research (JSSAHER), Mysuru, 570015, India
| | - Ravandur S. Chandan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, JSS College of Pharmacy Mysuru, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research (JSSAHER), Mysuru, 570015, India
| | - Pramod Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)-Guwahati, Changsari, 781101, India
| | - Bannimath Gurupadayya
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, JSS College of Pharmacy Mysuru, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research (JSSAHER), Mysuru, 570015, India
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7
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Nakka S, Katari NK, Muchakayala SK, Jonnalagadda SB, Manabolu Surya SB. Synthesis and Trace-Level Quantification of Mutagenic and Cohort-of-Concern Ciprofloxacin Nitroso Drug Substance-Related Impurities (NDSRIs) and Other Nitroso Impurities Using UPLC-ESI-MS/MS-Method Optimization Using I-Optimal Mixture Design. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:8773-8788. [PMID: 38434810 PMCID: PMC10905725 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c05170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
Globally, the pharmaceutical industry has been facing challenges from nitroso drug substance-related impurities (NDSRIs). In the current study, we synthesized and developed a rapid new UPLC-MS/MS method for the trace-level quantification of ciprofloxacin NDSRIs and a couple of N-nitroso impurities simultaneously. (Q)-SAR methodology was employed to assess and categorize the genotoxicity of all ciprofloxacin N-nitroso impurities. The projected results were positive, and the cohort of concern (CoC) for all three N-nitroso impurities indicates potential genotoxicity. AQbD-driven I-optimal mixture design was used to optimize the mixture of solvents in the method. The chromatographic resolution was accomplished using an Agilent Poroshell 120 Aq-C18 column (150 mm × 4.6 mm, 2.7 μm) in isocratic elution mode with 0.1% formic acid in a mixture of water, acetonitrile, and methanol in the ratio of 475:500:25 v/v/v at a flow rate of 0.5 mL/min. Quantification was carried out using triple quadrupole mass detection with electrospray ionization (ESI) in a multiple reaction monitoring technique. The finalized method was validated successfully, affording ICH guidelines. All N-nitroso impurities revealed excellent linearity over the concentration range of 0.00125-0.0250 ppm. The Pearson correlation coefficient of each N-nitroso impurity was >0.999. The method accuracy recoveries ranged from 93.98 to 108.08% for the aforementioned N-nitrosamine impurities. Furthermore, the method was effectively applied to quantify N-nitrosamine impurities simultaneously in commercially available formulated samples, with its efficiency recurring at trace levels. Thus, the current method is capable of determining the trace levels of three N-nitroso ciprofloxacin impurities simultaneously from the marketed tablet dosage forms for commercial release and stability testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srinivas Nakka
- Department
of Chemistry, School of Science, GITAM Deemed
to be University, Hyderabad 502329, India
| | - Naresh Kumar Katari
- Department
of Chemistry, School of Science, GITAM Deemed
to be University, Hyderabad 502329, India
- School
of Chemistry & Physics, College of Agriculture, Engineering &
Science, Westville Campus, University of
KwaZulu-Natal, P Bag X 54001, Durban 4000, South Africa
| | - Siva Krishna Muchakayala
- Department
of Chemistry, School of Science, GITAM Deemed
to be University, Hyderabad 502329, India
| | - Sreekantha Babu Jonnalagadda
- School
of Chemistry & Physics, College of Agriculture, Engineering &
Science, Westville Campus, University of
KwaZulu-Natal, P Bag X 54001, Durban 4000, South Africa
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8
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Snodin DJ, Trejo-Martin A, Ponting DJ, Smith GF, Czich A, Cross K, Custer L, Elloway J, Greene N, Kalgutkar AS, Stalford SA, Tennant RE, Vock E, Zalewski A, Ziegler V, Dobo KL. Mechanisms of Nitrosamine Mutagenicity and Their Relationship to Rodent Carcinogenic Potency. Chem Res Toxicol 2024; 37:181-198. [PMID: 38316048 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.3c00327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
A thorough literature review was undertaken to understand how the pathways of N-nitrosamine transformation relate to mutagenic potential and carcinogenic potency in rodents. Empirical and computational evidence indicates that a common radical intermediate is created by CYP-mediated hydrogen abstraction at the α-carbon; it is responsible for both activation, leading to the formation of DNA-reactive diazonium species, and deactivation by denitrosation. There are competing sites of CYP metabolism (e.g., β-carbon), and other reactive species can form following initial bioactivation, although these alternative pathways tend to decrease rather than enhance carcinogenic potency. The activation pathway, oxidative dealkylation, is a common reaction in drug metabolism and evidence indicates that the carbonyl byproduct, e.g., formaldehyde, does not contribute to the toxic properties of N-nitrosamines. Nitric oxide (NO), a side product of denitrosation, can similarly be discounted as an enhancer of N-nitrosamine toxicity based on carcinogenicity data for substances that act as NO-donors. However, not all N-nitrosamines are potent rodent carcinogens. In a significant number of cases, there is a potency overlap with non-N-nitrosamine carcinogens that are not in the Cohort of Concern (CoC; high-potency rodent carcinogens comprising aflatoxin-like-, N-nitroso-, and alkyl-azoxy compounds), while other N-nitrosamines are devoid of carcinogenic potential. In this context, mutagenicity is a useful surrogate for carcinogenicity, as proposed in the ICH M7 (R2) (2023) guidance. Thus, in the safety assessment and control of N-nitrosamines in medicines, it is important to understand those complementary attributes of mechanisms of mutagenicity and structure-activity relationships that translate to elevated potency versus those which are associated with a reduction in, or absence of, carcinogenic potency.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alejandra Trejo-Martin
- Gilead Sciences Inc. Nonclinical Safety and Pathobiology (NSP), Foster City, California 94404, United States
| | | | - Graham F Smith
- AstraZeneca, Imaging and Data Analytics, Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, Research and Development, CB2 0AA Cambridge, U.K
| | - Andreas Czich
- Sanofi, Research and Development, Preclinical Safety, 65926 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Kevin Cross
- Instem, Conshohocken, Pennsylvania 19428, United States
| | - Laura Custer
- Bristol-Myers Squibb, Nonclinical Safety, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903, United States
| | - Joanne Elloway
- AstraZeneca, Safety Sciences, Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences Research and Development, CB2 0AA Cambridge, U.K
| | - Nigel Greene
- AstraZeneca, Imaging and Data Analytics, Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, Research and Development, Waltham, Massachusetts 02451, United States
| | - Amit S Kalgutkar
- Medicine Design, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | | | | | - Esther Vock
- Boehringer-Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co., KG, 88397 Biberach an der Riss, Germany
| | - Adam Zalewski
- Bayer AG, Pharmaceuticals, Genetic and Computational Toxicology, 13342 Berlin, Germany
| | - Verena Ziegler
- Bayer AG, Pharmaceuticals, Genetic and Computational Toxicology, 13342 Berlin, Germany
| | - Krista L Dobo
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Global Portfolio and Regulatory Strategy, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
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9
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Frydrych A, Jurowski K. The comprehensive prediction of carcinogenic potency and tumorigenic dose (TD 50) for two problematic N-nitrosamines in food: NMAMPA and NMAMBA using toxicology in silico methods. Chem Biol Interact 2024; 389:110864. [PMID: 38199258 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2024.110864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Revised: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
The identification and toxicological assessment of potential carcinogens is of paramount importance for public health and safety. This study aimed to predict the carcinogenic potency and tumorigenic dose (TD50) for two problematic N-nitrosamines (N-NAs) commonly found in food: N-2-methylpropyl-N-1-methylacetonylnitrosamine (NMAMPA, CAS: 93755-83-0) and N-3-Methylbutyl-N-1-methylacetonylnitrosamine (NMAMBA, CAS: 71016-15-4). To achieve this goal, in silico toxicology methods were employed due to their practical applications and potential in risk assessment. The justification for conducting these studies was incoherent results published by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). For this purpose, we applied various in silico tools, including qualitative methods (ToxTree, ProTox II and CarcinoPred-EL) and quantitative methods (QSAR Toolbox and LAZAR) were applied to predict the carcinogenic potency. These tools leverage computational approaches to analyze chemical structures for finding toxicophores and generating predictions, making them efficient alternatives to traditional in vivo experiments. The results obtained indicated that N-NAs are carcinogenic compounds, and quantitative data was obtained in the form of estimated doses of TD50 for the compounds tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Frydrych
- Laboratory of Innovative Toxicological Research and Analyzes, Institute of Medical Studies, Medical College, Rzeszów University, Al. mjr. W. Kopisto 2a, 35-959, Rzeszów, Poland
| | - Kamil Jurowski
- Laboratory of Innovative Toxicological Research and Analyzes, Institute of Medical Studies, Medical College, Rzeszów University, Al. mjr. W. Kopisto 2a, 35-959, Rzeszów, Poland; Department of Regulatory and Forensic Toxicology, Institute of Medical Expertises in Łódź, ul. Aleksandrowska 67/93, 91-205, Łódź, Poland.
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10
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Fine J, Allain L, Schlingemann J, Ponting DJ, Thomas R, Johnson GE. Nitrosamine acceptable intakes should consider variation in molecular weight: The implication of stoichiometric DNA damage. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2023; 145:105505. [PMID: 37805106 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2023.105505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/09/2023]
Abstract
N-nitrosamines (NAs) are a class of compounds of which many, especially of the small dialkyl type, are indirect acting DNA alkylating mutagens. Their presence in pharmaceuticals is subject to very strict acceptable daily intake (AI) limits, which are traditionally expressed on a mass basis. Here we demonstrate that AIs that are not experimentally derived for a specific compound, but via statistical extrapolation or read across to a suitable analog, should be expressed on a molar scale or corrected for the target substance's molecular weight. This would account for the mechanistic aspect that each nitroso group can, at maximum, account for a single DNA mutation and the number of molecules per mass unit is proportional to the molecular weight (MW). In this regard we have re-calculated the EMA 18 ng/day regulatory default AI for unknown nitrosamines on a molar scale and propose a revised default AI of 163 pmol/day. In addition, we provide MW-corrected AIs for those nitrosamine drug substance related impurities (NDSRIs) for which EMA has pre-assigned AIs by read-across. Regulatory acceptance of this fundamental scientific tenet would allow one to derive nitrosamine limits for NDSRIs that both meet the health-protection goals and are technically feasible.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - David J Ponting
- Lhasa Limited, Granary Wharf House, 2 Canal Wharf, Leeds, UK
| | - Robert Thomas
- Lhasa Limited, Granary Wharf House, 2 Canal Wharf, Leeds, UK
| | - George E Johnson
- Institute of Life Science, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea, UK
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11
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Cayley AN, Foster RS, Brigo A, Muster W, Musso A, Kenyon MO, Parris P, White AT, Cohen-Ohana M, Nudelman R, Glowienke S. Assessing the utility of common arguments used in expert review of in silico predictions as part of ICH M7 assessments. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2023; 144:105490. [PMID: 37659712 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2023.105490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/04/2023]
Abstract
Expert review of two predictions, made by complementary (quantitative) structure-activity relationship models, to an overall conclusion is a key component of using in silico tools to assess the mutagenic potential of impurities as part of the ICH M7 guideline. In lieu of a specified protocol, numerous publications have presented best practise guides, often indicating the occurrence of common prediction scenarios and the evidence required to resolve them. A semi-automated expert review tool has been implemented in Lhasa Limited's Nexus platform following collation of these common arguments and assignment to the associated prediction scenarios made by Derek Nexus and Sarah Nexus. Using datasets primarily donated by pharmaceutical companies, an automated analysis of the frequency these prediction scenarios occur, and the likelihood of the associated arguments assigning the correct resolution, could then be conducted. This article highlights that a relatively small number of common arguments may be used to accurately resolve many prediction scenarios to a single conclusion. The use of a standardised method of argumentation and assessment of evidence for a given impurity is proposed to improve the efficiency and consistency of expert review as part of an ICH M7 submission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex N Cayley
- Lhasa Limited, Granary Wharf House, 2 Canal Wharf, Leeds, LS11 5PS, UK
| | - Robert S Foster
- Lhasa Limited, Granary Wharf House, 2 Canal Wharf, Leeds, LS11 5PS, UK.
| | - Alessandro Brigo
- Roche Pharmaceutical Research & Early Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Wolfgang Muster
- Roche Pharmaceutical Research & Early Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Alyssa Musso
- Pfizer Global Research and Development, Drug Safety Research and Development, Eastern Point Road, MS 8274/1317, Groton, CT, 06340, USA
| | - Michelle O Kenyon
- Pfizer Global Research and Development, Drug Safety Research and Development, Eastern Point Road, MS 8274/1317, Groton, CT, 06340, USA
| | - Patricia Parris
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Drug Safety Research and Development, Ramsgate Road, Sandwich, Kent, CT13 9NJ, UK
| | - Angela T White
- GlaxoSmithKline Pre-Clinical Development, Park Road, Ware, Hertfordshire, SG12 0DP, UK
| | - Mirit Cohen-Ohana
- Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd, Dvora HaNevi'a Street 124, Tel Aviv-Yafo, 6944020, Israel
| | - Raphael Nudelman
- Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd, Dvora HaNevi'a Street 124, Tel Aviv-Yafo, 6944020, Israel
| | - Susanne Glowienke
- Novartis AG, NIBR, Pre-clinical Safety, Fabrikstrasse 16, CH-405, Basel, Switzerland
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12
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Seo JE, Yu JZ, Xu H, Li X, Atrakchi AH, McGovern TJ, Bruno KLD, Mei N, Heflich RH, Guo X. Genotoxicity assessment of eight nitrosamines using 2D and 3D HepaRG cell models. Arch Toxicol 2023; 97:2785-2798. [PMID: 37486449 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-023-03560-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023]
Abstract
N-nitrosamine impurities have been increasingly detected in human drugs. This is a safety concern as many nitrosamines are mutagenic in bacteria and carcinogenic in rodent models. Typically, the mutagenic and carcinogenic activity of nitrosamines requires metabolic activation by cytochromes P450 enzymes (CYPs), which in many in vitro models are supplied exogenously using rodent liver homogenates. There are only limited data on the genotoxicity of nitrosamines in human cell systems. In this study, we used metabolically competent human HepaRG cells, whose metabolic capability is comparable to that of primary human hepatocytes, to evaluate the genotoxicity of eight nitrosamines [N-cyclopentyl-4-nitrosopiperazine (CPNP), N-nitrosodibutylamine (NDBA), N-nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA), N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), N-nitrosodiisopropylamine (NDIPA), N-nitrosoethylisopropylamine (NEIPA), N-nitroso-N-methyl-4-aminobutyric acid (NMBA), and N-nitrosomethylphenylamine (NMPA)]. Under the conditions we used to culture HepaRG cells, three-dimensional (3D) spheroids possessed higher levels of CYP activity compared to 2D monolayer cells; thus the genotoxicity of the eight nitrosamines was investigated using 3D HepaRG spheroids in addition to more conventional 2D cultures. Genotoxicity was assessed as DNA damage using the high-throughput CometChip assay and as aneugenicity/clastogenicity in the flow-cytometry-based micronucleus (MN) assay. Following a 24-h treatment, all the nitrosamines induced DNA damage in 3D spheroids, while only three nitrosamines, NDBA, NDEA, and NDMA, produced positive responses in 2D HepaRG cells. In addition, these three nitrosamines also caused significant increases in MN frequency in both 2D and 3D HepaRG models, while NMBA and NMPA were positive only in the 3D HepaRG MN assay. Overall, our results indicate that HepaRG spheroids may provide a sensitive, human-based cell system for evaluating the genotoxicity of nitrosamines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Eun Seo
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Joshua Z Yu
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
- Wiess School of Natural Sciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, 77005, USA
| | - Hannah Xu
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Xilin Li
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Aisar H Atrakchi
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | - Timothy J McGovern
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | - Karen L Davis Bruno
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | - Nan Mei
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Robert H Heflich
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Xiaoqing Guo
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA.
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13
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Felter SP, Ponting DJ, Mudd AM, Thomas R, Oliveira AAF. Maximizing use of existing carcinogenicity data to support acceptable intake levels for mutagenic impurities in pharmaceuticals: Learnings from N-nitrosamine case studies. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2023; 143:105459. [PMID: 37474097 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2023.105459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
The unexpected finding of N-nitrosamine (NA) impurities in many pharmaceutical products raised significant challenges for industry and regulators. In addition to well-studied small molecular weight NAs, many of which are potent rodent carcinogens, novel NAs associated with active pharmaceutical ingredients have been found, many of which have limited or no safety data. A tiered approach to establishing Acceptable Intake (AI) limits for NA impurities has been established using chemical-specific data, read-across, or a class-specific TTC limit. There are ∼140 NAs with some rodent carcinogenicity data, but much of it is older and does not meet current guidelines for what constitutes a 'robust' bioassay. Nevertheless, these data are an important source of information to ensure the best science is used for assessing NA impurities and assuring consumer safety while minimizing impact that can lead to drug shortages. We present several strategies to maximize the use of imperfect data including using a lower confidence limit on a rodent TD50, and leveraging data from multiple NAs. Information on the chemical structure known to impact potency can also support development of an AI or potentially conclude that a particular NA does not fall in the cohort of concern for potent carcinogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- S P Felter
- Procter & Gamble, Central Product Safety, 8700 Mason-Montgomery Rd, Mason, OH, USA.
| | - D J Ponting
- Lhasa Limited, Granary Wharf House, 2 Canal Wharf, Leeds, LS11 5PS, UK
| | - A M Mudd
- Procter & Gamble, Central Product Safety, 8700 Mason-Montgomery Rd, Mason, OH, USA
| | - R Thomas
- Lhasa Limited, Granary Wharf House, 2 Canal Wharf, Leeds, LS11 5PS, UK
| | - A A F Oliveira
- Lhasa Limited, Granary Wharf House, 2 Canal Wharf, Leeds, LS11 5PS, UK
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14
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Tennant RE, Ponting DJ, Thresher A. A deep dive into historical Ames study data for N-nitrosamine compounds. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2023; 143:105460. [PMID: 37495012 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2023.105460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Revised: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023]
Abstract
Mutagenicity data is a core component of the safety assessment data required by regulatory agencies for acceptance of new drug compounds, with the OECD-471 bacterial reverse mutation (Ames) assay most widely used as a primary screen to assess drug impurities for potential mutagenic risk. N-Nitrosamines are highly potent mutagenic carcinogens in rodent bioassays and their recent detection as impurities in pharmaceutical products has sparked increased interest in their safety assessment. Previous literature reports indicated that the Ames test might not be sensitive enough to detect the mutagenic potential of N-nitrosamines in order to accurately predict a risk of carcinogenicity. To explore this hypothesis, public Ames and rodent carcinogenicity data pertaining to the N-nitrosamine class of compounds was collated for analysis. Here we present how variations to the OECD 471-compliant Ames test, including strain, metabolic activation, solvent type and pre-incubation/plate incorporation methods, may impact the predictive performance for carcinogenicity. An understanding of optimal conditions for testing of N-nitrosamines may improve both the accuracy and confidence in the ability of the Ames test to identify potential carcinogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael E Tennant
- Lhasa Limited, Granary Wharf House, 2 Canal Wharf, Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS11 5PS, UK.
| | - David J Ponting
- Lhasa Limited, Granary Wharf House, 2 Canal Wharf, Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS11 5PS, UK
| | - Andrew Thresher
- Lhasa Limited, Granary Wharf House, 2 Canal Wharf, Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS11 5PS, UK
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15
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Berardi A, Jaspers M, Dickhoff BHJ. Modeling the Impact of Excipients Selection on Nitrosamine Formation towards Risk Mitigation. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2015. [PMID: 37631229 PMCID: PMC10458871 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15082015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Risk control for nitrosamine impurities in drug products is currently a major challenge in the industry. Nitrosamines can form during drug product manufacturing and storage through the reaction of nitrites with amine-containing APIs or impurities. The level of nitrites in excipients and the rate of reaction often control the build-up of nitrosamine. Although the variability in nitrite levels across excipient types and suppliers is well recognized, the impact of excipient selection on the level of nitrosamine formed has not been systematically studied. This gap of knowledge is addressed in the current work. We present theoretical case studies of formulations where microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), or lactose supplier, or superdisintegrant type are changed in pursuit of lower levels of nitrite. The impact of the average, maximum, and minimum levels of nitrites in each excipient on nitrosamine formation in the dosage form is calculated. The input data for this calculation are the formulation composition, nitrosamine molecular weight (MW), percentage of conversion, and nitrite levels per excipient. The percentage of conversion (based on the formulation and manufacturing variables) and nitrite levels were taken from the recent literature. We show that changing the supplier of a single excipient, or of the three most critical excipients, can reduce nitrosamine formation by up to -59% and -89%, respectively. We also show that high-risk formulations, e.g., high MW nitrosamines, high dosage weights, and high percentages of conversion (e.g., wet granulation), can often be de-risked below regulatory acceptable daily intake via careful excipient selection. Finally, we provide an open-access tool that enables users to calculate the theoretical formation of nitrosamines in their specific formulations. This calculation template can be used for (i) the preliminary screening of the risk of nitrosamine formation in drug products and (ii) the preliminary assessment of the impact of excipient selection for risk mitigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Berardi
- DFE Pharma, Klever Str. 187, 47574 Goch, Germany; (M.J.); (B.H.J.D.)
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16
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Chakravarti S. Computational Prediction of Metabolic α-Carbon Hydroxylation Potential of N-Nitrosamines: Overcoming Data Limitations for Carcinogenicity Assessment. Chem Res Toxicol 2023. [PMID: 37267457 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.3c00083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Recent withdrawal of several drugs from the market due to elevated levels of N-nitrosamine impurities underscores the need for computational approaches to assess the carcinogenicity risk of nitrosamines. However, current approaches are limited because robust animal carcinogenicity data are only available for a few simple nitrosamines, which do not represent the structural diversity of the many possible nitrosamine drug substance related impurities (NDSRIs). In this paper, we present a novel method that uses data on CYP-mediated metabolic hydroxylation of CH2 groups in non-nitrosamine xenobiotics to identify structural features that may also help in predicting the likelihood of metabolic α-carbon hydroxylation in N-nitrosamines. Our approach offers a new avenue for tapping into potentially large experimental data sets on xenobiotic metabolism to improve risk assessment of nitrosamines. As α-carbon hydroxylation is the crucial rate-limiting step in nitrosamine metabolic activation, identifying and quantifying the influence of various structural features on this step can provide valuable insights into their carcinogenic potential. This is especially important considering the scarce information available on factors that affect NDSRI metabolic activation. We have identified hundreds of structural features and calculated their impact on hydroxylation, a significant advancement compared to the limited findings from the small nitrosamine carcinogenicity data set. While relying solely on α-carbon hydroxylation prediction is insufficient for forecasting carcinogenic potency, the identified features can help in the selection of relevant structural analogues in read across studies and assist experts who, after considering other factors such as the reactivity of the resulting electrophilic diazonium species, can establish the acceptable intake (AI) limits for nitrosamine impurities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suman Chakravarti
- MultiCASE Inc., 23811 Chagrin Blvd, Suite 305, Beachwood, Ohio 44122, United States
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17
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Bercu JP, Masuda-Herrera M, Trejo-Martin A, Sura P, Jolly R, Kenyon M, Thomas R, Ponting DJ, Snodin D, Tuschl G, Simon S, De Vlieger K, Hutchinson R, Czich A, Glowienke S, Reddy MV, Johanssen S, Vock E, Claude N, Weaver RJ. Acceptable Intakes (AIs) for 11 Small molecule N-nitrosamines (NAs). Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2023:105415. [PMID: 37257751 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2023.105415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Low levels of N-nitrosamines (NAs) were detected in pharmaceuticals and, as a result, health authorities (HAs) have published acceptable intakes (AIs) in pharmaceuticals to limit potential carcinogenic risk. The rationales behind the AIs have not been provided to understand the process for selecting a TD50 or read-across analog. In this manuscript we evaluated the toxicity data for eleven common NAs in a comprehensive and transparent process consistent with ICH M7. This evaluation included substances which had datasets that were robust, limited but sufficient, and substances with insufficient experimental animal carcinogenicity data. In the case of robust or limited but sufficient carcinogenicity information, AIs were calculated based on published or derived TD50s from the most sensitive organ site. In the case of insufficient carcinogenicity information, available carcinogenicity data and structure activity relationships (SARs) were applied to categorical-based AIs of 1500 ng/day, 150 ng/day or 18 ng/day; however additional data (such as biological or additional computational modelling) could inform an alternative AI. This approach advances the methodology used to derive AIs for NAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel P Bercu
- Gilead Sciences, Inc., Nonclinical Safety and Pathobiology (NSP), Foster City, CA, USA.
| | - Melisa Masuda-Herrera
- Gilead Sciences, Inc., Nonclinical Safety and Pathobiology (NSP), Foster City, CA, USA
| | | | - Priyanka Sura
- Gilead Sciences, Inc., Nonclinical Safety and Pathobiology (NSP), Foster City, CA, USA
| | | | - Michelle Kenyon
- Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development and Medical, Drug Safety Research and Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, CT, USA
| | - Rob Thomas
- Lhasa Limited, Granary Wharf House, 2 Canal Wharf, Leeds, UK
| | - David J Ponting
- Lhasa Limited, Granary Wharf House, 2 Canal Wharf, Leeds, UK
| | | | - Gregor Tuschl
- Merck KGaA, Global Chemical and Preclinical Safety, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Stephanie Simon
- Merck KGaA, Global Chemical and Preclinical Safety, Darmstadt, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Sandra Johanssen
- Bayer AG, Pharmaceuticals, Research & Development, Berlin, Germany
| | - Esther Vock
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Birkendorfer Str., Biberach an der Riss, Germany
| | - Nancy Claude
- Servier Paris-Saclay R&D Institute, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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18
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Li X, Le Y, Seo JE, Guo X, Li Y, Chen S, Mittelstaedt RA, Moore N, Guerrero S, Sims A, King ST, Atrakchi AH, McGovern TJ, Davis-Bruno KL, Keire DA, Elespuru RK, Heflich RH, Mei N. Revisiting the mutagenicity and genotoxicity of N-nitroso propranolol in bacterial and human in vitro assays. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2023; 141:105410. [PMID: 37210026 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2023.105410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Propranolol is a widely used β-blocker that can generate a nitrosated derivative, N-nitroso propranolol (NNP). NNP has been reported to be negative in the bacterial reverse mutation test (the Ames test) but genotoxic in other in vitro assays. In the current study, we systematically examined the in vitro mutagenicity and genotoxicity of NNP using several modifications of the Ames test known to affect the mutagenicity of nitrosamines, as well as a battery of genotoxicity tests using human cells. We found that NNP induced concentration-dependent mutations in the Ames test, both in two tester strains that detect base pair substitutions, TA1535 and TA100, as well as in the TA98 frameshift-detector strain. Although positive results were seen with rat liver S9, the hamster liver S9 fraction was more effective in bio-transforming NNP into a reactive mutagen. NNP also induced micronuclei and gene mutations in human lymphoblastoid TK6 cells in the presence of hamster liver S9. Using a panel of TK6 cell lines that each expresses a different human cytochrome P450 (CYP), CYP2C19 was identified as the most active enzyme in the bioactivation of NNP to a genotoxicant among those tested. NNP also induced concentration-dependent DNA strand breakage in metabolically competent 2-dimensional (2D) and 3D cultures of human HepaRG cells. This study indicates that NNP is genotoxic in a variety of bacterial and mammalian systems. Thus, NNP is a mutagenic and genotoxic nitrosamine and a potential human carcinogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xilin Li
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA.
| | - Yuan Le
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Ji-Eun Seo
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Xiaoqing Guo
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Yuxi Li
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Si Chen
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Roberta A Mittelstaedt
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Nyosha Moore
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Sharon Guerrero
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Audrey Sims
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Sruthi T King
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | - Aisar H Atrakchi
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | - Timothy J McGovern
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | - Karen L Davis-Bruno
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | - David A Keire
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | | | - Robert H Heflich
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Nan Mei
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA.
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19
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Pu C, Zeng T. Comparative Evaluation of Chemical and Photolytic Denitrosation Methods for Chemiluminescence Detection of Total N-Nitrosamines in Wastewater Samples. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:7526-7536. [PMID: 37140470 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c09769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
N-Nitrosamines form as byproducts during oxidative water treatment and occur as impurities in consumer and industrial products. To date, two methods based on chemiluminescence (CL) detection of nitric oxide liberated from N-nitrosamines via denitrosation with acidic triiodide (HI3) treatment or ultraviolet (UV) photolysis have been developed to enable the quantification of total N-nitrosamines (TONO) in environmental water samples. In this work, we configured an integrated experimental setup to compare the performance of HI3-CL and UV-CL methods with a focus on their applicability for TONO measurements in wastewater samples. With the use of a large-volume purge vessel for chemical denitrosation, the HI3-CL method achieved signal stability and detection limits comparable to those achieved by the UV-CL method which utilized a microphotochemical reactor for photolytic denitrosation. Sixty-six structurally diverse N-nitroso compounds (NOCs) yielded a range of conversion efficiencies relative to N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) regardless of the conditions applied for denitrosation. On average, TONO measured in preconcentrated raw and chloraminated wastewater samples by the HI3-CL method were 2.1 ± 1.1 times those measured by the UV-CL method, pointing to potential matrix interferences as further confirmed by spike recovery tests. Overall, our comparative assessment of the HI3-CL and UV-CL methods serves as a basis for addressing methodological gaps in TONO analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changcheng Pu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Syracuse University, 151 Link Hall, Syracuse, New York 13244, United States
| | - Teng Zeng
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Syracuse University, 151 Link Hall, Syracuse, New York 13244, United States
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20
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Snodin DJ. Mutagenic impurities in pharmaceuticals: A critical assessment of the cohort of concern with a focus on N-nitrosamines. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2023; 141:105403. [PMID: 37116739 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2023.105403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 04/30/2023]
Abstract
The TTC (Threshold of Toxicological Concern; set at 1.5 μg/day for pharmaceuticals) defines an acceptable patient intake for any unstudied chemical posing a negligible risk of carcinogenicity or other toxic effects. A group of high potency mutagenic carcinogens, defined solely by the presence of particular structural alerts, are referred to as the "cohort of concern" (CoC); aflatoxin-like-, N-nitroso-, and alkyl-azoxy compounds are considered to pose a significant carcinogenic risk at intakes below the TTC. Kroes et al.2004, derived values for the TTC and CoC in the context of food components, employing a non-transparent dataset never placed in the public domain. Using a reconstructed all-carcinogen dataset from relevant publications, it is now clear that there are exceptions for all three CoC structural classes. N-Nitrosamines represent 62% of the N-nitroso class in the reconstructed dataset. Employing a contemporary dataset, 20% are negative in rodent carcinogenicity bioassays with less than 50% of N-nitrosamines estimated to fall into the highest risk category. It is recommended that CoC nitrosamines are identified by compound-specific data rather than structural alerts. Thus, it should be possible to distinguish CoC from non-CoC N-nitrosamines in the context of mutagenic impurities described in ICH M7 (R1).
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Snodin
- Xiphora Biopharma Consulting, 9 Richmond Apartments, Redland Court Road, Bristol, BS6 7BG, UK.
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21
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Ponting DJ, Foster RS. Drawing a Line: Where Might the Cohort of Concern End? Org Process Res Dev 2023. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.oprd.3c00008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- David J. Ponting
- Lhasa Limited, Granary Wharf House, 2 Canal Wharf, Leeds LS11 5PS, United Kingdom
| | - Robert S. Foster
- Lhasa Limited, Granary Wharf House, 2 Canal Wharf, Leeds LS11 5PS, United Kingdom
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22
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Schrenk D, Bignami M, Bodin L, Chipman JK, del Mazo J, Hogstrand C, (Ron) Hoogenboom L, Leblanc J, Nebbia CS, Nielsen E, Ntzani E, Petersen A, Sand S, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Wallace H, Romualdo B, Cristina F, Stephen H, Marco I, Mosbach‐Schulz O, Riolo F, Christodoulidou A, Grasl‐Kraupp B. Risk assessment of N-nitrosamines in food. EFSA J 2023; 21:e07884. [PMID: 36999063 PMCID: PMC10043641 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2023.7884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
EFSA was asked for a scientific opinion on the risks to public health related to the presence of N-nitrosamines (N-NAs) in food. The risk assessment was confined to those 10 carcinogenic N-NAs occurring in food (TCNAs), i.e. NDMA, NMEA, NDEA, NDPA, NDBA, NMA, NSAR, NMOR, NPIP and NPYR. N-NAs are genotoxic and induce liver tumours in rodents. The in vivo data available to derive potency factors are limited, and therefore, equal potency of TCNAs was assumed. The lower confidence limit of the benchmark dose at 10% (BMDL10) was 10 μg/kg body weight (bw) per day, derived from the incidence of rat liver tumours (benign and malignant) induced by NDEA and used in a margin of exposure (MOE) approach. Analytical results on the occurrence of N-NAs were extracted from the EFSA occurrence database (n = 2,817) and the literature (n = 4,003). Occurrence data were available for five food categories across TCNAs. Dietary exposure was assessed for two scenarios, excluding (scenario 1) and including (scenario 2) cooked unprocessed meat and fish. TCNAs exposure ranged from 0 to 208.9 ng/kg bw per day across surveys, age groups and scenarios. 'Meat and meat products' is the main food category contributing to TCNA exposure. MOEs ranged from 3,337 to 48 at the P95 exposure excluding some infant surveys with P95 exposure equal to zero. Two major uncertainties were (i) the high number of left censored data and (ii) the lack of data on important food categories. The CONTAM Panel concluded that the MOE for TCNAs at the P95 exposure is highly likely (98-100% certain) to be less than 10,000 for all age groups, which raises a health concern.
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23
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Kostal J, Voutchkova-Kostal A. Quantum-Mechanical Approach to Predicting the Carcinogenic Potency of N-Nitroso Impurities in Pharmaceuticals. Chem Res Toxicol 2023; 36:291-304. [PMID: 36745540 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.2c00380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
N-Nitroso contaminants in medicinal products are of concern due to their high carcinogenic potency; however, not all these compounds are created equal, and some are relatively benign chemicals. Understanding the structure-activity relationships (SARs) that drive hazards in one molecule versus another is key to both protecting human health and alleviating costly and sometimes inaccurate animal testing. Here, we report on an extension of the CADRE (computer-aided discovery and REdesign) platform, which is used broadly by the pharmaceutical and personal care industries to assess environmental and human health endpoints, to predict the carcinogenic potency of N-nitroso compounds. The model distinguishes compounds in three potency categories with 77% accuracy in external testing, which surpasses the reproducibility of rodent cancer bioassays and constraints imposed by limited (high-quality) data. The robustness of predictions for more complex pharmaceuticals is maximized by capturing key SARs using quantum mechanics, that is, by hinging the model on the underlying chemistry versus chemicals in the training set. To this end, the present approach can be leveraged in a quantitative hazard assessment and to offer qualitative guidance using electronic structure comparisons between well-studied analogues and unknown contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Kostal
- Designing Out Toxicity (DOT) Consulting LLC, 2121 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria, Virginia22314, United States.,The George Washington University, 800 22nd Street NW, Washington, D.C.20052, United States
| | - Adelina Voutchkova-Kostal
- Designing Out Toxicity (DOT) Consulting LLC, 2121 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria, Virginia22314, United States.,The George Washington University, 800 22nd Street NW, Washington, D.C.20052, United States
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24
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Wichitnithad W, Nantaphol S, Noppakhunsomboon K, Rojsitthisak P. An update on the current status and prospects of nitrosation pathways and possible root causes of nitrosamine formation in various pharmaceuticals. Saudi Pharm J 2023; 31:295-311. [PMID: 36942272 PMCID: PMC10023554 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsps.2022.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the last two years, global regulatory authorities have raised safety concerns on nitrosamine contamination in several drug classes, including angiotensin II receptor antagonists, histamine-2 receptor antagonists, antimicrobial agents, and antidiabetic drugs. To avoid carcinogenic and mutagenic effects in patients relying on these medications, authorities have established specific guidelines in risk assessment scenarios and proposed control limits for nitrosamine impurities in pharmaceuticals. In this review, nitrosation pathways and possible root causes of nitrosamine formation in pharmaceuticals are discussed. The control limits of nitrosamine impurities in pharmaceuticals proposed by national regulatory authorities are presented. Additionally, a practical and science-based strategy for implementing the well-established control limits is notably reviewed in terms of an alternative approach for drug product N-nitrosamines without published AI information from animal carcinogenicity testing. Finally, a novel risk evaluation strategy for predicting and investigating the possible nitrosation of amine precursors and amine pharmaceuticals as powerful prevention of nitrosamine contamination is addressed.
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Key Words
- AI, acceptable intake
- APIs, active pharmaceutical ingredients
- ARBs, angiotensin II receptor blockers
- AZBC, 4′-(azidomethyl)-[1.1′-biphenyl]-2-carbonitile
- AZBT, 5-(4′-(azidomethyl)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-2-yl)-1H-tetrazole
- AZTT, 5-(4′-((5-(azidomethyl)-2-butyl-4-chloro-1H-imidazol-1-yl) methyl)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-2-yl)-1H-tetrazole
- CDER, center for drug evaluation and research
- CPNP, 1-cyclopentyl-4-nitrosopiperazine
- Control limits
- DBA, N,N-dibutylamine
- DEA, N,N-diethylamine
- DIPEA, N,N-diisopropylethylamine
- DMA, dimethylamine
- DMF, N,N-dimethyl formamide
- DPA, N,N-dipropylamine
- EMA, European Medicines Agency
- EPA, Environmental Protection Agency
- FDA, Food and Drug Administration
- HSA, Health Sciences Authority
- IARC, International Agency for Research on Cancer
- ICH, International Council for Harmonisation
- LD50, median lethal dose
- MBA, N-methylamino-N-butyric acid
- MDD, maximum daily dose
- MNP, 1-methyl-4-nitrosopiperazine
- NAP, nitrosation assay procedure
- NDBA, N-nitrosodibutylamine
- NDEA, N-nitrosodiethylamine
- NDIPA, N-nitrosodiisopropylamine
- NDMA, N-nitrosodimethylamine
- NDSRIs, Nitrosamine drug substance-related impurities
- NEIPA, N-nitroso ethylisopropylamine
- NMBA, N-nitroso-N-methyl-4-aminobutyric acid
- NMP, N-methyl pyrrolidinone
- NOCs, N-nitroso compounds
- Nitrosamines
- Nitrosation
- PPRs, proportionate reporting ratios
- Ranitidine
- SARs, structure–activity relationships
- Sartans
- TD50, median toxic dose
- TEA, triethylamine
- TMA, trimethylamine
- TTC, threshold of toxicological concern
- USFDA, United States Food Drug and Administration
- USP, United States Pharmacopoeia
- WHO, World Health Organization
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Affiliation(s)
- Wisut Wichitnithad
- Department of Analytical Development, Pharma Nueva Co., Ltd, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
- Department of Clinical Development, Pharma Nueva Co., Ltd, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | - Siriwan Nantaphol
- Department of Clinical Development, Pharma Nueva Co., Ltd, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | | | - Pornchai Rojsitthisak
- Department of Food and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Natural Products for Ageing and Chronic Diseases, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Corresponding author at: Department of Food and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, 254 Phayathai Road, Patumwan, Bangkok 10330 Thailand.
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25
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Holzgrabe U. Nitrosated Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients - Lessons Learned? J Pharm Sci 2023; 112:1210-1215. [PMID: 36720391 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2023.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of N-nitrosodialkylamines in active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and drug products in the last years was a kind of eye opener with regard to quality of drugs. We became aware of the fact that quality control tests described in the international pharmacopoeias might not be sufficient. The N-nitrosodialkylamines found were neither so-called (structurally) related substances, nor residual solvents or heavy metals; hence they were not limited by a compendial test, but by the ICH guideline M7 of mutagenic impurities. Additionally, nitrosamine drug-substance-related impurities (NDSRIs) were detected, mostly within the process of risk assessment required by regulatory authorities. Here, the APIs containing a vulnerable amino moiety had reacted with nitrites being a contaminant of an excipient. This review deals with the formation, toxicity, and mitigation of NDSRISs.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Holzgrabe
- Institute of Pharmacy and Food Chemistry, University of Wuerzburg Am Hubland, 97074 Wuerzburg, Germany.
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26
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Khan HS, Despres-Gnis F, Stults CLM, Mullis J, Nugara N, Sen A, Nagao L. An Overview and Discussion of N-nitrosamine Considerations for Orally Inhaled Drug Products and Relevance to Other Dosage Forms. AAPS PharmSciTech 2023; 24:37. [PMID: 36653673 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-022-02491-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The presence of N-nitrosamines in drug products are currently an area of high regulatory and industry scrutiny, having been detected above acceptable regulatory levels in several solid oral drug products. For over 20 years, there has been an expectation that N-nitrosamines be eliminated or controlled to acceptable levels in orally inhaled and nasal drug products (OINDP). As a result, the OINDP industry has developed and implemented risk management processes and considerations to address N-nitrosamines in final drug product, including management and understanding of upstream supply particularly for OINDP device and container closure systems. We provide an overview of N-nitrosamine formation, discuss key current regulatory expectations worldwide for N-nitrosamines in drug products, discuss risk management approaches relevant for drug device combination products, and share analytical "tips" with respect to handling N-nitrosamines chemical assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - James Mullis
- PPD, Part of Thermo Fisher Scientific, Middleton, WI, USA
| | | | - Atish Sen
- AstraZeneca, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Lee Nagao
- Faegre Drinker Biddle & Reath LLP, 1500 K Street, NW, Suite 1100, Washington, DC, 20002, USA.
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27
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Greco G, Zeppa SD, Agostini D, Attisani G, Stefanelli C, Ferrini F, Sestili P, Fimognari C. The Anti- and Pro-Tumorigenic Role of Microbiota and Its Role in Anticancer Therapeutic Strategies. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 15:cancers15010190. [PMID: 36612186 PMCID: PMC9818275 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15010190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Human gut microbiota physiologically and actively participates as a symbiont to a wide number of fundamental biological processes, such as absorption and metabolism of nutrients, regulation of immune response and inflammation; gut microbiota plays also an antitumor role. However, dysbiosis, resulting from a number of different situations-dysmicrobism, infections, drug intake, age, diet-as well as from their multiple combinations, may lead to tumorigenesis and is associated with approximately 20% of all cancers. In a diagnostic, prognostic, therapeutic, and epidemiological perspective, it is clear that the bifaceted role of microbiota needs to be thoroughly studied and better understood. Here, we discuss the anti- and pro-tumorigenic potential of gut and other microbiota districts along with the causes that may change commensal bacteria from friend to foes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Greco
- Department of Chemistry “Giacomo Ciamician”, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Sabrina Donati Zeppa
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, 61029 Urbino, Italy
| | - Deborah Agostini
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, 61029 Urbino, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Attisani
- Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, 47921 Rimini, Italy
| | - Claudio Stefanelli
- Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, 47921 Rimini, Italy
| | - Fabio Ferrini
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, 61029 Urbino, Italy
| | - Piero Sestili
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, 61029 Urbino, Italy
- Correspondence: (P.S.); (C.F.)
| | - Carmela Fimognari
- Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, 47921 Rimini, Italy
- Correspondence: (P.S.); (C.F.)
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28
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Ponting DJ, Dobo KL, Kenyon MO, Kalgutkar AS. Strategies for Assessing Acceptable Intakes for Novel N-Nitrosamines Derived from Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients. J Med Chem 2022; 65:15584-15607. [PMID: 36441966 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c01498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The detection of N-nitrosamines, derived from solvents and reagents and, on occasion, the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) at higher than acceptable levels in drug products, has led regulators to request a detailed review for their presence in all medicinal products. In the absence of rodent carcinogenicity data for novel N-nitrosamines derived from amine-containing APIs, a conservative class limit of 18 ng/day (based on the most carcinogenic N-nitrosamines) or the derivation of acceptable intakes (AIs) using structurally related surrogates with robust rodent carcinogenicity data is recommended. The guidance has implications for the pharmaceutical industry given the vast number of marketed amine-containing drugs. In this perspective, the rate-limiting step in N-nitrosamine carcinogenicity, involving cytochrome P450-mediated α-carbon hydroxylation to yield DNA-reactive diazonium or carbonium ion intermediates, is discussed with reference to the selection of read-across analogs to derive AIs. Risk-mitigation strategies for managing putative N-nitrosamines in the preclinical discovery setting are also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Ponting
- Lhasa Limited, Granary Wharf House, 2 Canal Wharf, Leeds LS11 5PS, United Kingdom
| | - Krista L Dobo
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Global Portfolio and Regulatory Strategy, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Michelle O Kenyon
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Global Portfolio and Regulatory Strategy, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Amit S Kalgutkar
- Medicine Design, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, 1 Portland Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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29
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Wenzel J, Schmidt F, Blumrich M, Amberg A, Czich A. Predicting DNA-Reactivity of N-Nitrosamines: A Quantum Chemical Approach. Chem Res Toxicol 2022; 35:2068-2084. [PMID: 36302168 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.2c00217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
N-Nitrosamines (NAs) are a class of reactive organic chemicals that humans may be exposed to from environmental sources, food but also impurities in pharmaceutical preparations. Some NAs were identified as DNA-reactive mutagens and many of those have been classified as probable human carcinogens. Beyond high-potency mutagenic carcinogens that need to be strictly controlled, NAs of low potency need to be considered for risk assessment as well. NA impurities and nitrosylated products of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) often arise from production processes or degradation. Most NAs require metabolic activation to ultimately become carcinogens, and their activation can be appropriately described by first-principles computational chemistry approaches. To this end, we treat NA-induced DNA alkylation as a series of subsequent association and dissociation reaction steps that can be calculated stringently by density functional theory (DFT), including α-hydroxylation, proton transfer, hydroxyl elimination, direct SN2/SNAr DNA alkylation, competing hydrolysis and SN1 reactions. Both toxification and detoxification reactions are considered. The activation reactions are modeled by DFT at a high level of theory with an appropriate solvent model to compute Gibbs free energies of the reactions (thermodynamical effects) and activation barriers (kinetic effects). We study congeneric series of aliphatic and cyclic NAs to identify trends. Overall, this work reveals detailed insight into mechanisms of activation for NAs, suggesting that individual steric and electronic factors have directing and rate-determining influence on the formation of carbenium ions as the ultimate pro-mutagens and thus carcinogens. Therefore, an individual risk assessment of NAs is suggested, as exemplified for the complex API-like 4-(N-nitroso-N-methyl)aminoantipyrine which is considered as low-potency NA by in silico prediction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Wenzel
- Sanofi, R&D, Preclinical Safety, Industriepark Höchst, Industriepark Höchst, 65926Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Friedemann Schmidt
- Sanofi, R&D, Preclinical Safety, Industriepark Höchst, Industriepark Höchst, 65926Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Matthias Blumrich
- Sanofi, R&D, Preclinical Safety, Industriepark Höchst, Industriepark Höchst, 65926Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Alexander Amberg
- Sanofi, R&D, Preclinical Safety, Industriepark Höchst, Industriepark Höchst, 65926Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Andreas Czich
- Sanofi, R&D, Preclinical Safety, Industriepark Höchst, Industriepark Höchst, 65926Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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30
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Thomas R, Tennant RE, Oliveira AAF, Ponting DJ. What Makes a Potent Nitrosamine? Statistical Validation of Expert-Derived Structure-Activity Relationships. Chem Res Toxicol 2022; 35:1997-2013. [PMID: 36302501 PMCID: PMC9682520 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.2c00199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The discovery of carcinogenic nitrosamine impurities above the safe limits in pharmaceuticals has led to an urgent need to develop methods for extending structure-activity relationship (SAR) analyses from relatively limited datasets, while the level of confidence required in that SAR indicates that there is significant value in investigating the effect of individual substructural features in a statistically robust manner. This is a challenging exercise to perform on a small dataset, since in practice, compounds contain a mixture of different features, which may confound both expert SAR and statistical quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) methods. Isolating the effects of a single structural feature is made difficult due to the confounding effects of other functionality as well as issues relating to determining statistical significance in cases of concurrent statistical tests of a large number of potential variables with a small dataset; a naïve QSAR model does not predict any features to be significant after correction for multiple testing. We propose a variation on Bayesian multiple linear regression to estimate the effects of each feature simultaneously yet independently, taking into account the combinations of features present in the dataset and reducing the impact of multiple testing, showing that some features have a statistically significant impact. This method can be used to provide statistically robust validation of expert SAR approaches to the differences in potency between different structural groupings of nitrosamines. Structural features that lead to the highest and lowest carcinogenic potency can be isolated using this method, and novel nitrosamine compounds can be assigned into potency categories with high accuracy.
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31
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Santos CEMD, Dorta DJ, de Oliveira DP. Setting limits for N-nitrosamines in drugs: A defined approach based on read-across and structure-activity relationship for N-nitrosopiperazine impurities. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2022; 136:105288. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2022.105288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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32
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Schlingemann J, Burns MJ, Ponting DJ, Avila CM, Romero NE, Jaywant MA, Smith GF, Ashworth IW, Simon S, Saal C, Wilk A. The Landscape of Potential Small and Drug Substance Related Nitrosamines in Pharmaceuticals. J Pharm Sci 2022; 112:1287-1304. [PMID: 36402198 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2022.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
This article reports the outcome of an in silico analysis of more than 12,000 small molecule drugs and drug impurities, identifying the nitrosatable structures, assessing their potential to form nitrosamines under relevant conditions and the challenges to determine compound-specific AIs based on data available or read-across approaches for these nitrosamines and their acceptance by health authorities. Our data indicate that the presence of nitrosamines in pharmaceuticals is likely more prevalent than originally expected. In total, 40.4 % of the analyzed APIs and 29.6 % of the API impurities are potential nitrosamine precursors. Most structures identified through our workflow could form complex API-related nitrosamines, so-called nitrosamine drug substance related impurities (NDSRIs), although we also found structures that could release the well-known small and potent nitrosamines NDMA, NDEA, and others. Due to common structural motifs including secondary or tertiary amine moieties, whole essential drug classes such as beta blockers and ACE inhibitors are at risk. To avoid the risk of drug shortages or even the complete loss of therapeutic options, it will be essential that the well-established ICH M7 principles remain applicable for nitrosamines and that that the industry and regulatory authorities keep an open communication not only about the science but also to make sure there is a good balance between risk and benefit to patients.
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33
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Teasdale A, Popkin M. Regulatory Highlights. Org Process Res Dev 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.oprd.2c00257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Teasdale
- Chemical Development, Pharmaceutical Technology & Development, Operations, AstraZeneca, Macclesfield SK10 2NA, United Kingdom
- Snr Director, CMC Excellence, GSK CMC Regulatory Affairs, Park Road, Ware, SG12 0DP, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Popkin
- Chemical Development, Pharmaceutical Technology & Development, Operations, AstraZeneca, Macclesfield SK10 2NA, United Kingdom
- Snr Director, CMC Excellence, GSK CMC Regulatory Affairs, Park Road, Ware, SG12 0DP, United Kingdom
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34
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Trejo-Martin A, Bercu JP, Thresher A, Tennant RE, Thomas RF, Cross K, Czich A, Waese K, Nicolette JJ, Murray J, Sonders P, Kondratiuk A, Cheung JR, Thomas D, Lynch A, Harvey J, Glowienke S, Custer L, Escobar PA. Use of the bacterial reverse mutation assay to predict carcinogenicity of N-nitrosamines. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2022; 135:105247. [PMID: 35998738 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2022.105247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Under ICH M7, impurities are assessed using the bacterial reverse mutation assay (i.e., Ames test) when predicted positive using in silico methodologies followed by expert review. N-Nitrosamines (NAs) have been of recent concern as impurities in pharmaceuticals, mainly because of their potential to be highly potent mutagenic carcinogens in rodent bioassays. The purpose of this analysis was to determine the sensitivity of the Ames assay to predict the carcinogenic outcome with curated proprietary Vitic (n = 131) and Leadscope (n = 70) databases. NAs were selected if they had corresponding rodent carcinogenicity assays. Overall, the sensitivity/specificity of the Ames assay was 93-97% and 55-86%, respectively. The sensitivity of the Ames assay was not significantly impacted by plate incorporation (84-89%) versus preincubation (82-89%). Sensitivity was not significantly different between use of rat and hamster liver induced S9 (80-93% versus 77-96%). The sensitivity of the Ames is high when using DMSO as a solvent (87-88%). Based on the analysis of these databases, the Ames assay conducted under OECD 471 guidelines is highly sensitive for detecting the carcinogenic hazards of NAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra Trejo-Martin
- Gilead Sciences, Inc., Nonclinical Safety and Pathobiology (NSP), Foster City, CA, 94404, USA.
| | - Joel P Bercu
- Gilead Sciences, Inc., Nonclinical Safety and Pathobiology (NSP), Foster City, CA, 94404, USA
| | - Andrew Thresher
- Lhasa Limited, Granary Wharf House, 2 Canal Wharf, Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS11 5PS, UK
| | - Rachael E Tennant
- Lhasa Limited, Granary Wharf House, 2 Canal Wharf, Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS11 5PS, UK
| | - Robert F Thomas
- Lhasa Limited, Granary Wharf House, 2 Canal Wharf, Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS11 5PS, UK
| | - Kevin Cross
- Leadscope, Inc., an Instem Company, Columbus, OH, 43215, USA
| | - Andreas Czich
- Sanofi, R&D Preclinical Safety, D-65926, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Kerstin Waese
- Sanofi, R&D Preclinical Safety, D-65926, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - John J Nicolette
- Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Global Toxicology, Raritan, New Jersey, USA
| | - Joel Murray
- AbbVie, Inc., Pre-clinical Safety, North Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Paul Sonders
- AbbVie, Inc., Pre-clinical Safety, North Chicago, IL, USA
| | | | - Jennifer R Cheung
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Genetic Toxicology, Eastern Point Road, Groton, CT, USA
| | - Dean Thomas
- GlaxoSmithKline R&D, Park Road, Ware, Hertfordshire, SG12 0DP, UK
| | - Anthony Lynch
- GlaxoSmithKline R&D, Park Road, Ware, Hertfordshire, SG12 0DP, UK
| | - James Harvey
- GlaxoSmithKline R&D, Park Road, Ware, Hertfordshire, SG12 0DP, UK
| | - Susanne Glowienke
- Novartis AG, NIBR, Pre-clinical Safety, WSJ-340, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Laura Custer
- Bristol-Myers Squibb, Nonclinical Safety, 1 Squibb Dr, New Brunswick, NJ, 08903, USA
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35
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Li X, He X, Le Y, Guo X, Bryant MS, Atrakchi AH, McGovern TJ, Davis-Bruno KL, Keire DA, Heflich RH, Mei N. Genotoxicity evaluation of nitrosamine impurities using human TK6 cells transduced with cytochrome P450s. Arch Toxicol 2022; 96:3077-3089. [PMID: 35882637 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-022-03347-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Many nitrosamines are recognized as mutagens and potent rodent carcinogens. Over the past few years, nitrosamine impurities have been detected in various drugs leading to drug recalls. Although nitrosamines are included in a 'cohort of concern' because of their potential human health risks, most of this concern is based on rodent cancer and bacterial mutagenicity data, and there are little data on their genotoxicity in human-based systems. In this study, we employed human lymphoblastoid TK6 cells transduced with human cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2A6 to evaluate the genotoxicity of six nitrosamines that have been identified as impurities in drug products: N-nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA), N-nitrosoethylisopropylamine (NEIPA), N-nitroso-N-methyl-4-aminobutanoic acid (NMBA), N-nitrosomethylphenylamine (NMPA), N-nitrosodiisopropylamine (NDIPA), and N-nitrosodibutylamine (NDBA). Using flow cytometry-based assays, we found that 24-h treatment with NDEA, NEIPA, NMBA, and NMPA caused concentration-dependent increases in the phosphorylation of histone H2A.X (γH2A.X) in CYP2A6-expressing TK6 cells. Metabolism of these four nitrosamines by CYP2A6 also caused significant increases in micronucleus frequency as well as G2/M phase cell-cycle arrest. In addition, nuclear P53 activation was found in CYP2A6-expressing TK6 cells exposed to NDEA, NEIPA, and NMPA. Overall, the genotoxic potency of the six nitrosamine impurities in our test system was NMPA > NDEA ≈ NEIPA > NMBA > NDBA ≈ NDIPA. This study provides new information on the genotoxic potential of nitrosamines in human cells, complementing test results generated from traditional assays and partially addressing the issue of the relevance of nitrosamine genotoxicity for humans. The metabolically competent human cell system reported here may be a useful model for risk assessment of nitrosamine impurities found in drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xilin Li
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Xiaobo He
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Yuan Le
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Xiaoqing Guo
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Matthew S Bryant
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Aisar H Atrakchi
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | - Timothy J McGovern
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | - Karen L Davis-Bruno
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | - David A Keire
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | - Robert H Heflich
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Nan Mei
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA.
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36
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Dobo KL, Kenyon MO, Dirat O, Engel M, Fleetwood A, Martin M, Mattano S, Musso A, McWilliams JC, Papanikolaou A, Parris P, Whritenour J, Yu S, Kalgutkar AS. Practical and Science-Based Strategy for Establishing Acceptable Intakes for Drug Product N-Nitrosamine Impurities. Chem Res Toxicol 2022; 35:475-489. [PMID: 35212515 PMCID: PMC8941624 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.1c00369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
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The potential for N-nitrosamine impurities in
pharmaceutical products presents a challenge for the quality management
of medicinal products. N-Nitrosamines are considered
cohort-of-concern compounds due to the potent carcinogenicity of many
of the structurally simple chemicals within this structural class.
In the past 2 years, a number of drug products containing certain
active pharmaceutical ingredients have been withdrawn or recalled
from the market due to the presence of carcinogenic low-molecular-weight N,N-dialkylnitrosamine impurities. Regulatory
authorities have issued guidance to market authorization holders to
review all commercial drug substances/products for the potential risk
of N-nitrosamine impurities, and in cases where a
significant risk of N-nitrosamine impurity is identified,
analytical confirmatory testing is required. A key factor to consider
prior to analytical testing is the estimation of the daily acceptable
intake (AI) of the N-nitrosamine impurity. A significant
proportion of N-nitrosamine drug product impurities
are unique/complex structures for which the development of low-level
analytical methods is challenging. Moreover, these unique/complex
impurities may be less potent carcinogens compared to simple nitrosamines.
In the present work, our objective was to derive AIs for a large number
of complex N-nitrosamines without carcinogenicity
data that were identified as potential low-level impurities. The impurities
were first cataloged and grouped according to common structural features,
with a total of 13 groups defined with distinct structural features.
Subsequently, carcinogenicity data were reviewed for structurally
related N-nitrosamines relevant to each of the 13
structural groups and group AIs were derived conservatively based
on the most potent N-nitrosamine within each group.
The 13 structural group AIs were used as the basis for assigning AIs
to each of the structurally related complex N-nitrosamine
impurities. The AIs of several N-nitrosamine groups
were found to be considerably higher than those for the simple N,N-dialkylnitrosamines, which translates
to commensurately higher analytical method detection limits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krista L Dobo
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Global Portfolio and Regulatory Strategy, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Michelle O Kenyon
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Global Portfolio and Regulatory Strategy, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Olivier Dirat
- Global Product Development, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Sandwich CT13 9NJ, United Kingdom
| | - Maria Engel
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Global Portfolio and Regulatory Strategy, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Andrew Fleetwood
- East Kent Pharma Consulting Ltd., 10408413, England CT1 2TU, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Martin
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Global Computational Safety Sciences, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Susan Mattano
- Sue Mattano Consulting, Mystic, Connecticut 06355, United States
| | - Alyssa Musso
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Genetic Toxicology, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - James Christopher McWilliams
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Small Molecules, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Alexandros Papanikolaou
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Global Portfolio and Regulatory Strategy, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Patricia Parris
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Global Portfolio and Regulatory Strategy, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Sandwich CT13 9NJ, United Kingdom
| | - Jessica Whritenour
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Global Portfolio and Regulatory Strategy, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Shu Yu
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Small Molecules, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Amit S Kalgutkar
- Medicine Design, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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37
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Bringezu F, Simon S. Salmonella typhimurium TA100 and TA1535 and E. coli WP2 uvrA are highly sensitive to detect the mutagenicity of short Alkyl-N-Nitrosamines in the Bacterial Reverse Mutation Test. Toxicol Rep 2022; 9:250-255. [PMID: 35198408 PMCID: PMC8850549 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2022.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans are exposed to low levels of N-nitrosamines via different sources. N-Nitrosamines have recently been detected as impurities in various marketed drugs and they are known mutagenic carcinogens belonging to the cohort of concern as referred to in the ICH M7 guideline. Despite their well-known mutagenic properties, there is ongoing discussion on the suitability of the bacterial reverse mutation assay and using induced rat liver S9 as the external source of metabolism to detect their mutagenic potential. Therefore, we have investigated the mutagenic potential of N-nitrosodimethylamine, N-nitrosodiethylamine, N-nitrosodipropylamine, and N-nitrosodibutylamine in vitro under various conditions. Our work showed that the bacterial reverse mutation assay applying plate incorporation or preincubation protocols and using Salmonella typhimurium strains TA100 and TA1535 and E. coli WP2 uvrA is suitable to predict the mutagenicity of n-nitrosamines in the presence of phenobarbital/β-naphthoflavone induced rat liver S9.
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