Maternal parenting behavior and functional connectivity development in children: A longitudinal fMRI study

Differential role of negative and positive parenting styles on resting-state brain networks in middle-aged adolescents

Parenting styles encompass negative and positive approaches, potentially affecting adolescents' brain reward and emotion regulation systems. However, the association between parenting style and brain networks remains unknown. This study investigates the link between parenting style and functional connectivity (FC) within the reward and emotion regulation brain networks, using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI). A total of forty-two middle-aged adolescents (26 males; 16 females) with no neurological or psychiatric symptoms participated in this study. We assessed parenting behaviors and extracted reward/emotion regulation FC from rs-fMRI. We examined the association between FC and parenting style, identified through principal component analysis. Correlation analysis investigated these links while controlling for sex. We delineated both positive (love-autonomy) and negative (hostility-control) parenting styles, accounting for 79 % of the explained variance in parenting behaviors. The negative parenting style displayed connections with FC within the reward system, particularly in the left nucleus accumbens (NAc), showcasing links to multiple frontal regions. Furthermore, it correlated with the social reward network, specifically the insula-NAc FC in bilateral hemispheres. Conversely, the positive parenting style exhibited an association with FC between the hippocampus and right lateral prefrontal cortex. Our findings support negative parenting's association with an immature reward system and suggest positive parenting's potential to enhance emotion regulation in brain function. These observations highlight two distinct parenting styles, including single-parenting behaviors. Thus, we advance understanding of each style's unique contributions to adolescent reward- and emotion regulation-related brain network development.

Examining the relationship between psychosocial adversity and inhibitory control: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study of children growing up in extreme poverty

Exposure to psychosocial adversity (PA) is associated with poor behavioral, physical, and mental health outcomes in adulthood. As these outcomes are related to alterations in developmental processes, growing evidence suggests that deficits in executive functions-inhibitory control in particular-may in part explain this relationship. However, literature examining the development of inhibitory control has been based on children in higher-resource environments, and little is known how low-resource settings might exacerbate the link between inhibitory control and health outcomes. In this context, we collected functional magnetic resonance imaging data during a Go/No-Go inhibitory control task and PA variables for 68 children aged 5 to 7 years living in Dhaka, Bangladesh, an area with a high prevalence of PA. The children's mothers completed behavioral questionnaires to assess the children's PA and their own PA. Whole-brain activation underlying inhibitory control was examined using the No-Go versus Go contrast, and associations with PA variables were assessed using whole-brain regressions. Childhood neglect was associated with weaker activation in the right posterior cingulate, whereas greater family conflict, economic stress, and maternal PA factors were associated with greater activation in the left medial frontal gyrus, right superior and middle frontal gyri, and left cingulate gyrus. These data suggest that neural networks supporting inhibitory control processes may vary as a function of exposure to different types of PA, particularly between those related to threat and deprivation. Furthermore, increased activation in children with greater PA may serve as a compensatory mechanism, allowing them to maintain similar behavioral task performance.

Examining the relationship between psychosocial adversity and inhibitory control: an fMRI study of children growing up in extreme poverty

Exposure to psychosocial adversity (PA) is associated with poor behavioral, physical, and mental health outcomes in adulthood. As these outcomes are related to alterations in developmental processes, growing evidence suggests that deficits in executive functions-inhibitory control in particular-may, in part, explain this relationship. However, literature examining the development of inhibitory control has been based on children in higher resource environments, and little is known how low resource settings might exacerbate the link between inhibitory control and health outcomes. In this context, we collected fMRI data during a Go/No-Go inhibitory control task and PA variables for 68 children 5 to 7 years of age living in Dhaka, Bangladesh, an area with a high prevalence of PA. The children's mothers completed behavioral questionnaires to assess the child's PA and their own PA. Whole-brain activation underlying inhibitory control was examined using the No-Go versus Go contrast, and associations with PA variables were assessed using whole-brain regressions. Childhood neglect was associated with weaker activation in the right posterior cingulate, whereas greater family conflict, economic stress, and maternal PA factors were associated with greater activation in the left medial frontal gyrus, right superior and middle frontal gyri, and left cingulate gyrus. These data suggest that neural networks supporting inhibitory control processes may vary as a function of exposure to different types of PA, particularly between those related to threat and deprivation. Furthermore, increased activation in children with greater PA may serve as a compensatory mechanism, allowing them to maintain similar behavioral task performance.

Childhood maltreatment and resting-state network connectivity: The risk-buffering role of positive parenting

Unraveling the neurobiological foundations of childhood maltreatment is important due to the persistent associations with adverse mental health outcomes. However, the mechanisms through which abuse and neglect disturb resting-state network connectivity remain elusive. Moreover, it remains unclear if positive parenting can mitigate the negative impact of childhood maltreatment on network connectivity. We analyzed a cohort of 194 adolescents and young adults (aged 14-25, 47.42% female) from the Neuroscience in Psychiatry Network (NSPN) to investigate the impact of childhood abuse and neglect on resting-state network connectivity. Specifically, we examined the SAN, DMN, FPN, DAN, and VAN over time. We also explored the moderating role of positive parenting. The results showed that childhood abuse was linked to stronger connectivity within the SAN and VAN, as well as between the DMN-DAN, DMN-VAN, DMN-SAN, SAN-DAN, FPN-DAN, SAN-VAN, and VAN-DAN networks about 18 months later. Positive parenting during childhood buffered the negative impact of childhood abuse on network connectivity. To our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate the protective effect of positive parenting on network connectivity following childhood abuse. These findings not only highlight the importance of positive parenting but also lead to a better understanding of the neurobiology and resilience mechanisms of childhood maltreatment.

Investigating Associations Between Maternal Behavior and the Development of Functional Connectivity During the Transition From Late Childhood to Early Adolescence

BACKGROUND

Parenting behavior is thought to affect child brain development, with implications for mental health. However, longitudinal studies that use whole-brain approaches are lacking. In this study, we investigated associations between parenting behavior, age-related changes in whole-brain functional connectivity, and psychopathology symptoms in children and adolescents.

METHODS

Two hundred forty (126 female) children underwent resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging at up to two time points, providing a total of 398 scans covering the age range 8 to 13 years. Parenting behavior was self-reported at baseline. Parenting factors (positive parenting, inattentive parenting, and harsh and inconsistent discipline) were identified based on a factor analysis of self-report parenting questionnaires. Longitudinal measures of child internalizing and externalizing symptoms were collected. Network-based R-statistics was used to identify associations between parenting and age-related changes in functional connectivity.

RESULTS

Higher maternal inattentive behavior was associated with lower decreases in connectivity over time, particularly between regions of the ventral attention and default mode networks and frontoparietal and default mode networks. However, this association was not significant after strict correction for multiple comparisons.

CONCLUSIONS

While results should be considered preliminary, they suggest that inattentive parenting may be associated with a reduction in the normative pattern of increased network specialization that occurs with age. This may reflect a delayed development of functional connectivity.

Corticolimbic connectivity mediates the relationship between pubertal timing and mental health problems

BACKGROUND

Undergoing puberty ahead of peers ('earlier pubertal timing') is an important risk factor for mental health problems during early adolescence. The current study examined pathways between pubertal timing and mental health via connectivity of neural systems implicated in emotional reactivity and regulation (specifically corticolimbic connections) in 9- to 14-year-olds.

METHOD

Research questions were examined in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, a large population representative sample in the United States. Linear mixed models examined associations between pubertal timing and resting-state corticolimbic connectivity. Significant connections were examined as potential mediators of the relationship between pubertal timing and mental health (withdrawn depressed and rule-breaking) problems. Exploratory analyses interrogated whether the family environment moderated neural risk patterns in those undergoing puberty earlier than their peers.

RESULTS

Earlier pubertal timing was related to decreased connectivity between limbic structures (bilateral amygdala and right hippocampus) and the cingulo-opercular network, left amygdala and somatomotor (mouth) network, as well as between the left hippocampus and ventral attention network and visual network. Corticolimbic connections also mediated the relationship between earlier pubertal timing and increased withdrawn depressed problems (but not rule-breaking problems). Finally, parental acceptance buffered against connectivity patterns that were implicated in withdrawn depressed problems in those undergoing puberty earlier than their peers.

CONCLUSION

Findings highlight the role of decreased corticolimbic connectivity in mediating pathways between earlier pubertal timing and withdrawn depressed problems, and we present preliminary evidence that the family environment may buffer against these neural risk patterns during early adolescence.

Altered longitudinal trajectory of default mode network connectivity in healthy youth with subclinical depressive and posttraumatic stress symptoms

The default mode network (DMN) plays a crucial role in internal self-processing, rumination, and social functions. Disruptions to DMN connectivity have been linked with early adversity and the emergence of psychopathology in adolescence and early adulthood. Herein, we investigate how subclinical psychiatric symptoms can impact DMN functional connectivity during the pubertal transition. Resting-state fMRI data were collected annually from 190 typically-developing youth (9-15 years-old) at three timepoints and within-network DMN connectivity was computed. We used latent growth curve modeling to determine how self-reported depressive and posttraumatic stress symptoms predicted rates of change in DMN connectivity over the three-year period. In the baseline model without predictors, we found no systematic changes in DMN connectivity over time. However, significant modulation emerged after adding psychopathology predictors; greater depressive symptomatology was associated with significant decreases in connectivity over time, whereas posttraumatic stress symptoms were associated with significant increases in connectivity over time. Follow-up analyses revealed that these effects were driven by connectivity changes involving the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex subnetwork. In conclusion, these data suggest that subclinical depressive and posttraumatic symptoms alter the trajectory of DMN connectivity, which may indicate that this network is a nexus of clinical significance in mental health disorders.

Early stressful experiences are associated with reduced neural responses to naturalistic emotional and social content in children

How do children's experiences relate to their naturalistic emotional and social processing? Because children can struggle with tasks in the scanner, we collected fMRI data while 4-to-11-year-olds watched a short film with positive and negative emotional events, and rich parent-child interactions (n = 70). We captured broad, normative stressful experiences by examining socioeconomic status (SES) and stressful life events, as well as children's more proximal experiences with their parents. For a sub-sample (n = 30), parenting behaviors were measured during a parent-child interaction, consisting of a picture book, a challenging puzzle, and free play with novel toys. We characterized positive parenting behaviors (e.g., warmth, praise) and negative parenting behaviors (e.g., harsh tone, physical control). We found that higher SES was related to greater activity in medial orbitofrontal cortex during parent-child interaction movie events. Negative parenting behaviors were associated with less activation of the ventral tegmental area and cerebellum during positive emotional events. In a region-of-interest analysis, we found that stressful life events and negative parenting behaviors were associated with less activation of the amygdala during positive emotional events. These exploratory results demonstrate the promise of using movie fMRI to study how early experiences may shape emotional, social, and motivational processes.

Maternal warmth is associated with network segregation across late childhood: A longitudinal neuroimaging study

The negative impact of adverse experiences in childhood on neurodevelopment is well documented. Less attention however has been given to the impact of variations in “normative” parenting behaviors. The influence of these parenting behaviors is likely to be marked during periods of rapid brain reorganization, such as late childhood. The aim of the current study was to investigate associations between normative parenting behaviors and the development of structural brain networks across late childhood. Data were collected from a longitudinal sample of 114 mother-child dyads (54% female children, M age 8.41 years, SD = 0.32 years), recruited from low socioeconomic areas of Melbourne, Australia. At the first assessment parenting behaviors were coded from two lab-based interaction tasks and structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of the children were performed. At the second assessment, approximately 18 months later (M age 9.97 years, SD = 0.37 years) MRI scans were repeated. Cortical thickness (CT) was extracted from T1-weighted images using FreeSurfer. Structural covariance (SC) networks were constructed from partial correlations of CT estimates between brain regions and estimates of network efficiency and modularity were obtained for each time point. The change in these network measures, from Time 1 to Time 2, was also calculated. At Time 2, less positive maternal affective behavior was associated with higher modularity (more segregated networks), while negative maternal affective behavior was not related. No support was found for an association between local or global efficacy and maternal affective behaviors at Time 2. Similarly, no support was demonstrated for associations between maternal affective behaviors and change in network efficiency and modularity, from Time 1 to Time 2. These results indicate that normative variations in parenting may influence the development of structural brain networks in late childhood and extend current knowledge about environmental influences on structural connectivity in a developmental context.

The role of enriched environment in neural development and repair

In addition to genetic information, environmental factors play an important role in the structure and function of nervous system and the occurrence and development of some nervous system diseases. Enriched environment (EE) can not only promote normal neural development through enhancing neuroplasticity but also play a nerve repair role in restoring functional activities during CNS injury by morphological and cellular and molecular adaptations in the brain. Different stages of development after birth respond to the environment to varying degrees. Therefore, we systematically review the pro-developmental and anti-stress value of EE during pregnancy, pre-weaning, and “adolescence” and analyze the difference in the effects of EE and its sub-components, especially with physical exercise. In our exploration of potential mechanisms that promote neurodevelopment, we have found that not all sub-components exert maximum value throughout the developmental phase, such as animals that do not respond to physical activity before weaning, and that EE is not superior to its sub-components in all respects. EE affects the developing and adult brain, resulting in some neuroplastic changes in the microscopic and macroscopic anatomy, finally contributing to enhanced learning and memory capacity. These positive promoting influences are particularly prominent regarding neural repair after neurobiological disorders. Taking cerebral ischemia as an example, we analyzed the molecular mediators of EE promoting repair from various dimensions. We found that EE does not always lead to positive effects on nerve repair, such as infarct size. In view of the classic issues such as standardization and relativity of EE have been thoroughly discussed, we finally focus on analyzing the essentiality of the time window of EE action and clinical translation in order to devote to the future research direction of EE and rapid and reasonable clinical application.

Examining the Role of Socioeconomic Status and Maternal Sensitivity in Predicting Functional Brain Network Connectivity in 5-Month-Old Infants

Infancy is a sensitive period of human brain development that is plastically shaped by environmental factors. Both proximal factors, such as sensitive parenting, and distal factors, such as socioeconomic status (SES), are known predictors of individual differences in structural and functional brain systems across the lifespan, yet it is unclear how these familial and contextual factors work together to shape functional brain development during infancy, particularly during the first months of life. In the current study, we examined pre-registered hypotheses regarding the interplay between these factors to assess how maternal sensitivity, within the broader context of socioeconomic variation, relates to the development of functional connectivity in long-range cortical brain networks. Specifically, we measured resting-state functional connectivity in three cortical brain networks (fronto-parietal network, default mode network, homologous-interhemispheric connectivity) using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), and examined the associations between maternal sensitivity, SES, and functional connectivity in a sample of 5-month-old infants and their mothers (N = 50 dyads). Results showed that all three networks were detectable during a passive viewing task, and that maternal sensitivity was positively associated with functional connectivity in the default mode network, such that infants with more sensitive mothers exhibited enhanced functional connectivity in this network. Contrary to hypotheses, we did not observe any associations of SES with functional connectivity in the brain networks assessed in this study. This suggests that at 5 months of age, maternal sensitivity is an important proximal environmental factor associated with individual differences in functional connectivity in a long-range cortical brain network implicated in a host of emotional and social-cognitive brain processes.

Mediating role of the default mode network on parental acceptance/warmth and psychopathology in youth

Humans are reliant on their caregivers for an extended period of time, offering numerous opportunities for environmental factors, such as parental attitudes and behaviors, to impact brain development. The default mode network is a neural system encompassing the medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, precuneus, and temporo-parietal junction, which is implicated in aspects of cognition and psychopathology. Delayed default mode network maturation in children and adolescents has been associated with greater general dimensional psychopathology, and positive parenting behaviors have been suggested to serve as protective mechanisms against atypical default mode network development. The current study aimed to extend the existing research by examining whether within- default mode network resting-state functional connectivity would mediate the relation between parental acceptance/warmth and youth psychopathology. Data from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development study, which included a community sample of 9,366 children ages 8.9-10.9 years, were analyzed to test this prediction. Results demonstrated a significant mediation, where greater parental acceptance/warmth predicted greater within- default mode network resting-state functional connectivity, which in turn predicted lower externalizing, but not internalizing symptoms, at baseline and 1-year later. Our study provides preliminary support for the notion that positive parenting behaviors may reduce the risk for psychopathology in youth through their influence on the default mode network.

The Role of Neurobiological Bases of Dyadic Emotion Regulation in the Development of Psychopathology: Cross-Brain Associations Between Parents and Children

Daily interactions between parents and children play a large role in children's emotional development and mental health. Thus, it is important to investigate the neural mechanisms underlying this association within the context of these dyadic social interactions. We suggest that examining cross-brain associations, coordinated brain responses, among parents and children increases our understanding of patterns of social and emotion-related processes that occur during parent-child interactions, which may influence the development of child emotion regulation and psychopathology. Therefore, we extend the Parent-Child Emotion Regulation Dynamics Model (Morris et al., in: Cole and Hollenstein (eds) Dynamics of emotion regulation: A matter of time, Taylor & Francis, 2018) to include cross-brain associations involved in dyadic emotion regulation during parent-child social emotional interactions and discuss how this model can inform future research and its broader applications.

Testing a Developmental Model of Positive Parenting, Amygdala–Subgenual Anterior Cingulate Cortex Connectivity, and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Background

Neurobiological measures may inform our understanding of individual differences in adolescents’ general risk for and resilience to depressive symptoms, including during the COVID-19 pandemic. We tested a developmental model linking variation in amygdala–subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sgACC) resting-state connectivity to perceived parenting experiences earlier in adolescence, to concurrent depressive symptoms before the pandemic, and to subsequent depressive symptoms during the pandemic.

Methods

We used data from a longitudinal study that included three waves (N = 214 adolescents; ages 9–15 years at time 1 [T1], 11–17 years at T2, and 12–19 years during the pandemic at T3). We assessed positive parenting (warm and supportive) (T1), depressive symptoms (T1 to T3), and functional connectivity between the sgACC and basolateral (BLA) and centromedial amygdala (T1 and T2). We modeled associations among earlier positive parenting, amygdala–sgACC connectivity, and depressive symptoms before and during the pandemic.

Results

Less positive parenting at T1 was associated prospectively with stronger BLA–sgACC connectivity at T2 (β = −0.22) over and above the effect of BLA–sgACC connectivity at T1. Stronger BLA–sgACC connectivity, in turn, was associated with heightened depressive symptoms, both before the pandemic (r = 0.21) and during the pandemic (β = 0.19; independent of the effect of pre-pandemic symptoms).

Conclusions

Adolescents who experience less positive parenting may develop a pattern of BLA–sgACC connectivity that increases their risk for mental health problems. BLA–sgACC connectivity may be associated with depressive symptoms in general, including during periods of heightened risk for adolescents, such as the pandemic.

A Narrative Review of Methodological Considerations in Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Offspring Brain Development and the Influence of Parenting

Parenting has been robustly associated with offspring psychosocial development, and these effects are likely reflected in brain development. This hypothesis is being tested with increasingly rigorous methods and the use of magnetic resonance imaging, a powerful tool for characterizing human brain structure and function. The objective of this narrative review was to examine methodological issues in this field that impact the conclusions that can be drawn and to identify future directions in this field. Studies included were those that examined associations between parenting and offspring brain structure or function. Results show four thematic features in this literature that impact the hypotheses that can be tested, and the conclusions drawn. The first theme is a limited body of studies including repeated sampling of offspring brain structure and function, and therefore an over-reliance on cross-sectional or retrospective associations. The second involves a focus on extremes in early life caregiving, limiting generalizability. The third involves the nature of parenting assessment, predominantly parent- or child-report instead of observational measures which may be more ecologically valid measures of parenting. A closely related fourth consideration is the examination of detrimental versus positive parenting behaviors. While studies with one or more of these thematic limitations provide valuable information, future study design should consider addressing these limitations to determine how parenting shapes offspring brain development.

Analysis of Parenting Attitude Types and Influencing Factors of Korean Parents by Using Latent Transition Analysis

This study aimed to classify the latent class of parenting attitude for parents with preschool children and school-age children, identify the pattern of transition in the type of parenting attitude over time, and determine the influencing factors associated with the transition. A total of 1462 households were the subjects of this longitudinal study that used latent profile analysis, latent transition analysis, and logistic regression analysis. The parenting attitude in the preschool year was classified into a model of three latent classes of ‘parent uninvolved’, ‘maternal authoritative and paternal authoritarian’, and ‘maternal authoritarian and paternal authoritative’, and the parenting attitude in the school year was classified into a model of four latent classes of ‘parent weak uninvolved’, ‘parent strong uninvolved’, parent authoritative’, and ‘maternal authoritarian and paternal authoritative.’ All latent class subjects with preschool children showed an attitude transition to maternal authoritarian and paternal authoritative when their children were in school years. It was confirmed that a mother’s depression and father’s parenting stress were the most influential factors in the parenting attitude transition. This study lay in identifying the patterns of parenting attitude and the transition in attitude according to the developmental stage of children.