CXC chemokines in angiogenesis

Spotlight on pro-inflammatory chemokines: regulators of cellular communication in cognitive impairment

Cognitive impairment is a decline in people's ability to think, learn, and remember, and so forth. Cognitive impairment is a global health challenge that affects the quality of life of thousands of people. The condition covers a wide range from mild cognitive impairment to severe dementia, which includes Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD), among others. While the etiology of cognitive impairment is diverse, the role of chemokines is increasingly evident, especially in the presence of chronic inflammation and neuroinflammation. Although inflammatory chemokines have been linked to cognitive impairment, cognitive impairment is usually multifactorial. Researchers are exploring the role of chemokines and other inflammatory mediators in cognitive dysfunction and trying to develop therapeutic strategies to mitigate their effects. The pathogenesis of cognitive disorders is very complex, their underlying causative mechanisms have not been clarified, and their treatment is always one of the challenges in the field of medicine. Therefore, exploring its pathogenesis and treatment has important socioeconomic value. Chemokines are a growing family of structurally and functionally related small (8-10 kDa) proteins, and there is growing evidence that pro-inflammatory chemokines are associated with many neurobiological processes that may be relevant to neurological disorders beyond their classical chemotactic function and play a crucial role in the pathogenesis and progression of cognitive disorders. In this paper, we review the roles and regulatory mechanisms of pro-inflammatory chemokines (CCL2, CCL3, CCL4, CCL5, CCL11, CCL20, and CXCL8) in cognitive impairment. We also discuss the intrinsic relationship between the two, hoping to provide some valuable references for the treatment of cognitive impairment.

LINE-1 RNA triggers matrix formation in bone cells via a PKR-mediated inflammatory response

Transposable elements (TEs) are mobile genetic modules of viral derivation that have been co-opted to become modulators of mammalian gene expression. TEs are a major source of endogenous dsRNAs, signaling molecules able to coordinate inflammatory responses in various physiological processes. Here, we provide evidence for a positive involvement of TEs in inflammation-driven bone repair and mineralization. In newly fractured mice bone, we observed an early transient upregulation of repeats occurring concurrently with the initiation of the inflammatory stage. In human bone biopsies, analysis revealed a significant correlation between repeats expression, mechanical stress and bone mineral density. We investigated a potential link between LINE-1 (L1) expression and bone mineralization by delivering a synthetic L1 RNA to osteoporotic patient-derived mesenchymal stem cells and observed a dsRNA-triggered protein kinase (PKR)-mediated stress response that led to strongly increased mineralization. This response was associated with a strong and transient inflammation, accompanied by a global translation attenuation induced by eIF2α phosphorylation. We demonstrated that L1 transfection reshaped the secretory profile of osteoblasts, triggering a paracrine activity that stimulated the mineralization of recipient cells.

The adhesion-GPCR ADGRF5 fuels breast cancer progression by suppressing the MMP8-mediated antitumorigenic effects

ADGRF5 (GPR116) has been identified as a facilitator of breast cancer cell migration and metastasis, yet the underlying mechanisms remain largely elusive. Our current study reveals that the absence of ADGRF5 in breast cancer cells impairs extracellular matrix (ECM)-associated cell motility and impedes in vivo tumor growth. This correlates with heightened expression of matrix metalloproteinase 8 (MMP8), a well-characterized antitumorigenic MMP, and a shift in the polarization of tumor-associated neutrophils (TANs) towards the antitumor N1 phenotype in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Mechanistically, ADGRF5 inhibits ERK1/2 activity by enhancing RhoA activation, leading to decreased phosphorylation of C/EBPβ at Thr235, hindering its nuclear translocation and subsequent activation. Crucially, two C/EBPβ binding motifs essential for MMP8 transcription are identified within its promoter region. Consequently, ADGRF5 silencing fosters MMP8 expression and CXCL8 secretion, attracting increased infiltration of TANs; simultaneously, MMP8 plays a role in decorin cleavage, which leads to trapped-inactivation of TGF-β in the TME, thereby polarizing TANs towards the antitumor N1 neutrophil phenotype and mitigating TGF-β-enhanced cell motility in breast cancer. Our findings reveal a novel connection between ADGRF5, an adhesion G protein-coupled receptor, and the orchestration of the TME, which dictates malignancy progression. Overall, the data underscore ADGRF5 as a promising therapeutic target for breast cancer intervention.

Role of chemokines in regulating luteal and uterine functions in pregnant cows

Pregnancy is intricately regulated by the interactions between various bioactive substances secreted by the conceptus, uterus, and corpus luteum (CL). Interferon-τ, synthesized and secreted by the conceptus, plays a central role in the interaction mechanism of maternal recognition in cows. Chemokines, chemotaxis mediators that are primarily secreted by immune cells, regulate various reproductive responses in various species. Although there are scattered reports on the potential roles of chemokines in the bovine CL and the uterus during the estrous cycle, there is little information on chemokines in these organs during pregnancy. Therefore, in this review, we discuss the possible physiological roles of chemokines in the CL and uterus of pregnant cows, focusing on our recent findings on chemokines and changes in their receptor expression in the CL and endometrium of cows at some stages of pregnancy.

Meta-analyses of the relationship between five CXCL8 gene polymorphisms and overall cancer risk, and a case-control study of oral cancer

BACKGROUND

C-X-C motif chemokine ligand (CXCL8), also known as interleukin-8, is a prototypical CXC family chemokine bearing a glutamic acid-leucine-arginine (ELR) motif that plays key roles in the onset and progression of a range of cancers in humans. Many prior studies have focused on exploring the relationship between CXCL8 gene polymorphisms and the risk of cancer. However, the statistical power of many of these reports was limited, yielding ambiguous or conflicting results in many cases.

METHODS

Accordingly, the PubMed, Wanfang, Scopus and Web of Science databases were searched for articles published until July 20, 2023 using the keywords 'IL-8' or 'interleukin-8' or 'CXCL8', 'polymorphism' and 'cancer' or 'tumor'. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were utilized to examine the association. The CXCL8 +781 polymorphism genotypes were assessed with a TaqMan assay.

RESULTS

About 29 related publications was conducted in an effort to better understand the association between these polymorphisms and disease risk. The CXCL8 -353A/T polymorphism was associated with an increased overall cancer risk [A vs. T, odds ratio (OR) = 1.255, 95% confidence interval (CI) (1.079-1.459), Pheterogeneity = 0.449, P = 0.003]. The CXCL8 +781 T/C allele was similarly associated with a higher risk of cancer among Caucasians [TT vs. TC + CC, OR = 1.320, 95%CI (1.046-1.666), Pheterogeneity = 0.375, P = 0.019]. Furthermore, oral cancer patients carrying the CXCL8 +781 TT + TC genotypes exhibited pronounced increases in serum levels of CXCL8 as compared to the CC genotype (P < 0.01), and also shown similar trend as compared to genotype-matched normal controls (P < 0.01). Finally, several limitations, such as the potential for publication bias or heterogeneity among the included studies should be paid attention.

CONCLUSION

Current study suggested that the CXCL8 -353 and +781 polymorphisms may be associated with a greater risk of cancer, which might impact cancer prevention, diagnosis, or treatment through the different expression of CXCL8. At the same time, the +781 polymorphism may further offer value as a biomarker that can aid in the early identification and prognostic evaluation of oral cancer.

Neutrophils in Cancer immunotherapy: friends or foes?

Neutrophils play a Janus-faced role in the complex landscape of cancer pathogenesis and immunotherapy. As immune defense cells, neutrophils release toxic substances, including reactive oxygen species and matrix metalloproteinase 9, within the tumor microenvironment. They also modulate the expression of tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand and Fas ligand, augmenting their capacity to induce tumor cell apoptosis. Their involvement in antitumor immune regulation synergistically activates a network of immune cells, bolstering anticancer effects. Paradoxically, neutrophils can succumb to the influence of tumors, triggering signaling cascades such as JAK/STAT, which deactivate the immune system network, thereby promoting immune evasion by malignant cells. Additionally, neutrophil granular constituents, such as neutrophil elastase and vascular endothelial growth factor, intricately fuel tumor cell proliferation, metastasis, and angiogenesis. Understanding the mechanisms that guide neutrophils to collaborate with other immune cells for comprehensive tumor eradication is crucial to enhancing the efficacy of cancer therapeutics. In this review, we illuminate the underlying mechanisms governing neutrophil-mediated support or inhibition of tumor progression, with a particular focus on elucidating the internal and external factors that influence neutrophil polarization. We provide an overview of recent advances in clinical research regarding the involvement of neutrophils in cancer therapy. Moreover, the future prospects and limitations of neutrophil research are discussed, aiming to provide fresh insights for the development of innovative cancer treatment strategies targeting neutrophils.

CX3CL1 (Fractalkine)-CX3CR1 Axis in Inflammation-Induced Angiogenesis and Tumorigenesis

The chemotactic cytokine fractalkine (FKN, chemokine CX3CL1) has unique properties resulting from the combination of chemoattractants and adhesion molecules. The soluble form (sFKN) has chemotactic properties and strongly attracts T cells and monocytes. The membrane-bound form (mFKN) facilitates diapedesis and is responsible for cell-to-cell adhesion, especially by promoting the strong adhesion of leukocytes (monocytes) to activated endothelial cells with the subsequent formation of an extracellular matrix and angiogenesis. FKN signaling occurs via CX3CR1, which is the only known member of the CX3C chemokine receptor subfamily. Signaling within the FKN-CX3CR1 axis plays an important role in many processes related to inflammation and the immune response, which often occur simultaneously and overlap. FKN is strongly upregulated by hypoxia and/or inflammation-induced inflammatory cytokine release, and it may act locally as a key angiogenic factor in the highly hypoxic tumor microenvironment. The importance of the FKN/CX3CR1 signaling pathway in tumorigenesis and cancer metastasis results from its influence on cell adhesion, apoptosis, and cell migration. This review presents the role of the FKN signaling pathway in the context of angiogenesis in inflammation and cancer. The mechanisms determining the pro- or anti-tumor effects are presented, which are the cause of the seemingly contradictory results that create confusion regarding the therapeutic goals.

Natural carboxyterminal truncation of human CXCL10 attenuates glycosaminoglycan binding, CXCR3A signaling and lymphocyte chemotaxis, while retaining angiostatic activity

BACKGROUND

Interferon-γ-inducible protein of 10 kDa (IP-10/CXCL10) is a dual-function CXC chemokine that coordinates chemotaxis of activated T cells and natural killer (NK) cells via interaction with its G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), CXC chemokine receptor 3 (CXCR3). As a consequence of natural posttranslational modifications, human CXCL10 exhibits a high degree of structural and functional heterogeneity. However, the biological effect of natural posttranslational processing of CXCL10 at the carboxy (C)-terminus has remained partially elusive. We studied CXCL10(1-73), lacking the four endmost C-terminal amino acids, which was previously identified in supernatant of cultured human fibroblasts and keratinocytes.

METHODS

Relative levels of CXCL10(1-73) and intact CXCL10(1-77) were determined in synovial fluids of patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) through tandem mass spectrometry. The production of CXCL10(1-73) was optimized through Fmoc-based solid phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) and a strategy to efficiently generate human CXCL10 proteoforms was introduced. CXCL10(1-73) was compared to intact CXCL10(1-77) using surface plasmon resonance for glycosaminoglycan (GAG) binding affinity, assays for cell migration, second messenger signaling downstream of CXCR3, and flow cytometry of CHO cells and primary human T lymphocytes and endothelial cells. Leukocyte recruitment in vivo upon intraperitoneal injection of CXCL10(1-73) was also evaluated.

RESULTS

Natural CXCL10(1-73) was more abundantly present compared to intact CXCL10(1-77) in synovial fluids of patients with RA. CXCL10(1-73) had diminished affinity for GAG including heparin, heparan sulfate and chondroitin sulfate A. Moreover, CXCL10(1-73) exhibited an attenuated capacity to induce CXCR3A-mediated signaling, as evidenced in calcium mobilization assays and through quantification of phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase-1/2 (ERK1/2) and protein kinase B/Akt. Furthermore, CXCL10(1-73) incited significantly less primary human T lymphocyte chemotaxis in vitro and peritoneal ingress of CXCR3+ T lymphocytes in mice. In contrast, loss of the four endmost C-terminal residues did not affect the inhibitory properties of CXCL10 on migration, proliferation, wound closure, phosphorylation of ERK1/2, and sprouting of human microvascular endothelial cells.

CONCLUSION

Our study shows that the C-terminal residues Lys74-Pro77 of CXCL10 are important for GAG binding, signaling through CXCR3A, T lymphocyte chemotaxis, but dispensable for angiostasis.

Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Anti-Cancer Effects of Isorhapontigenin (ISO) on Highly Invasive Human T24 Bladder Cancer Cells

Bladder cancer, the most common malignancy of the urinary tract, has a poor overall survival rate when the tumor becomes muscle invasive. The discovery and evaluation of new alternative medications targeting high-grade muscle invasive bladder cancer (MIBC) are of tremendous importance in reducing bladder cancer mortality. Isorhapontigenin (ISO), a stilbene derivative from the Chinese herb Gnetum cleistostachyum, exhibits a strong anti-cancer effect on MIBCs. Here, we report the whole transcriptome profiling of ISO-treated human bladder cancer T24 cells. A total of 1047 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified, including 596 downregulated and 451 upregulated genes. Functional annotation and pathway analysis revealed that ISO treatment induced massive changes in gene expression associated with cell movement, migration, invasion, metabolism, proliferation, and angiogenesis. Additionally, ISO treatment-activated genes involved in the inflammatory response but repressed genes involved in hypoxia signaling, glycolysis, the actin cytoskeleton, and the tumor microenvironment. In summary, our whole transcriptome analysis demonstrated a shift in metabolism and altered actin cytoskeleton in ISO-treated T24 cells, which subsequently contribute to tumor microenvironment remodeling that suppresses tumor growth and progression.

Molecular cloning, characterization and expression analysis of the Chinese soft-shelled turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis) chemokine CXCL11

Chemokines are small, secreted proteins with chemoattractive properties, which play an important role in the recruitment and activation of immune cells. CXCL11 is a CXC chemokine specific for the CXCR3 receptors, which has been shown to mediate the generation of Th1-type immune responses and have bactericidal effects similar to defensins. Herein, we cloned the full-length cDNA of Chinese soft-shelled turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis) CXCL11, designated as PsCXCL11, which consist of an open reading frame (ORF) of 282 bp encoding 93 amino acids, with estimated molecular weight of 10.055 kDa and isoelectric point of 10.37. The deduced PsCXCL11 sequence had a signal peptide, a highly conserved family-specific small cytokine (SCY) domain, one putative N-glycosylation site and ten potential phosphorylation sites. Phylogenetic analysis showed a close relationship between P. sinensis and Chelydra Serpentina CXCL11. P. sinensis CXCL11 basal expression levels were higher in heart, kidney and spleen than in other organs of health turtles. Infections of Aeromonas hydrophila and Staphylococcus aureus led to significant upregulation of P. sinensis CXCL11 in the blood, while significant upregulation of PsCXCL11 were observed in liver and spleen after infection of A. hydrophila, but not S. aureus. PsCXCL11 recombinant protein with His-tag was successfully expressed by an auto-inducible expression system, and purified by Ni-NTA affinity chromatography. These findings laid a solid foundation for further research towards development of the Chinese soft-shelled turtle as a model for the role of CXCL11 in regulating inflammatory responses to stimulation by invading pathogens.

The relationship between the tumor and its innervation: historical, methodical, morphological, and functional assessments - A minireview

The acceptance of the tumor as a non-isolated structure within the organism has opened a space for the study of a wide spectrum of potential direct and indirect interactions, not only between the tumor tissue and its vicinity, but also between the tumor and its macroenvironment, including the nervous system. Although several lines of evidence have implicated the nervous system in tumor growth and progression, for many years, researchers believed that tumors lacked innervation and the notion of indirect neuro-neoplastic interactions via other systems (e.g., immune, or endocrine) predominated. The original idea that tumors are supplied not only by blood and lymphatic vessels, but also autonomic and sensory nerves that may influence cancer progression, is not a recent phenomenon. Although in the past, mainly due to the insufficiently sensitive methodological approaches, opinions regarding the presence of nerves in tumors were inconsistent. However, data from the last decade have shown that tumors are able to stimulate the formation of their own innervation by processes called neo-neurogenesis and neo-axonogenesis. It has also been shown that tumor infiltrating nerves are not a passive, but active components of the tumor microenvironment and their presence in the tumor tissue is associated with an aggressive tumor phenotype and correlates with poor prognosis. The aim of the present review was to 1) summarize the available knowledge regarding the course of tumor innervation, 2) present the potential mechanisms and pathways for the possible induction of new nerve fibers into the tumor microenvironment, and 3) highlight the functional significance/consequences of the nerves infiltrating the tumors.

Chemokines: A key driver for inflammation in protozoan infection

Chemokines belong to the group of small proteins within the cytokine family having strong chemo-attractant properties. In most cases, the strong immuno-modulatory role of chemokines is crucial for generating the immune response against pathogens in various protozoan diseases. In this review, we have given a brief update on the classification, characterization, homeostasis, transcellular migration, and immuno-modulatory role of chemokines. Here we will evaluate the potential role of chemokines and their regulation in various protozoan diseases. There is a significant direct relationship between parasitic infection and the recruitment of effector cells of the immune response. Chemokines play an indispensable role in mediating several defense mechanisms against infection, such as leukocyte recruitment and the generation of innate and cell-mediated immunity that aids in controlling/eliminating the pathogen. This process is controlled by the chemotactic movement of chemokines induced as a primary host immune response. We have also addressed that chemokine expressions during infection are time-dependent and orchestrated in a systematic pattern that ultimately assists in generating a protective immune response. Taken together, this review provides a systematic understanding of the complexity of chemokines profiles during protozoan disease conditions and the rationale of targeting chemokines for the development of therapeutic strategies.

CXCR3-CXCL11 signaling restricts angiogenesis and promotes pericyte recruitment

Endothelial cell (EC)-pericyte interactions are known to remodel in response to hemodynamic forces, yet there is a lack of mechanistic understanding of the signaling pathways that underlie these events. Here, we have identified a novel signaling network regulated by blood flow in ECs-the chemokine receptor, CXCR3, and one of its ligands, CXCL11-that delimits EC angiogenic potential and suppresses pericyte recruitment during development through regulation of pdgfb expression in ECs. In vitro modeling of EC-pericyte interactions demonstrates that suppression of EC-specific CXCR3 signaling leads to loss of pericyte association with EC tubes. In vivo, phenotypic defects are particularly noted in the cranial vasculature, where we see a loss of pericyte association with and expansion of the vasculature in zebrafish treated with the Cxcr3 inhibitor AMG487. We also demonstrate using flow modeling platforms that CXCR3-deficient ECs are more elongated, move more slowly, and have impaired EC-EC junctions compared to their control counterparts. Together these data suggest that CXCR3 signaling in ECs drives vascular stabilization events during development.

Interaction between Macrophages and Adipose Stromal Cells Increases the Angiogenic and Proliferative Potential of Pregnancy-Associated Breast Cancers

Pregnancy associated breast cancers (PABCs) exhibit increased aggressiveness and overall poorer survival. During lactation, changes take place in the breast tissue microenvironment that lead to increased macrophage recruitment and alterations in adipose stromal cells (ASC-Ls). The interaction of these cells in PABCs could play a role in the increased aggressiveness of these cancers. We utilized an in vitro co-culture model to recreate the interactions of ASC-Ls and macrophages in vivo. We performed qRT-PCR to observe changes in gene expression and cytokine arrays to identify transcriptional changes that result in an altered microenvironment. Additionally, functional assays were performed to further elicit how these changes affect tumorigenesis. The co-culture of ASC-Ls and macrophages altered both mRNA expression and cytokine secretion in a tumor promoting manner. Tumorigenic cytokines, such as IL-6, CXCL1, CXCL5, and MMP-9 secretion levels, were enhanced in the co-culture. Additionally, conditioned media from the co-culture elevated the tumor cell proliferation and angiogenic potential of endothelial cells. These finds indicate that the changes seen in the microenvironment of PABC, specifically the secretion of cytokines, play a role in the increased tumorigenesis of PABCs by altering the microenvironment to become more favorable to tumor progression.

Carbon Ions Suppress Angiogenesis and Lung Metastases in Melanoma by Targeting CXCL10

Carbon-ion radiotherapy (CIRT) enhanced local control in patients with malignant melanoma. In several in vitro studies, carbon ions (C ions) have been also shown to decrease the metastatic potential of melanoma cells. CXC motif 10 (CXCL10) has been shown to play a crucial role in regulating tumor metastasis and it significantly increase in human embryonic kidney cells after heavy ion irradiations. This study sought to explore the regulatory effect of C ions on melanoma metastasis, emphasizing the role of CXCL10 in this process. To explore the potential regulatory effect of C ions on tumor metastasis in vivo, we developed a lung metastasis mouse model by injecting B16F10 cells into the footpad and subjected all mice to treatment with X rays and C ions. Subsequently, a series of assays, including histopathological analysis, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, real-time PCR, and western blotting, were conducted to assess the regulatory effects of C ions on melanoma. Our results showed that mice treated with C ions exhibited significantly less tumor vascularity, enhanced tumor necrosis, alleviated lung metastasis, and experienced longer survival than X-ray irradiated mice. Moreover, VEGF expression in B16F10 cells was significantly reduced by C-ion treatment, which could be alleviated by CXCL10 knockdown in vitro. Further investigations revealed that co-culturing with HUVECs resulted in a significant inhibition of proliferation, migration, and tube formation ability in the C-ion treated group, while the opposite effect was observed in the C-ion treated with si-CXCL10 group. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that treatment with carbon-ion radiation can suppress angiogenesis and lung metastases in melanoma by specifically targeting CXCL10. These results suggest the potential utility of carbon ions in treating melanoma.

Insights on hematopoietic cell kinase: An oncogenic player in human cancer

Hematopoietic cell kinase (Hck) is a member of the Src family and is expressed in hematopoietic cells. By regulating multiple signaling pathways, HCK can interact with multiple receptors to regulate signaling events involved in cell adhesion, proliferation, migration, invasion, apoptosis, and angiogenesis. However, aberrant expression of Hck in various hematopoietic cells and solid tumors plays a crucial role in tumor-related properties, including cell proliferation and epithelial-mesenchymal transition. In addition, Hck signaling regulates the function of immune cells such as macrophages, contributing to an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. The clinical success of various kinase inhibitors targeting the Src kinase family has validated the efficacy of targeting Src, and therapies with highly selective Hck kinase inhibitors are in clinical trials. This article reviews Hck inhibition as an emerging cancer treatment strategy, focusing on the expressions and functions of Hck in tumors and its impact on the tumor microenvironment. It also explores preclinical and clinical pharmacological strategies for Hck targeting to shed light on Hck-targeted tumor therapy.

The Role of Cytokines in Cholesterol Accumulation in Cells and Atherosclerosis Progression

Atherosclerosis is the most common cardiovascular disease and is the number one cause of death worldwide. Today, atherosclerosis is a multifactorial chronic inflammatory disease with an autoimmune component, accompanied by the accumulation of cholesterol in the vessel wall and the formation of atherosclerotic plaques, endothelial dysfunction, and chronic inflammation. In the process of accumulation of atherogenic lipids, cells of the immune system, such as monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, etc., play an important role, producing and/or activating the production of various cytokines—interferons, interleukins, chemokines. In this review, we have tried to summarize the most important cytokines involved in the processes of atherogenesis.

EBV-positive pyothorax-associated lymphoma expresses CXCL9 and CXCL10 chemokines that attract cytotoxic lymphocytes via CXCR3

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-positive diffuse large B-cell lymphoma associated with chronic inflammation (DLBCL-CI) develops in the setting of long-standing inflammation. This type of lymphoma may have specific expression profiles of chemokines involved in the pathogenesis of DLBCL-CI. EBV-positive pyothorax-associated lymphoma (PAL) is a prototype of DLBCL-CI and represents a valuable model for the study of this disease category. Using a panel of PAL cell lines, we found that PAL cells expressed and secreted C-X-C motif chemokine ligands 9 and 10 (CXCL9 and CXCL10), the ligands of CXCR3, in contrast to EBV-negative DLBCL cell lines, which did not. Culture supernatants from PAL cell lines attracted CXCR3-expressing CD4⁺ T cells, CD8⁺ T cells, and CD56⁺ natural killer cells from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. PAL cells injected into mice also attracted CXCR3-positive cytotoxic lymphocytes that expressed interferon-γ. The expression of CXCL9 and CXCL10 was detected in PAL tumor biopsy samples from patients, and CXCR3-positive lymphocytes were abundant in the tissue samples. Collectively, these findings suggest that CXCL9 and CXCL10 are produced by PAL cells and can elicit cytotoxic responses via CXCR3. This chemokine system is also likely to contribute to tissue necrosis, which is a signature histological feature of DLBCL-CI. Further studies are warranted to determine whether the CXCL9-CXCL10/CXCR3 axis exerts antitumor effects in DLBCL-CI.

Recent Emerging Immunological Treatments for Primary Brain Tumors: Focus on Chemokine-Targeting Immunotherapies

Primary brain tumors are a leading cause of death worldwide and are characterized by extraordinary heterogeneity and high invasiveness. Current drug and radiotherapy therapies combined with surgical approaches tend to increase the five-year survival of affected patients, however, the overall mortality rate remains high, thus constituting a clinical challenge for which the discovery of new therapeutic strategies is needed. In this field, novel immunotherapy approaches, aimed at overcoming the complex immunosuppressive microenvironment, could represent a new method of treatment for central nervous system (CNS) tumors. Chemokines especially are a well-defined group of proteins that were so named due to their chemotactic properties of binding their receptors. Chemokines regulate the recruitment and/or tissue retention of immune cells as well as the mobilization of tumor cells that have undergone epithelial–mesenchymal transition, promoting tumor growth. On this basis, this review focuses on the function and involvement of chemokines and their receptors in primary brain tumors, specifically examining chemokine-targeting immunotherapies as one of the most promising strategies in neuro-oncology.

A review of the pleiotropic actions of the IFN-inducible CXC chemokine receptor 3 ligands in the synovial microenvironment

Chemokines are pivotal players in instigation and perpetuation of synovitis through leukocytes egress from the blood circulation into the inflamed articulation. Multitudinous literature addressing the involvement of the dual-function interferon (IFN)-inducible chemokines CXCL9, CXCL10 and CXCL11 in diseases characterized by chronic inflammatory arthritis emphasizes the need for detangling their etiopathological relevance. Through interaction with their mutual receptor CXC chemokine receptor 3 (CXCR3), the chemokines CXCL9, CXCL10 and CXCL11 exert their hallmark function of coordinating directional trafficking of CD4+ TH1 cells, CD8+ T cells, NK cells and NKT cells towards inflammatory niches. Among other (patho)physiological processes including infection, cancer, and angiostasis, IFN-inducible CXCR3 ligands have been implicated in autoinflammatory and autoimmune diseases. This review presents a comprehensive overview of the abundant presence of IFN-induced CXCR3 ligands in bodily fluids of patients with inflammatory arthritis, the outcomes of their selective depletion in rodent models, and the attempts at developing candidate drugs targeting the CXCR3 chemokine system. We further propose that the involvement of the CXCR3 binding chemokines in synovitis and joint remodeling encompasses more than solely the directional ingress of CXCR3-expressing leukocytes. The pleotropic actions of the IFN-inducible CXCR3 ligands in the synovial niche reiteratively illustrate the extensive complexity of the CXCR3 chemokine network, which is based on the intercommunion of IFN-inducible CXCR3 ligands with distinct CXCR3 isoforms, enzymes, cytokines, and infiltrated and resident cells present in the inflamed joints.

Chemokines and chemokine receptors as promising targets in rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease that commonly causes inflammation and bone destruction in multiple joints. Inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6 and TNF-α, play important roles in RA development and pathogenesis. Biological therapies targeting these cytokines have revolutionized RA therapy. However, approximately 50% of the patients are non-responders to these therapies. Therefore, there is an ongoing need to identify new therapeutic targets and therapies for patients with RA. In this review, we focus on the pathogenic roles of chemokines and their G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in RA. Inflamed tissues in RA, such as the synovium, highly express various chemokines to promote leukocyte migration, tightly controlled by chemokine ligand-receptor interactions. Because the inhibition of these signaling pathways results in inflammatory response regulation, chemokines and their receptors could be promising targets for RA therapy. The blockade of various chemokines and/or their receptors has yielded prospective results in preclinical trials using animal models of inflammatory arthritis. However, some of these strategies have failed in clinical trials. Nonetheless, some blockades showed promising results in early-phase clinical trials, suggesting that chemokine ligand-receptor interactions remain a promising therapeutic target for RA and other autoimmune diseases.

Pre-Existing Diabetes Mellitus, Hypertension and KidneyDisease as Risk Factors of Pre-Eclampsia: A Disease of Theories and Its Association with Genetic Polymorphism

Pre-existing diabetes, hypertension and kidney disorders are prominent risk factors of pre-eclampsia (PE). It is a multifactorial pregnancy disorder associated with high blood pressure, proteinuria, and multiorgan failure, which develops after the 20th week of pregnancy. It is one of the most feared pregnancy disorders, as it consumes thousands of fetomaternal lives per annum. According to clinical and pathological studies, the placenta appears to be a key player in the pathogenesis of PE; however, the exact origin of this disorder is still under debate. Defective placentation and angiogenesis are the hallmarks of PE progression. This angiogenic imbalance, together with maternal susceptibility, might determine the severity and clinical presentation of PE. This article comprehensively examines the mechanisms of pathogenesis of PE and current evidence of the factors involved in its progression. Finally, this article will explore the genetic association of PE, various candidate genes, their proposed mechanisms and variants involved in its pathogenesis.

Analysis of Cytokine Levels in Meibum and Clinical Correlations with Meibomian Gland Dysfunction

Objectives. This study is aimed at investigating the difference of meibum chemokines in MGD subjects with different degrees of MGD and the correlations of meibum chemokines with ocular surface parameters. Methods. Twenty MGD subjects (MQ $\text{score}>8$ ) and twenty MGD subjects (MQ $\text{score}\le 8$ ) were enrolled to examine ocular surface parameters, including meibomian gland function (MGE, MQ meibograde, and lid margin), tear stability (NIKBUT, FBUT, and LLT), tear secretion (SIT and TMH), OSDI questionnaire, and CFS. These subjects also obtained meibum samples, and then meibum chemokines (MIG, IFN-γ, IL-8, IP-10, and MCP-1) were examined and analyzed the correlations with ocular surface parameters. Results. MIG, IP-10, and MCP-1 were found clearly elevated in MGD subjects with higher MQ score than that in MGD subjects with low MQ score (MIG: $p=0.038$ , IP-10: $p=0.019$ , MCP-1: $p=0.040$ ). The meibomian function was found mostly positively correlated with level of MIG (MGE: $r=0.600$ , $p<0.001$ ; MQ: $r=0.579$ , $p<0.001$ ) and IP-10 (MGE: $r=0.719$ , $p<0.001$ ; MQ: $r=0.601$ , $p<0.001$ ). The tear stability was found negatively correlated with the level of MIG (NIKBUT: $r=-0.438$ , $p=0.005$ ; LLT: $r=-0.464$ , $p=0.003$ ) and MCP-1 (NIKBUT: $r=-0.425$ , $p=0.006$ ; LLT: $r=-0.761$ , $p<0.001$ ). The OSDI was positively correlated with IL-8, IFN-γ, and MIG. Conclusion. Chemokines in meibum were significantly evaluated in MGD subjects suffering from severe meibomian gland quality. These findings indicate that chemokines play roles in the pathogenesis of MGD, and molecules targeted by chemokines may develop as novel agents for MGD therapy, perhaps through inhibiting inflammation in meibomian glands and microvascular in the eyelid margin.

Multiomics analysis of ferroptosis-related molecular subtypes in muscle-invasive bladder cancer immunotherapy

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to identify the ferroptosis-related molecular subtypes in muscle invasive bladder cancer (MIBC) associated with the tumor microenvironment (TME) and immunotherapy.

METHODS

Expression profiles and corresponding clinical information were obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) dataset and the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) dataset. Nonnegative matrix factorization (NMF) analysis was performed to identify two molecular subtypes based on 41 ferroptosis-related prognostic genes. The differences between the two subtypes were compared in terms of prognosis, somatic mutations, gene ontology (GO), cytokines, pathways, immune cell infiltrations, stromal/immune scores, tumor purity and response to immunotherapy. We also constructed a risk prediction model using multivariate Cox regression analysis to analyze survival data based on differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between subtypes. In combination with clinicopathological features, a nomogram was constructed to provide a more accurate prediction for overall survival (OS).

RESULTS

Two molecular subtypes (C1 and C2) of MIBC were identified according to the expression of ferroptosis-related genes. The C2 subtype manifested poor prognosis, high enrichment in the cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction pathway, high abundance of immune cell infiltration, immune/stromal scores and low tumor purity. Additionally, C2 is less sensitive to immunotherapy. The risk prediction model based on five pivotal genes (SLC1A6, UPK3A, SLC19A3, CCL17 and UGT2B4) effectively predicted the prognosis of MIBC patients.

CONCLUSIONS

A novel MIBC classification approach based on ferroptosis-related gene expression profiles was established to provide guidance for patients who are more sensitive to immunotherapy. A nomogram with a five-gene signature was built to predict the prognosis of MIBC patients, which would be more accurate when combined with clinical factors.

Anlotinib Benefits the αPDL1 Immunotherapy by Activating ROS/JNK/AP-1 Pathway to Upregulate PDL1 Expression in Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the prevalent malignant tumors. This study is aimed at evaluating the mechanism of anlotinib (anlo) on tumor microenvironment (TME) in CRC, and its effects in combination with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) therapy. Firstly, MC38 and CT26 cells were both exposed to different gradient concentrations of anlo for 72 h, to investigate the cell viability and synergetic therapy efficacy with ICIs by CCK8. The results showed that anlo could obviously inhibit cell growth and showed no synergistic efficacy therapy in combination with αPDL1 in vitro. Then, we found the upregulation of programmed cell death ligand 1(PDL1) expression both in vitro and in vivo after anlo treatment. In vivo, anlo could enhance the percentage of natural killer (NK) cells and M1 macrophage cells and decrease the percentage of M2 macrophage cells in TME. Moreover, we explored the mechanism and we proved that anlo could activate reactive oxygen species (ROS)/c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)/activator protein-1 (AP-1) signaling pathway to increase the expression levels of PDL1, IFN-α/β/γ, and CXCL2 in two cell lines in vitro. We also proved that anlo had synergistic effects with ICIs in vivo. Finally, it could also increase the mRNA and protein PDL1 expression levels in human cell lines, which was consistent with mouse CRC cell lines. However, there are still a few limitations. On one hand, the ROS/JNK/AP-1 pathway needs to be proved whether it can be activated in human cell lines. On the other hand, the mechanism behind ROS promoting phosphorylation of JNK needs to be explored.

Systematic Analysis of CXC Chemokine–Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A Network in Colonic Adenocarcinoma from the Perspective of Angiogenesis

Background

Tumor angiogenesis plays a vital role in tumorigenesis, proliferation, and metastasis. Recently, vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) and CXC chemokines have been shown to play vital roles in angiogenesis. Exploring the expression level, gene regulatory network, prognostic value, and target prediction of the CXC chemokine-VEGFA network in colon adenocarcinoma (COAD) is crucial from the perspective of tumor angiogenesis.

Methods

In this study, we analyzed gene expression and regulation, prognostic value, target prediction, and immune infiltrates related to the CXC chemokine-VEGFA network in patients with COAD using multiple databases (cBioPortal, UALCAN, Human Protein Atlas, GeneMANIA, GEPIA, TIMER (version 2.0), TRRUST (version 2), LinkedOmics, and Metascape).

Results

Our results showed that CXCL1/2/3/5/6/8/11/16/17 and VEGFA were markedly overexpressed, while CXCL12/13/14 were underexpressed in patients with COAD. Moreover, genetic alterations in the CXC chemokine-VEGFA network found at varying rates in patients with COAD were as follows: CXCL1/2/17 (2.1%), CXCL3/16 (2.6%), CXCL5/14 (2.4%), CXCL6 (3%), CXCL8 (0.8%), CXCL11/13 (1.9%), CXCL12 (0.6%), and VEGFA (1.3%). Promoter methylation of CXCL1/2/3/11/13/17 was considerably lower in patients with COAD, whereas methylation of CXCL5/6/12/14 and VEGFA was considerably higher. Furthermore, CXCL9/10/11 and VEGFA expression was notably correlated with the pathological stages of COAD. In addition, patients with COAD with high CXCL8/11/14 or low VEGFA expression levels survived longer than patients with dissimilar expression levels. CXC chemokines and VEGFA form a complex regulatory network through coexpression, colocalization, and genetic interactions. Moreover, many transcription factor targets of the CXC chemokine-VEGFA network in patients with COAD were identified: RELA, NFKB1, ZFP36, XBP1, HDAC2, SP1, ATF4, EP300, BRCA1, ESR1, HIF1A, EGR1, STAT3, and JUN. We further identified the top three miRNAs involved in regulating each CXC chemokine within the network: miR-518C, miR-369-3P, and miR-448 regulated CXCL1; miR-518C, miR-218, and miR-493 regulated CXCL2; miR-448, miR-369-3P, and miR-221 regulated CXCL3; miR-423 regulated CXCL13; miR-378, miR-381, and miR-210 regulated CXCL14; miR-369-3P, miR-382, and miR-208 regulated CXCL17; miR-486 and miR-199A regulated VEGFA. Furthermore, the CXC chemokine-VEGFA network in patients with COAD was notably associated with immune infiltration.

Conclusions

This study revealed that the CXC chemokine-VEGFA network might act as a prognostic biomarker for patients with COAD. Moreover, our study provides new therapeutic targets for COAD, serving as a reference for further research in the future.

Role of Fungal Infections in Carcinogenesis and Cancer Development: A Literature Review

Cancer is a serious debilitating disease and one of the most common causes of death. In recent decades the high risk of various cancers enforced scientists to discover novel prevention and treatment methods to diminish the mortality of this terrifying disease. Accordingly, its prevention can be possible in near future. Based on epidemiological evidence, there is a clear link between pathogenic fungal infections and cancer development. This association is often seen in people with weakened immune systems such as the elderly and people with acquired immunodeficiency (AIDS). Carcinoma in these people is first seen chronically and then acutely. Although the different genetic and environmental risk factors are involved in carcinogenesis, one of the most important risk factors is fungal species and infections associating with cancers etiology. Now it is known that microbial infection is responsible for initiating 2.2 million new cancer cases. In this way, many recent studies have focused on investigating the role and mechanism of fungal infections in diverse cancers occurrence. This review provides a comprehensive framework of the latest clinical findings and the association of fungal infections with versatile cancers including esophageal, gastric, colorectal, lung, cervical, skin, and ovarian cancer.

Chemokines and NSCLC: Emerging role in prognosis, heterogeneity, and therapeutics

Lung cancer persists to contribute to one-quarter of cancer-associated deaths. Among the different histologies, non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) alone accounts for 85% of the cases. The development of therapies involving immune checkpoint inhibitors and angiogenesis inhibitors has increased patients' survival probability and reduced mortality rates. Developing targeted therapies against essential genetic alterations also translates to better treatment strategies. But the benefits still seem farfetched due to the development of drug resistance and refractory tumors. In this review, we have highlighted the interplay of different tumor microenvironment components, essentially discussing the chemokine families (CC, CXC, C, and CX3C) that regulate the tumor biology in NSCLC and promote tumor growth, metastasis, and associated heterogeneity. The development of therapeutics and prognostic markers is a complex and multipronged approach. However, some essential chemokines can act as critical players for being considered potential prognostic markers and therapeutic targets.

Stimulated expression of ELR+ chemokines, VEGFA and TNF-AIP3 promote mycobacterial dissemination in extrapulmonary tuberculosis patients and Cavia porcellus model of tuberculosis

Pathogenic mycobacteria induce and accelerate blood vessel formation driven by extensive inflammation during granuloma formation, which is a central feature of mycobacterial pathogenesis. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) enhances the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and glutamic acid-leucine-arginine (ELR+) chemokines, which are potent inducers of vascularization. Most of the reported research work contends that VEGF growth factor induces neovascularization in human tuberculosis (TB) patients, but the evidence is inconclusive. Considerable ambiguity exists concerning the factors responsible for miliary tuberculosis. To identify such factors, we proposed an alternative explanation that could be found in miliary tuberculosis (MTB) cases. We performed a comparative analysis of angiogenic factors TNF-α, VEGF, and angiogenic ELR+ CXC and CC chemokine ligands in extrapulmonary tuberculosis (EPTB) and pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) patients. To observe the relationship of these factors with the severity of bacterial burden, guinea pigs were infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb) and levels of the angiogenic factors were examined at different time intervals. Expression of these factors also exhibited a significant positive correlation with bacterial burden in other organs like the spleen, liver, and lymph nodes. We demonstrated statistical data on bacterial burden at different time points following the dissemination of infection in guinea pigs. In this study, we observed that there was a stimulated increase in the expression of ELR+ chemokines and VEGF in EPTB patients as compared to PTB patients. Following increased dissemination, the host immune response clears bacteria from the lungs during disease progression in guinea pigs.

Contact-dependent signaling triggers tumor-like proliferation of CCM3 knockout endothelial cells in co-culture with wild-type cells

Cerebral cavernous malformations (CCM) are low-flow vascular lesions prone to cause severe hemorrhage-associated neurological complications. Pathogenic germline variants in CCM1, CCM2, or CCM3 can be identified in nearly 100% of CCM patients with a positive family history. In line with the concept that tumor-like mechanisms are involved in CCM formation and growth, we here demonstrate an abnormally increased proliferation rate of CCM3-deficient endothelial cells in co-culture with wild-type cells and in mosaic human iPSC-derived vascular organoids. The observation that NSC59984, an anticancer drug, blocked the abnormal proliferation of mutant endothelial cells further supports this intriguing concept. Fluorescence-activated cell sorting and RNA sequencing revealed that co-culture induces upregulation of proangiogenic chemokine genes in wild-type endothelial cells. Furthermore, genes known to be significantly downregulated in CCM3^−/− endothelial cell mono-cultures were upregulated back to normal levels in co-culture with wild-type cells. These results support the hypothesis that wild-type ECs facilitate the formation of a niche that promotes abnormal proliferation of mutant ECs. Thus, targeting the cancer-like features of CCMs is a promising new direction for drug development.

SDF-1-edited human amniotic mesenchymal stem cells stimulate angiogenesis in treating hindlimb ischaemia

Although stem cells have extensively been studied as a novel vehicle for tissue repair, their sustained efficacy remains controversial. In this study, we aimed to investigate the angiogenic potency over time of stromal cell‐derived factor‐1 (SDF‐1) gene‐edited amniotic mesenchymal stem cells (AMM/S) in a hindlimb ischaemia model. An SDF‐1 transgene was inserted into the AMM cell genome via transcription activator‐like effector nuclease (TALEN) mediated knock‐in, and cell migration, Matrigel tube formation, and in vivo Matrigel plug assays were performed. AMM/S were also transplanted into hindlimb ischaemia model mice. Blood perfusion, therapeutic potential, histology, capillary density and in vivo angiogenic assays were performed. AMM/S exhibited high expression of the SDF‐1 gene, and robustly promoted migration, proliferation and microvascular formation. AMM/S transplantation significantly increased blood perfusion and limb loss prevention compared with AMM. AMM/S also significantly inhibited increased capillary density and expression of angiogenic factors in the ischaemic hindlimb. Our study demonstrated that AMM/S provides a significant therapeutic effect in ischaemic hindlimbs by enhancing angiogenesis.

Reversing chemokine/chemokine receptor mismatch to enhance the antitumor efficacy of CAR-T cells

Currently, the antitumor efficacy of chimeric antigen receptor T cells in solid tumors is modest. Both chemokines and their receptors play a key role in the proliferation of cancer cells, tumor angiogenesis, organ-selective metastasis and migration of immune cells to solid tumors. Unfortunately, frequent chemokine/chemokine receptor 'mismatch' between effector cells and the tumor microenvironment results in inefficient T-cell infiltration and antitumor efficacy. Thus, reversing the 'mismatch' of chemokines and chemokine receptors appears to be a promising method for promoting T-cell infiltration into the tumor and enhancing their antitumor efficacy. In this review, we discuss functions of the chemokine/chemokine receptor axis in cancer immunity and the current understanding, challenges and prospects for improving the effect of chimeric antigen receptor T cells by reversing the mismatch between chemokines and chemokine receptors.

Association between IL8RB C1208T mutation and risk of cancer: A pooled analysis based on 5299 cases and 6899 controls

INTRODUCTION

The CXC chemokines are unique cytokines that play a vital role in the progression of many cancers. Association between chemokine (C-X-C motif) receptor 2 (IL8RB) C1208T mutation and cancer risk remains incomprehensive.

METHODS

We therefore utilized odds ratios and in silico analysis to explore the relationship of IL8RB polymorphism on risk to cancer. Furthermore, we adopted gene set enrichment analysis to investigate the IL8RB expression in prostate adenocarcinoma.

RESULTS

A total of 14 case-control studies combined with 5299 cases and 6899 controls were included in our analysis. We revealed that individuals carrying TT genotype had an 14% increased cancer risk compared with those with TC + colon cancer (CC) genotype (odds ratio [OR] = 1.14, 95% CI = 1.05-1.25, P = .003, I2 = 35.6). Stratification analysis by race showed that East Asians with TT + TC genotype may have a 25% decreased cancer risk compared with control. Stratification analysis by cancer type revealed that individuals with TT genotype were associated with elevated risk of urinary cancer than control. The expression of IL8RB was attenuated in prostate adenocarcinoma.

CONCLUSIONS

IL8RB C1208T may be correlated with the risk of cancer, especially prostate adenocarcinoma.

Angiogenic Role of Mesothelium-Derived Chemokine CXCL1 During Unfavorable Peritoneal Tissue Remodeling in Patients Receiving Peritoneal Dialysis as Renal Replacement Therapy

Peritoneal dialysis (PD) is a valuable ‘home treatment’ option, even more so during the ongoing Coronavirus pandemic. However, the long-term use of PD is limited by unfavourable tissue remodelling in the peritoneal membrane, which is associated with inflammation-induced angiogenesis. This appears to be driven primarily through vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), while the involvement of other angiogenic signaling pathways is still poorly understood. Here, we have identified the crucial contribution of mesothelial cell-derived angiogenic CXC chemokine ligand 1 (CXCL1) to peritoneal angiogenesis in PD. CXCL1 expression and peritoneal microvessel density were analysed in biopsies obtained by the International Peritoneal Biobank (NCT01893710 at www.clinicaltrials.gov), comparing 13 children with end-stage kidney disease before initiating PD to 43 children on chronic PD. The angiogenic potential of mesothelial cell-derived CXCL1 was assessed in vitro by measuring endothelial tube formation of human microvascular endothelial cells (HMECs) treated with conditioned medium from human peritoneal mesothelial cells (HPMCs) stimulated to release CXCL1 by treatment with either recombinant IL-17 or PD effluent. We found that the capillary density in the human peritoneum correlated with local CXCL1 expression. Both CXCL1 expression and microvessel density were higher in PD patients than in the age-matched patients prior to initiation of PD. Exposure of HMECs to recombinant CXCL1 or conditioned medium from IL-17-stimulated HPMCs resulted in increased endothelial tube formation, while selective inhibition of mesothelial CXCL1 production by specific antibodies or through silencing of relevant transcription factors abolished the proangiogenic effect of HPMC-conditioned medium. In conclusion, peritoneal mesothelium-derived CXCL1 promotes endothelial tube formation in vitro and associates with peritoneal microvessel density in uremic patients undergoing PD, thus providing novel targets for therapeutic intervention to prolong PD therapy.

XSSJS inhibits hepatic fibrosis by promoting the mir29b-3p/VEGFA axis in vitro and in vivo

Hepatic pathological angiogenesis (HPA) is the key event of hepatic fibrosis (HF). Xueshisanjia powder (XSSJS), a Chinese herbal compound, is beneficial for alleviating pathological angiogenesis of hepatic tissue. The present study attempts to reveal the effect and mechanism of XSSJS via regulating miR-29b-3p/VEGFA axis against pathological angiogenesis in HF. In in vitro model, human embryonic kidney 293T cells were transfected with miR-29b-3p mimics, whereby the expression of miR-29b-3p was tested by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), ensued by Luciferase assay determining the relationship between miR-29b-3p and vascular endothelial cell growth factor A (VEGFA). In addition, miR-29b-3p mimic transfected into the activated hepatic stellate cell T6 (HSC-T6). The Cell-Counting-Kit 8 (CCK8) and 5-Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) staining were first utilized to detect the antiproliferative efficiency of XSSJS following the XSSJS compound serum intervention, and then used to observe the expression of transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), VEGFA, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) via RT-PCR, Western blot (WB), and Immunofluorescence (IF) methods. During the in vivo model, XSSJS with boil-free granules were fed to Wistar rats with liver fibrosis caused by intraperitoneal injection of pig serum followed by the transfection of miR-29b-3p adeno-associated virus (AAV). Hematoxylin–Eosin (HE) staining was used for histopathology assessment. The expression of miR-29b-3p, VEGFA, PDGF, TGF-β have been investigated in liver tissue using RT-PCR, WB, IF. The results verified that XSSJS could up-regulate miR-29b-3p and suppress the expression of VEGFA, PDGA, and TGF-β. In mechanism, miR-29b-3p primarily targeted the 3′UTR of VEGFA. In conclusion, XSSJS could modulate miR-29b-3p/VEGFA axis to inhibit the pathological angiogenesis of HF.

Identification and Comprehensive Prognostic Analysis of a Novel Chemokine-Related lncRNA Signature and Immune Landscape in Gastric Cancer

Gastric cancer (GC) is a malignant tumor with poor survival outcomes. Immunotherapy can improve the prognosis of many cancers, including GC. However, in clinical practice, not all cancer patients are sensitive to immunotherapy. Therefore, it is essential to identify effective biomarkers for predicting the prognosis and immunotherapy sensitivity of GC. In recent years, chemokines have been widely reported to regulate the tumor microenvironment, especially the immune landscape. However, whether chemokine-related lncRNAs are associated with the prognosis and immune landscape of GC remains unclear. In this study, we first constructed a novel chemokine-related lncRNA risk model to predict the prognosis and immune landscape of GC patients. By using various algorithms, we identified 10 chemokine-related lncRNAs to construct the risk model. Then, we determined the prognostic efficiency and accuracy of the risk model. The effectiveness and accuracy of the risk model were further validated in the testing set and the entire set. In addition, our risk model exerted a crucial role in predicting the infiltration of immune cells, immune checkpoint genes expression, immunotherapy scores and tumor mutation burden of GC patients. In conclusion, our risk model has preferable prognostic performance and may provide crucial clues to formulate immunotherapy strategies for GC.

Kupffer cells regulate liver recovery through induction of chemokine receptor CXCR2 on hepatocytes after acetaminophen overdose in mice

Acetaminophen (APAP) is a widely used analgesic, but also a main cause of acute liver injury in the United States and many western countries. APAP hepatotoxicity is associated with a sterile inflammatory response as shown by the infiltration of neutrophils and monocytes. While the contribution of the immune cells to promote liver repair have been demonstrated, the direct interactions between macrophages or neutrophils with hepatocytes to help facilitate hepatocyte proliferation and tissue repair remain unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between resident macrophages (Kupffer cells) and hepatocytes with a focus on the chemokine receptor CXCR2. C57BL/6J mice were subjected to an APAP overdose (300 mg/kg) and the role of CXCR2 on hepatocytes was investigated using a selective antagonist, SB225002. In addition, clodronate liposomes were used to deplete Kupffer cells to assess changes in CXCR2 expression. Our data showed that CXCR2 was mainly expressed on hepatocytes and it was induced specifically in hepatocytes around the necrotic area 24 h after APAP treatment. Targeting this receptor using an inhibitor caused a delayed liver recovery. Depletion of Kupffer cells significantly prevented CXCR2 induction on hepatocytes. In vitro and in vivo experiments also demonstrated that Kupffer cells regulate CXCR2 expression and pro-regenerative gene expression in surviving hepatocytes through production of IL-10. Thus, Kupffer cells support the transition of hepatocytes around the area of necrosis to a proliferative state through CXCR2 expression.

Interleukin-8 in Melanoma Pathogenesis, Prognosis and Therapy-An Integrated View into Other Neoplasms and Chemokine Networks

Cutaneous melanoma accounts for only about 7% of skin cancers but is causing almost 90% of deaths. Melanoma cells have a distinct repertoire of mutations from other cancers, a high plasticity and degree of mimicry toward vascular phenotype, stemness markers, versatility in evading and suppress host immune control. They exert a significant influence on immune, endothelial and various stromal cells which form tumor microenvironment. The metastatic stage, the leading cause of mortality in this neoplasm, is the outcome of a complex, still poorly understood, cross-talk between tumor and other cell phenotypes. There is accumulating evidence that Interleukin-8 (IL-8) is emblematic for advanced melanomas. This work aimed to present an updated status of IL-8 in melanoma tumor cellular complexity, through a comprehensive analysis including data from other chemokines and neoplasms. The multiple processes and mechanisms surveyed here demonstrate that IL-8 operates following orchestrated programs within signaling webs in melanoma, stromal and vascular cells. Importantly, the yet unknown molecularity regulating IL-8 impact on cells of the immune system could be exploited to overturn tumor fate. The molecular and cellular targets of IL-8 should be brought into the attention of even more intense scientific exploration and valorization in the therapeutical management of melanoma.

Design, synthesis and anti-tumor evaluation of 1,2,4-triazol-3-one derivatives and pyridazinone derivatives as novel CXCR2 antagonists

Chemokine receptor 2 (CXCR2) is the receptor of glutamic acid-leucine-arginine sequence-contained chemokines CXCs (ELR⁺ CXCs). In recent years, CXCR2-target treatment strategy has come a long way in cancer therapy. CXCR2 antagonists could block CXCLs/CXCR2 axis, and are widely used in regulating immune cell migration, tumor metastasis, apoptosis and angiogenesis. Herein, two series of new CXCR2 small-molecule inhibitors, including 1,2,4-triazol-3-one derivatives 1-11 and pyridazinone derivatives 12-22 were designed and synthesized based on the proof-to-concept. The pyridazinone derivative 18 exhibited good CXCR2 antagonistic activity (69.4 ± 10.5 %Inh at 10 μM) and demonstrated its significant anticancer metastasis activity in MDA-MB-231 cells and remarkable anti-angiogenesis activity in HUVECs. Furthermore, noteworthy was that 18 exhibited an obvious synergistic effect with Sorafenib in anti-proliferation assay in MDA-MB-231 cells. Moreover, 18 showed a distinct reduction of the phosphorylation levels of both PI3K and AKT proteins in MDA-MB-231 cells, and also affected the expression levels of other PI3K/AKT signaling pathway-associated proteins. The molecular docking studies of 18 with CXCR2 also verified the rationality of our design strategy. All of these results revealed pyridazinone derivative 18 as a promising CXCR2 antagonist for future cancer therapy.

Rat peri-implant soft tissue specifically expressed CXCL2 on titanium implant during wound healing

Many of genes specifically expressed in peri-implant soft tissue (PIST) selected by microarray analysis are involved in the inflammatory response. This study investigated the gene expression and localization of PIST-specific inflammatory markers in PIST during wound healing. Pure titanium implants were implanted into the rat upper mandibular socket to create PIST. Samples were harvested from PIST as an experimental group, and tooth extracted area of oral mucosa tissue (OMT) and healthy periodontal tissue (PT) as control groups. The gene expressions of four standard inflammatory markers and nine PIST-specific inflammatory markers including chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 2 (CXCL2) during wound healing were examined. Immunoreactions of CXCL2 and immune cells in PIST and control tissues were compared. During wound healing, gene expression of PIST-specific inflammatory markers was higher in PIST than in OMT (p < .05), but there were no significant differences in the expression of standard inflammatory markers. The molecule CXCL2 was expressed locally at the implant-connective tissue interface, and localization of immune cells closely matched the CXCL2 expression pattern. In PIST, seven of PIST-specific inflammatory markers were expressed specifically and strongly during wound healing and their expression was maintained until the end of healing. Furthermore, CXCL2 expression was due to the creation of the implant-connective tissue interface, and it established a unique defense mechanism in PIST that was not apparent in OMT or PT.

Liver fibrosis promotes immunity escape but limits the size of liver tumor in a rat orthotopic transplantation model

Liver fibrosis plays a crucial role in promoting tumor immune escape and tumor aggressiveness for liver cancer. However, an interesting phenomenon is that the tumor size of liver cancer patients with liver fibrosis is smaller than that of patients without liver fibrosis. In this study, 16 SD rats were used to establish orthotopic liver tumor transplantation models with Walker-256 cell lines, respectively on the fibrotic liver (n = 8, LF group) and normal liver (n = 8, control group). MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) was used to monitor the size of the tumors. All rats were executed at the third week after modeling, and the immunohistochemical staining was used to reflect the changes in the tumor microenvironment. The results showed that, compared to the control group, the PD-L1 (programmed cell death protein receptor-L1) expression was higher, and the neutrophil infiltration increased while the effector (CD8+) T cell infiltration decreased in the LF group. Additionally, the expression of MMP-9 (matrix metalloproteinase-9) of tumor tissue in the LF group increased. Three weeks after modeling, the size of tumors in the LF group was significantly smaller than that in the control group (382.47 ± 195.06 mm3 vs. 1736.21 ± 657.25 mm3, P < 0.001). Taken together, we concluded that liver fibrosis facilitated tumor immunity escape but limited the expansion of tumor size.

Effects of remote ischemic preconditioning (RIPC) and chronic remote ischemic preconditioning (cRIPC) on levels of plasma cytokines, cell surface characteristics of monocytes and in-vitro angiogenesis: a pilot study

Remote ischemic preconditioning (RIPC) protects the heart against myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury and recent work also suggested chronic remote ischemic conditioning (cRIPC) for cardiovascular protection. Based on current knowledge that systemic immunomodulatory effects of RIPC and the anti-inflammatory capacity of monocytes might be involved in cardiovascular protection, the aim of our study was to evaluate whether RIPC/cRIPC blood plasma is able to induce in-vitro angiogenesis, identify responsible factors and evaluate the effects of RIPC/cRIPC on cell surface characteristics of circulating monocytes. Eleven healthy volunteers were subjected to RIPC/cRIPC using a blood pressure cuff inflated to > 200 mmHg for 3 × 5 min on the upper arm. Plasma and peripheral blood monocytes were isolated before RIPC (Control), after 1 × RIPC (RIPC) and at the end of 1 week of daily RIPC (cRIPC) treatment. Plasma concentrations of potentially pro-angiogenic humoral factors (CXCL5, Growth hormone, IGFBP3, IL-1α, IL-6, Angiopoietin 2, VEGF, PECAM-1, sTie-2, IL-8, MCSF) were measured using custom made multiplex ELISA systems. Tube formation assays for evaluation of in-vitro angiogenesis were performed with donor plasma, monocyte conditioned culture media as well as IL-1α, CXCL5 and Growth hormone. The presence of CD14, CD16, Tie-2 and CCR2 was analyzed on monocytes by flow cytometry. Employing in-vitro tube formation assays, several parameters of angiogenesis were significantly increased by cRIPC plasma (number of nodes, P < 0.05; number of master junctions, P < 0.05; number of segments, P < 0.05) but were not influenced by culture medium from RIPC/cRIPC treated monocytes. While RIPC/cRIPC treatment did not lead to significant changes of the median plasma concentrations of any of the selected potentially pro-angiogenic humoral factors, in-depth analysis of the individual subjects revealed differences in plasma levels of IL-1α, CXCL5 and Growth hormone after RIPC/cRIPC treatment in some of the volunteers. Nevertheless, the positive effects of RIPC/cRIPC plasma on in-vitro angiogenesis could not be mimicked by the addition of the respective humoral factors alone or in combination. While monocyte conditioned culture media did not affect in-vitro tube formation, flow cytometry analyses of circulating monocytes revealed a significant increase in the number of Tie-2 positive and a decrease of CCR2 positive monocytes after RIPC/cRIPC (Tie-2: cRIPC, P < 0.05; CCR2: RIPC P < 0.01). Cardiovascular protection may be mediated by RIPC and cRIPC via a regulation of plasma cytokines as well as changes in cell surface characteristics of monocytes (e.g. Tie-2). Our results suggest that a combination of humoral and cellular factors could be responsible for the RIPC/cRIPC mediated effects and that interindividual variations seem to play a considerable part in the RIPC/cRIPC associated mechanisms.

Chemokine-Directed Tumor Microenvironment Modulation in Cancer Immunotherapy

Chemokines are a large family of small chemotactic cytokines that coordinates immune cell trafficking. In cancer, they have a pivotal role in the migration pattern of immune cells into the tumor, thereby shaping the tumor microenvironment immune profile, often towards a pro-tumorigenic state. Furthermore, chemokines can directly target non-immune cells in the tumor microenvironment, including cancer, stromal and vascular endothelial cells. As such, chemokines participate in several cancer development processes such as angiogenesis, metastasis, cancer cell proliferation, stemness and invasiveness, and are therefore key determinants of disease progression, with a strong influence in patient prognosis and response to therapy. Due to their multifaceted role in the tumor immune response and tumor biology, the chemokine network has emerged as a potential immunotherapy target. Under the present review, we provide a general overview of chemokine effects on several tumoral processes, as well as a description of the currently available chemokine-directed therapies, highlighting their potential both as monotherapy or in combination with standard chemotherapy or other immunotherapies. Finally, we discuss the most critical challenges and prospects of developing targeted chemokines as therapeutic options.

The C-X-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 1 Sustains Breast Cancer Stem Cell Self-Renewal and Promotes Tumor Progression and Immune Escape Programs

Breast cancer (BC) mortality is mainly due to metastatic disease, which is primarily driven by cancer stem cells (CSC). The chemokine C-X-C motif ligand-1 (CXCL1) is involved in BC metastasis, but the question of whether it regulates breast cancer stem cell (BCSC) behavior is yet to be explored. Here, we demonstrate that BCSCs express CXCR2 and produce CXCL1, which stimulates their proliferation and self-renewal, and that CXCL1 blockade inhibits both BCSC proliferation and mammosphere formation efficiency. CXCL1 amplifies its own production and remarkably induces both tumor-promoting and immunosuppressive factors, including SPP1/OPN, ACKR3/CXCR7, TLR4, TNFSF10/TRAIL and CCL18 and, to a lesser extent, immunostimulatory cytokines, including IL15, while it downregulates CCL2, CCL28, and CXCR4. CXCL1 downregulates TWIST2 and SNAI2, while it boosts TWIST1 expression in association with the loss of E-Cadherin, ultimately promoting BCSC epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Bioinformatic analyses of transcriptional data obtained from BC samples of 1,084 patients, reveals that CXCL1 expressing BCs mostly belong to the Triple-Negative (TN) subtype, and that BC expression of CXCL1 strongly correlates with that of pro-angiogenic and cancer promoting genes, such as CXCL2-3-5-6, FGFBP1, BCL11A, PI3, B3GNT5, BBOX1, and PTX3, suggesting that the CXCL1 signaling cascade is part of a broader tumor-promoting signaling network. Our findings reveal that CXCL1 functions as an autocrine growth factor for BCSCs and elicits primarily tumor progression and immune escape programs. Targeting the CXCL1/CXCR2 axis could restrain the BCSC compartment and improve the treatment of aggressive BC.

Modulation of the chemokine/chemokine receptor axis as a novel approach for glioma therapy

Chemokines are a large subfamily of cytokines known for their ability to facilitate cell migration, most notably leukocytes, throughout the body. Chemokines are necessary for a functioning immune system in both health and disease and have received considerable attention for their roles in orchestrating temporal-spatial regulation of immune cell populations in cancer. Gliomas comprise a group of common central nervous system (CNS) primary tumors that are extremely challenging to treat. Immunotherapy approaches for highly malignant brain tumors offer an exciting new avenue for therapeutic intervention but so far, have seen limited successful clinical outcomes. Herein we focus on important chemokine/chemokine receptor systems in the regulation of pro- and anti-tumor mechanisms, highlighting potential therapeutic advantages of modulating these systems in malignant gliomas and other cancers.

CXCR2 Levels Correlate with Immune Infiltration and a Better Prognosis of Triple-Negative Breast Cancers

Simple Summary

Tumor microenvironment is critical for cancer progression. The role of the chemokine receptors in breast cancers is still under investigation. The aim of this study was to focus on a retrospective cohort of triple-negative breast cancers (TNBCs) and analyze the involvement of CXCR2 and its link with immune infiltration and immune checkpoint markers. High densities of CXCR2-positive cells were associated with high-grade tumors. Higher quantities of CXCR2-positive cells were correlated with elevated density of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), CD8+ cytotoxic lymphocytes, expression of PD-L1 by tumor and stromal cells and of PD-1 by stromal cells. In univariate analysis, low levels of CXCR2 were correlated with poor OS and RFS. In multivariate analysis, low levels of CXCR2 were associated with poor OS. Overall, our data highlight the potential beneficial association of high levels of CXCR2 with a subgroup of TNBC patients characterized by a better prognosis.

Abstract

Chemokines and their receptors are key players in breast cancer progression and outcome. Previous studies have shown that the chemokine receptor CXCR2 was expressed at higher levels by cells of the tumor microenvironment in triple-negative breast cancers (TNBCs). The aim of this study was to focus our attention on a retrospective cohort of 290 TNBC cases and analyze the involvement of CXCR2, CD11b (a marker of granulocytes) and CD66b (a marker of neutrophils) and their link with immune infiltration and immune checkpoint markers. We report that high densities of CXCR2-, CD11b- and CD66b-positive cells were associated with high-grade tumors. Moreover, molecular apocrine TNBCs, defined here as tumors that express both AR and FOXA1 biomarkers, exhibited low levels of CXCR2 and CD11b. High CXCR2 and CD11b levels were correlated with elevated density of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), CD8+ cytotoxic lymphocytes, expression of PD-L1 by tumor and stromal cells and of PD-1 by stromal cells. On the other hand, CD66b levels were associated only with CD8+, stromal PD-L1 and PD-1 expression. In univariate analysis, low levels of CXCR2 were correlated with poor OS and RFS. In multivariate analysis, low levels of CXCR2 were associated with poor OS. Finally, in TNBC treated with adjuvant chemotherapy, CXCR2 density was associated with longer RFS. Overall, our data highlight the potential beneficial association of high levels of CXCR2 with a subgroup of TNBC patients characterized by a better prognosis.

Role of Microenvironment in Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma: Understanding the Composition and Biology

Lymphoma microenvironment is a dynamic and well-orchestrated network of various immune and stromal cells that is indispensable for tumor cell survival, growth, migration, immune escape, and drug resistance. Recent progress has enhanced our knowledge of the pivotal role of microenvironment in lymphomagenesis. Understanding the characteristics, functions, and contributions of various components of the tumor niche, along with its bidirectional interactions with tumor cells, is paramount. It offers the potential to identify new therapeutic targets with the ability to restore antitumor immune surveillance and eliminate the protumoral factors contributed by the tumor niche.

Angiogenesis in the progression from liver fibrosis to cirrhosis and hepatocelluar carcinoma

Introduction: Persistent inflammation and hypoxia are strong stimulus for pathological angiogenesis and vascular remodeling, and are also the most important elements resulting in liver fibrosis. Sustained inflammatory process stimulates fibrosis to the end-point of cirrhosis and sinusoidal portal hypertension is an important feature of cirrhosis. Neovascularization plays a pivotal role in collateral circulation formation of portal vein, mesenteric congestion, and high perfusion. Imbalance of hepatic artery and portal vein blood flow leads to the increase of hepatic artery inflow, which is beneficial to the formation of nodules. Angiogenesis contributes to progression from liver fibrosis to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and anti-angiogenesis therapy can improve liver fibrosis, reduce portal pressure, and prolong overall survival of patients with HCC. Areas covers: This paper will try to address the difference of the morphological characteristics and mechanisms of neovascularization in the process from liver fibrosis to cirrhosis and HCC and further compare the different efficacy of anti-angiogenesis therapy in these three stages. Expert opinion: More in-depth understanding of the role of angiogenesis factors and the relationship between angiogenesis and other aspects of the pathogenesis and transformation may be the key to enabling future progress in the treatment of patients with liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and HCC.

Chemokines as the critical factors during bladder cancer progression: an overview

Bladder cancer (BCa) is one of the most frequent urogenital malignancies which is mainly observed among men. There are various genetic and environmental risk factors associated with BCa progression. Transurethral endoscopic resection and open ablative surgery are the main treatment options for muscle invasive BCa. BCG therapy is also employed following the endoscopic resection to prevent tumor relapse. The tumor microenvironment is the main interaction site of tumor cells and immune system in which the immune cells are recruited via chemokines and chemokine receptors. In present review we summarized the main chemokines and chemokine receptors which have been associated with histopathological features of BCa patients in the world. This review highlights the chemokines and chemokine receptors as critical markers in early detection and therapeutic purposes among BCa patients and clarifies their molecular functions during BCa progression and metastasis.