1
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Romanos M, Salisbury T, Stephan S, Lansford R, Degond P, Trescases A, Bénazéraf B. Differential proliferation regulates multi-tissue morphogenesis during embryonic axial extension: integrating viscous modeling and experimental approaches. Development 2024; 151:dev202836. [PMID: 38856082 DOI: 10.1242/dev.202836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
A major challenge in biology is to understand how mechanical interactions and cellular behavior affect the shapes of tissues and embryo morphology. The extension of the neural tube and paraxial mesoderm, which form the spinal cord and musculoskeletal system, respectively, results in the elongated shape of the vertebrate embryonic body. Despite our understanding of how each of these tissues elongates independently of the others, the morphogenetic consequences of their simultaneous growth and mechanical interactions are still unclear. Our study investigates how differential growth, tissue biophysical properties and mechanical interactions affect embryonic morphogenesis during axial extension using a 2D multi-tissue continuum-based mathematical model. Our model captures the dynamics observed in vivo by time-lapse imaging of bird embryos, and reveals the underestimated influence of differential tissue proliferation rates. We confirmed this prediction in quail embryos by showing that decreasing the rate of cell proliferation in the paraxial mesoderm affects long-term tissue dynamics, and shaping of both the paraxial mesoderm and the neighboring neural tube. Overall, our work provides a new theoretical platform upon which to consider the long-term consequences of tissue differential growth and mechanical interactions on morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michèle Romanos
- Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology Unit (MCD, UMR 5077), Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, 31062 Toulouse, France
- Institut de Mathématiques de Toulouse UMR 5219, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, 31062 Toulouse Cedex 9, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Ecole Centrale de Lyon, INSA Lyon, Université Jean Monnet, ICJ UMR5208, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Tasha Salisbury
- The Saban Research Institute, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA
- University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Samuel Stephan
- Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology Unit (MCD, UMR 5077), Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, 31062 Toulouse, France
| | - Rusty Lansford
- The Saban Research Institute, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA
- University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Pierre Degond
- Institut de Mathématiques de Toulouse UMR 5219, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, 31062 Toulouse Cedex 9, France
| | - Ariane Trescases
- Institut de Mathématiques de Toulouse UMR 5219, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, 31062 Toulouse Cedex 9, France
| | - Bertrand Bénazéraf
- Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology Unit (MCD, UMR 5077), Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, 31062 Toulouse, France
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2
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Naganathan SR. An emerging role for tissue plasticity in developmental precision. Biochem Soc Trans 2024; 52:987-995. [PMID: 38716859 DOI: 10.1042/bst20230173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
Reproducible tissue morphology is a fundamental feature of embryonic development. To ensure such robustness during tissue morphogenesis, inherent noise in biological processes must be buffered. While redundant genes, parallel signaling pathways and intricate network topologies are known to reduce noise, over the last few years, mechanical properties of tissues have been shown to play a vital role. Here, taking the example of somite shape changes, I will discuss how tissues are highly plastic in their ability to change shapes leading to increased precision and reproducibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sundar Ram Naganathan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, 1, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Colaba, Mumbai 400005, India
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3
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Bardhan S, Bhargava N, Dighe S, Vats N, Naganathan SR. Emergence of a left-right symmetric body plan in vertebrate embryos. Curr Top Dev Biol 2024; 159:310-342. [PMID: 38729680 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2024.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
External bilateral symmetry is a prevalent feature in vertebrates, which emerges during early embryonic development. To begin with, vertebrate embryos are largely radially symmetric before transitioning to bilaterally symmetry, after which, morphogenesis of various bilateral tissues (e.g somites, otic vesicle, limb bud), and structures (e.g palate, jaw) ensue. While a significant amount of work has probed the mechanisms behind symmetry breaking in the left-right axis leading to asymmetric positioning of internal organs, little is known about how bilateral tissues emerge at the same time with the same shape and size and at the same position on the two sides of the embryo. By discussing emergence of symmetry in many bilateral tissues and structures across vertebrate model systems, we highlight that understanding symmetry establishment is largely an open field, which will provide deep insights into fundamental problems in developmental biology for decades to come.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siddhartha Bardhan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, India
| | - Nandini Bhargava
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, India
| | - Swarali Dighe
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, India
| | - Neha Vats
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, India
| | - Sundar Ram Naganathan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, India.
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4
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Genuth MA, Kojima Y, Jülich D, Kiryu H, Holley SA. Automated time-lapse data segmentation reveals in vivo cell state dynamics. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadf1814. [PMID: 37267354 PMCID: PMC10413672 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adf1814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Embryonic development proceeds as a series of orderly cell state transitions built upon noisy molecular processes. We defined gene expression and cell motion states using single-cell RNA sequencing data and in vivo time-lapse cell tracking data of the zebrafish tailbud. We performed a parallel identification of these states using dimensional reduction methods and a change point detection algorithm. Both types of cell states were quantitatively mapped onto embryos, and we used the cell motion states to study the dynamics of biological state transitions over time. The time average pattern of cell motion states is reproducible among embryos. However, individual embryos exhibit transient deviations from the time average forming left-right asymmetries in collective cell motion. Thus, the reproducible pattern of cell states and bilateral symmetry arise from temporal averaging. In addition, collective cell behavior can be a source of asymmetry rather than a buffer against noisy individual cell behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam A. Genuth
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Yasuhiro Kojima
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Division of Systems Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya University, Nagoya 4668550, Japan
- Department of Computational Biology and Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan
| | - Dörthe Jülich
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Hisanori Kiryu
- Department of Computational Biology and Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan
| | - Scott A. Holley
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
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5
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Uriu K, Morelli LG. Orchestration of tissue shape changes and gene expression patterns in development. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2023; 147:24-33. [PMID: 36631335 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2022.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 12/27/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
In development, tissue shape changes and gene expression patterns give rise to morphogenesis. Understanding tissue shape changes requires the analysis of mechanical properties of the tissue such as tissue rigidity, cell influx from neighboring tissues, cell shape changes and cell proliferation. Local and global gene expression patterns can be influenced by neighbor exchange and tissue shape changes. Here we review recent studies on the mechanisms for tissue elongation and its influences on dynamic gene expression patterns by focusing on vertebrate somitogenesis. We first introduce mechanical and biochemical properties of the segmenting tissue that drive tissue elongation. Then, we discuss patterning in the presence of cell mixing, scaling of signaling gradients, and dynamic phase waves of rhythmic gene expression under tissue shape changes. We also highlight the importance of theoretical approaches to address the relation between tissue shape changes and patterning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koichiro Uriu
- Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa 920-1192 Japan.
| | - Luis G Morelli
- Instituto de Investigación en Biomedicina de Buenos Aires (IBioBA)-CONICET-Partner Institute of the Max Planck Society, Polo Científico Tecnológico, Godoy Cruz 2390, C1425FQD, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Departamento de Física, FCEyN UBA, Ciudad Universitaria, 1428 Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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6
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Naganathan SR, Popović M, Oates AC. Left-right symmetry of zebrafish embryos requires somite surface tension. Nature 2022; 605:516-521. [PMID: 35477753 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-04646-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The body axis of vertebrate embryos is periodically segmented into bilaterally symmetric pairs of somites1,2. The anteroposterior length of somites, their position and left-right symmetry are thought to be molecularly determined before somite morphogenesis3,4. Here we show that, in zebrafish embryos, initial somite anteroposterior lengths and positions are imprecise and, consequently, many somite pairs form left-right asymmetrically. Notably, these imprecisions are not left unchecked and we find that anteroposterior lengths adjust within an hour after somite formation, thereby increasing morphological symmetry. We find that anteroposterior length adjustments result entirely from changes in somite shape without change in somite volume, with changes in anteroposterior length being compensated by corresponding changes in mediolateral length. The anteroposterior adjustment mechanism is facilitated by somite surface tension, which we show by comparing in vivo experiments and in vitro single-somite explant cultures using a mechanical model. Length adjustment is inhibited by perturbation of molecules involved in surface tension, such as integrin and fibronectin. By contrast, the adjustment mechanism is unaffected by perturbations to the segmentation clock, therefore revealing a distinct process that influences morphological segment lengths. We propose that tissue surface tension provides a general mechanism to adjust shapes and ensure precision and symmetry of tissues in developing embryos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sundar R Naganathan
- Institute of Bioengineering, École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Marko Popović
- Institute of Physics, École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland. .,Max Planck Institute for Physics of Complex Systems, Dresden, Germany. .,Center for Systems Biology Dresden, Dresden, Germany.
| | - Andrew C Oates
- Institute of Bioengineering, École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
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7
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Sutlive J, Xiu H, Chen Y, Gou K, Xiong F, Guo M, Chen Z. Generation, Transmission, and Regulation of Mechanical Forces in Embryonic Morphogenesis. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2022; 18:e2103466. [PMID: 34837328 PMCID: PMC8831476 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202103466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Embryonic morphogenesis is a biological process which depicts shape forming of tissues and organs during development. Unveiling the roles of mechanical forces generated, transmitted, and regulated in cells and tissues through these processes is key to understanding the biophysical mechanisms governing morphogenesis. To this end, it is imperative to measure, simulate, and predict the regulation and control of these mechanical forces during morphogenesis. This article aims to provide a comprehensive review of the recent advances on mechanical properties of cells and tissues, generation of mechanical forces in cells and tissues, the transmission processes of these generated forces during cells and tissues, the tools and methods used to measure and predict these mechanical forces in vivo, in vitro, or in silico, and to better understand the corresponding regulation and control of generated forces. Understanding the biomechanics and mechanobiology of morphogenesis will not only shed light on the fundamental physical mechanisms underlying these concerted biological processes during normal development, but also uncover new information that will benefit biomedical research in preventing and treating congenital defects or tissue engineering and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Sutlive
- Department of Surgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Haning Xiu
- Department of Surgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Yunfeng Chen
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
| | - Kun Gou
- Department of Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences, Texas A&M University-San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78224
| | - Fengzhu Xiong
- Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Ming Guo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139
| | - Zi Chen
- Department of Surgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
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8
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Atia L, Fredberg JJ, Gov NS, Pegoraro AF. Are cell jamming and unjamming essential in tissue development? Cells Dev 2021; 168:203727. [PMID: 34363993 PMCID: PMC8935248 DOI: 10.1016/j.cdev.2021.203727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The last decade has seen a surge of evidence supporting the existence of the transition of the multicellular tissue from a collective material phase that is regarded as being jammed to a collective material phase that is regarded as being unjammed. The jammed phase is solid-like and effectively 'frozen', and therefore is associated with tissue homeostasis, rigidity, and mechanical stability. The unjammed phase, by contrast, is fluid-like and effectively 'melted', and therefore is associated with mechanical fluidity, plasticity and malleability that are required in dynamic multicellular processes that sculpt organ microstructure. Such multicellular sculpturing, for example, occurs during embryogenesis, growth and remodeling. Although unjamming and jamming events in the multicellular collective are reminiscent of those that occur in the inert granular collective, such as grain in a hopper that can flow or clog, the analogy is instructive but limited, and the implications for cell biology remain unclear. Here we ask, are the cellular jamming transition and its inverse --the unjamming transition-- mere epiphenomena? That is, are they dispensable downstream events that accompany but neither cause nor quench these core multicellular processes? Drawing from selected examples in developmental biology, here we suggest the hypothesis that, to the contrary, the graded departure from a jammed phase enables controlled degrees of malleability as might be required in developmental dynamics. We further suggest that the coordinated approach to a jammed phase progressively slows those dynamics and ultimately enables long-term mechanical stability as might be required in the mature homeostatic multicellular tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lior Atia
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ben Gurion University, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Jeffrey J Fredberg
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Nir S Gov
- Department of Chemical and Biological Physics, Weizmann Institute, Israel
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9
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Lv X, Xu J, Jiang J, Wu P, Tan R, Wang B. Genetic animal models of scoliosis: A systematical review. Bone 2021; 152:116075. [PMID: 34174503 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2021.116075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Scoliosis is a complex disease with undetermined pathogenesis and has a strong relationship with genetics. Models of scoliosis in animals have been established for better comprehending its pathogenesis and treatment. In this review, we searched all the genetic animal models with body curvature in databases, and reviewed the related genes and scoliosis types. Meanwhile, we also summarized the pathogenesis of scoliosis reported so far. Summarizing the positive phenotypic animal models contributes to a better understanding on the pathogenesis of scoliosis and facilitates the selection of experimental models when a possible pathogenic factor is concerned.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Lv
- Department of Spine Surgery, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410011, Hunan, China
| | - Jinghong Xu
- Department of Spine Surgery, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410011, Hunan, China
| | - Jiajiong Jiang
- Department of Spine Surgery, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410011, Hunan, China
| | - Pengfei Wu
- Department of Spine Surgery, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410011, Hunan, China
| | - Renchun Tan
- Department of Spine Surgery, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410011, Hunan, China
| | - Bing Wang
- Department of Spine Surgery, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410011, Hunan, China.
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10
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Romanos M, Allio G, Roussigné M, Combres L, Escalas N, Soula C, Médevielle F, Steventon B, Trescases A, Bénazéraf B. Cell-to-cell heterogeneity in Sox2 and Bra expression guides progenitor motility and destiny. eLife 2021; 10:e66588. [PMID: 34607629 PMCID: PMC8492064 DOI: 10.7554/elife.66588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although cell-to-cell heterogeneity in gene and protein expression within cell populations has been widely documented, we know little about its biological functions. By studying progenitors of the posterior region of bird embryos, we found that expression levels of transcription factors Sox2 and Bra, respectively involved in neural tube (NT) and mesoderm specification, display a high degree of cell-to-cell heterogeneity. By combining forced expression and downregulation approaches with time-lapse imaging, we demonstrate that Sox2-to-Bra ratio guides progenitor's motility and their ability to stay in or exit the progenitor zone to integrate neural or mesodermal tissues. Indeed, high Bra levels confer high motility that pushes cells to join the paraxial mesoderm, while high levels of Sox2 tend to inhibit cell movement forcing cells to integrate the NT. Mathematical modeling captures the importance of cell motility regulation in this process and further suggests that randomness in Sox2/Bra cell-to-cell distribution favors cell rearrangements and tissue shape conservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michèle Romanos
- Molecular, Cellular and Developmental biology department (MCD), Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPSToulouseFrance
- Institut de Mathématiques de Toulouse UMR 5219, Université de ToulouseToulouseFrance
| | - Guillaume Allio
- Molecular, Cellular and Developmental biology department (MCD), Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPSToulouseFrance
| | - Myriam Roussigné
- Molecular, Cellular and Developmental biology department (MCD), Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPSToulouseFrance
| | - Léa Combres
- Molecular, Cellular and Developmental biology department (MCD), Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPSToulouseFrance
| | - Nathalie Escalas
- Molecular, Cellular and Developmental biology department (MCD), Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPSToulouseFrance
| | - Cathy Soula
- Molecular, Cellular and Developmental biology department (MCD), Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPSToulouseFrance
| | - François Médevielle
- Molecular, Cellular and Developmental biology department (MCD), Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPSToulouseFrance
| | | | - Ariane Trescases
- Institut de Mathématiques de Toulouse UMR 5219, Université de ToulouseToulouseFrance
| | - Bertrand Bénazéraf
- Molecular, Cellular and Developmental biology department (MCD), Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPSToulouseFrance
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11
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Narayanan R, Mendieta-Serrano MA, Saunders TE. The role of cellular active stresses in shaping the zebrafish body axis. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2021; 73:69-77. [PMID: 34303916 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2021.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Tissue remodelling and organ shaping during morphogenesis are products of mechanical forces generated at the cellular level. These cell-scale forces can be coordinated across the tissue via information provided by biochemical and mechanical cues. Such coordination leads to the generation of complex tissue shape during morphogenesis. In this short review, we elaborate the role of cellular active stresses in vertebrate axis morphogenesis, primarily using examples from postgastrulation development of the zebrafish embryo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachna Narayanan
- Mechanobiology Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | | | - Timothy E Saunders
- Mechanobiology Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore; Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore; Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, A∗Star, Singapore; Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom.
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12
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Banavar SP, Carn EK, Rowghanian P, Stooke-Vaughan G, Kim S, Campàs O. Mechanical control of tissue shape and morphogenetic flows during vertebrate body axis elongation. Sci Rep 2021; 11:8591. [PMID: 33883563 PMCID: PMC8060277 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-87672-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Shaping embryonic tissues into their functional morphologies requires cells to control the physical state of the tissue in space and time. While regional variations in cellular forces or cell proliferation have been typically assumed to be the main physical factors controlling tissue morphogenesis, recent experiments have revealed that spatial variations in the tissue physical (fluid/solid) state play a key role in shaping embryonic tissues. Here we theoretically study how the regional control of fluid and solid tissue states guides morphogenetic flows to shape the extending vertebrate body axis. Our results show that both the existence of a fluid-to-solid tissue transition along the anteroposterior axis and the tissue surface tension determine the shape of the tissue and its ability to elongate unidirectionally, with large tissue tensions preventing unidirectional elongation and promoting blob-like tissue expansions. We predict both the tissue morphogenetic flows and stresses that enable unidirectional axis elongation. Our results show the existence of a sharp transition in the structure of morphogenetic flows, from a flow with no vortices to a flow with two counter-rotating vortices, caused by a transition in the number and location of topological defects in the flow field. Finally, comparing the theoretical predictions to quantitative measurements of both tissue flows and shape during zebrafish body axis elongation, we show that the observed morphogenetic events can be explained by the existence of a fluid-to-solid tissue transition along the anteroposterior axis. These results highlight the role of spatiotemporally-controlled fluid-to-solid transitions in the tissue state as a physical mechanism of embryonic morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samhita P Banavar
- Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
- Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Emmet K Carn
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - Payam Rowghanian
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - Georgina Stooke-Vaughan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - Sangwoo Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - Otger Campàs
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA.
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA.
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA.
- Center for Bioengineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA.
- Cluster of Excellence Physics of Life, TU Dresden, 01062, Dresden, Germany.
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13
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Genuth MA, Holley SA. Mechanics as a Means of Information Propagation in Development. Bioessays 2020; 42:e2000121. [PMID: 32885468 PMCID: PMC7722802 DOI: 10.1002/bies.202000121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Revised: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
New research demonstrates that mechanics can serve as a means of information propagation in developing embryos. Historically, the study of embryonic development has had a dichotomy between morphogens and pattern formation on the one hand and morphogenesis and mechanics on the other. Secreted signals are the preeminent means of information propagation between cells and used to control cell fate, while physical forces act downstream or in parallel to shape tissue morphogenesis. However, recent work has blurred this division of function by demonstrating that mechanics can serve as a means of information propagation. Adhesive or repulsive interactions can propagate through a tissue as a wave. These waves are rapid and directional and can be used to control the flux of cells through a developmental trajectory. Here, two examples are reviewed in which mechanics both guides and mediates morphogenesis and two examples in which mechanics intertwines with morphogens to regulate cell fate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam A Genuth
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Scott A Holley
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
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14
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Shaker MR, Lee JH, Park SH, Kim JY, Son GH, Son JW, Park BH, Rhyu IJ, Kim H, Sun W. Anteroposterior Wnt-RA Gradient Defines Adhesion and Migration Properties of Neural Progenitors in Developing Spinal Cord. Stem Cell Reports 2020; 15:898-911. [PMID: 32976767 PMCID: PMC7562945 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2020.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Revised: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian embryos exhibit a transition from head morphogenesis to trunk elongation to meet the demand of axial elongation. The caudal neural tube (NT) is formed with neural progenitors (NPCs) derived from neuromesodermal progenitors localized at the tail tip. However, the molecular and cellular basis of elongating NT morphogenesis is yet elusive. Here, we provide evidence that caudal NPCs exhibit strong adhesion affinity that is gradually decreased along the anteroposterior (AP) axis in mouse embryonic spinal cord and human cellular models. Strong cell-cell adhesion causes collective migration, allowing AP alignment of NPCs depending on their birthdate. We further validated that this axial adhesion gradient is associated with the extracellular matrix and is under the control of graded Wnt signaling emanating from tail buds and antagonistic retinoic acid (RA) signaling. These results suggest that progressive reduction of NPC adhesion along the AP axis is under the control of Wnt-RA molecular networks, which is essential for a proper elongation of the spinal cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed R Shaker
- Department of Anatomy, Brain Korea 21 Plus Program, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, 02841, Korea; Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology (AIBN), The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Ju-Hyun Lee
- Department of Anatomy, Brain Korea 21 Plus Program, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, 02841, Korea
| | - Si-Hyung Park
- Department of Anatomy, Brain Korea 21 Plus Program, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, 02841, Korea
| | - Joo Yeon Kim
- Department of Anatomy, Brain Korea 21 Plus Program, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, 02841, Korea
| | - Gi Hoon Son
- Department of Legal Medicine, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea; Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea
| | - Jong Wan Son
- Division of Quantum Phases and Devices, Department of Physics, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Bae Ho Park
- Division of Quantum Phases and Devices, Department of Physics, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Im Joo Rhyu
- Department of Anatomy, Brain Korea 21 Plus Program, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, 02841, Korea
| | - Hyun Kim
- Department of Anatomy, Brain Korea 21 Plus Program, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, 02841, Korea
| | - Woong Sun
- Department of Anatomy, Brain Korea 21 Plus Program, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, 02841, Korea.
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15
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Mechanical Coupling Coordinates the Co-elongation of Axial and Paraxial Tissues in Avian Embryos. Dev Cell 2020; 55:354-366.e5. [PMID: 32918876 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2020.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Revised: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Tissues undergoing morphogenesis impose mechanical effects on one another. How developmental programs adapt to or take advantage of these effects remains poorly explored. Here, using a combination of live imaging, modeling, and microsurgical perturbations, we show that the axial and paraxial tissues in the forming avian embryonic body coordinate their rates of elongation through mechanical interactions. First, a cell motility gradient drives paraxial presomitic mesoderm (PSM) expansion, resulting in compression of the axial neural tube and notochord; second, elongation of axial tissues driven by PSM compression and polarized cell intercalation pushes the caudal progenitor domain posteriorly; finally, the axial push drives the lateral movement of midline PSM cells to maintain PSM growth and cell motility. These interactions form an engine-like positive feedback loop, which sustains a shared elongation rate for coupled tissues. Our results demonstrate a key role of inter-tissue forces in coordinating distinct body axis tissues during their co-elongation.
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16
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Bhavna R. Segmentation clock dynamics is strongly synchronized in the forming somite. Dev Biol 2020; 460:55-69. [PMID: 30926261 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2019.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2018] [Revised: 03/13/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
During vertebrate somitogenesis an inherent segmentation clock coordinates the spatiotemporal signaling to generate segmented structures that pattern the body axis. Using our experimental and quantitative approach, we study the cell movements and the genetic oscillations of her1 expression level at single-cell resolution simultaneously and scale up to the entire pre-somitic mesoderm (PSM) tissue. From the experimentally determined phases of PSM cellular oscillators, we deduced an in vivo frequency profile gradient along the anterior-posterior PSM axis and inferred precise mathematical relations between spatial cell-level period and tissue-level somitogenesis period. We also confirmed a gradient in the relative velocities of cellular oscillators along the axis. The phase order parameter within an ensemble of oscillators revealed the degree of synchronization in the tailbud and the posterior PSM being only partial, whereas synchronization can be almost complete in the presumptive somite region but with temporal oscillations. Collectively, the degree of synchronization itself, possibly regulated by cell movement and the synchronized temporal phase of the transiently expressed clock protein Her1, can be an additional control mechanism for making precise somite boundaries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajasekaran Bhavna
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, 01307, Dresden, Germany; Max Planck Institute for the Physics of Complex Systems, 01187, Dresden, Germany; Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, 400005, Mumbai, India.
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17
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Mongera A, Michaut A, Guillot C, Xiong F, Pourquié O. Mechanics of Anteroposterior Axis Formation in Vertebrates. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 2019; 35:259-283. [PMID: 31412208 PMCID: PMC7394480 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-cellbio-100818-125436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The vertebrate anteroposterior axis forms through elongation of multiple tissues during embryogenesis. This process is based on tissue-autonomous mechanisms of force generation and intertissue mechanical coupling whose failure leads to severe developmental anomalies such as body truncation and spina bifida. Similar to other morphogenetic modules, anteroposterior body extension requires both the rearrangement of existing materials-such as cells and extracellular matrix-and the local addition of new materials, i.e., anisotropic growth, through cell proliferation, cell growth, and matrix deposition. Numerous signaling pathways coordinate body axis formation via regulation of cell behavior during tissue rearrangements and/or volumetric growth. From a physical perspective, morphogenesis depends on both cell-generated forces and tissue material properties. As the spatiotemporal variation of these mechanical parameters has recently been explored in the context of vertebrate body elongation, the study of this process is likely to shed light on the cross talk between signaling and mechanics during morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Mongera
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, and Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA;
| | - Arthur Michaut
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, and Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA;
| | - Charlène Guillot
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, and Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA;
| | - Fengzhu Xiong
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, and Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA;
| | - Olivier Pourquié
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, and Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA;
- Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
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18
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Mosaliganti KR, Swinburne IA, Chan CU, Obholzer ND, Green AA, Tanksale S, Mahadevan L, Megason SG. Size control of the inner ear via hydraulic feedback. eLife 2019; 8:39596. [PMID: 31571582 PMCID: PMC6773445 DOI: 10.7554/elife.39596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Animals make organs of precise size, shape, and symmetry but how developing embryos do this is largely unknown. Here, we combine quantitative imaging, physical theory, and physiological measurement of hydrostatic pressure and fluid transport in zebrafish to study size control of the developing inner ear. We find that fluid accumulation creates hydrostatic pressure in the lumen leading to stress in the epithelium and expansion of the otic vesicle. Pressure, in turn, inhibits fluid transport into the lumen. This negative feedback loop between pressure and transport allows the otic vesicle to change growth rate to control natural or experimentally-induced size variation. Spatiotemporal patterning of contractility modulates pressure-driven strain for regional tissue thinning. Our work connects molecular-driven mechanisms, such as osmotic pressure driven strain and actomyosin tension, to the regulation of tissue morphogenesis via hydraulic feedback to ensure robust control of organ size. Editorial note: This article has been through an editorial process in which the authors decide how to respond to the issues raised during peer review. The Reviewing Editor's assessment is that all the issues have been addressed (see decision letter).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ian A Swinburne
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, United States
| | - Chon U Chan
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, United States
| | - Nikolaus D Obholzer
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, United States
| | - Amelia A Green
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, United States
| | - Shreyas Tanksale
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, United States
| | - L Mahadevan
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, United States.,Department of Organismal and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, United States.,Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, United States.,Kavli Institute for NanoBio Science and Technology, Harvard University, Cambridge, United States
| | - Sean G Megason
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, United States
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19
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Abstract
Consistent asymmetries between the left and right sides of animal bodies are common. For example, the internal organs of vertebrates are left-right (L-R) asymmetric in a stereotyped fashion. Other structures, such as the skeleton and muscles, are largely symmetric. This Review considers how symmetries and asymmetries form alongside each other within the embryo, and how they are then maintained during growth. I describe how asymmetric signals are generated in the embryo. Using the limbs and somites as major examples, I then address mechanisms for protecting symmetrically forming tissues from asymmetrically acting signals. These examples reveal that symmetry should not be considered as an inherent background state, but instead must be actively maintained throughout multiple phases of embryonic patterning and organismal growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel T Grimes
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Department of Biology, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403, USA
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20
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Organization of Embryonic Morphogenesis via Mechanical Information. Dev Cell 2019; 49:829-839.e5. [PMID: 31178400 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2019.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Revised: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Embryonic organizers establish gradients of diffusible signaling molecules to pattern the surrounding cells. Here, we elucidate an additional mechanism of embryonic organizers that is a secondary consequence of morphogen signaling. Using pharmacological and localized transgenic perturbations, 4D imaging of the zebrafish embryo, systematic analysis of cell motion, and computational modeling, we find that the vertebrate tail organizer orchestrates morphogenesis over distances beyond the range of morphogen signaling. The organizer regulates the rate and coherence of cell motion in the elongating embryo using mechanical information that is transmitted via relay between neighboring cells. This mechanism is similar to a pressure front in granular media and other jammed systems, but in the embryo the mechanical information emerges from self-propelled cell movement and not force transfer between cells. The propagation likely relies upon local biochemical signaling that affects cell contractility, cell adhesion, and/or cell polarity but is independent of transcription and translation.
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21
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Kayser J, Schreck CF, Yu Q, Gralka M, Hallatschek O. Emergence of evolutionary driving forces in pattern-forming microbial populations. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019; 373:rstb.2017.0106. [PMID: 29632260 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2017.0106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Evolutionary dynamics are controlled by a number of driving forces, such as natural selection, random genetic drift and dispersal. In this perspective article, we aim to emphasize that these forces act at the population level, and that it is a challenge to understand how they emerge from the stochastic and deterministic behaviour of individual cells. Even the most basic steric interactions between neighbouring cells can couple evolutionary outcomes of otherwise unrelated individuals, thereby weakening natural selection and enhancing random genetic drift. Using microbial examples of varying degrees of complexity, we demonstrate how strongly cell-cell interactions influence evolutionary dynamics, especially in pattern-forming systems. As pattern formation itself is subject to evolution, we propose to study the feedback between pattern formation and evolutionary dynamics, which could be key to predicting and potentially steering evolutionary processes. Such an effort requires extending the systems biology approach from the cellular to the population scale.This article is part of the theme issue 'Self-organization in cell biology'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jona Kayser
- Department of Physics, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.,Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Carl F Schreck
- Department of Physics, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.,Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - QinQin Yu
- Department of Physics, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Matti Gralka
- Department of Physics, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Oskar Hallatschek
- Department of Physics, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA .,Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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22
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Bénazéraf B. Dynamics and mechanisms of posterior axis elongation in the vertebrate embryo. Cell Mol Life Sci 2019; 76:89-98. [PMID: 30283977 PMCID: PMC11105343 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-018-2927-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
During development, the vertebrate embryo undergoes significant morphological changes which lead to its future body form and functioning organs. One of these noticeable changes is the extension of the body shape along the antero-posterior (A-P) axis. This A-P extension, while taking place in multiple embryonic tissues of the vertebrate body, involves the same basic cellular behaviors: cell proliferation, cell migration (of new progenitors from a posterior stem zone), and cell rearrangements. However, the nature and the relative contribution of these different cellular behaviors to A-P extension appear to vary depending upon the tissue in which they take place and on the stage of embryonic development. By focusing on what is known in the neural and mesodermal tissues of the bird embryo, I review the influences of cellular behaviors in posterior tissue extension. In this context, I discuss how changes in distinct cell behaviors can be coordinated at the tissue level (and between tissues) to synergize, build, and elongate the posterior part of the embryonic body. This multi-tissue framework does not only concern axis elongation, as it could also be generalized to morphogenesis of any developing organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bertrand Bénazéraf
- Centre de Biologie du Développement (CBD), Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France.
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23
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Information flow in the presence of cell mixing and signaling delays during embryonic development. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2018; 93:26-35. [PMID: 30261318 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2018.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Revised: 09/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Embryonic morphogenesis is organized by an interplay between intercellular signaling and cell movements. Both intercellular signaling and cell movement involve multiple timescales. A key timescale for signaling is the time delay caused by preparation of signaling molecules and integration of received signals into cells' internal state. Movement of cells relative to their neighbors may introduce exchange of positions between cells during signaling. When cells change their relative positions in a tissue, the impact of signaling delays on intercellular signaling increases because the delayed information that cells receive may significantly differ from the present state of the tissue. The time it takes to perform a neighbor exchange sets a timescale of cell mixing that may be important for the outcome of signaling. Here we review recent theoretical work on the interplay of timescales between cell mixing and signaling delays adopting the zebrafish segmentation clock as a model system. We discuss how this interplay can lead to spatial patterns of gene expression that could disrupt the normal formation of segment boundaries in the embryo. The effect of cell mixing and signaling delays highlights the importance of theoretical and experimental frameworks to understand collective cellular behaviors arising from the interplay of multiple timescales in embryonic developmental processes.
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24
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Blanchard GB, Fletcher AG, Schumacher LJ. The devil is in the mesoscale: Mechanical and behavioural heterogeneity in collective cell movement. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2018; 93:46-54. [PMID: 29940338 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2018.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Revised: 06/15/2018] [Accepted: 06/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Heterogeneity within cell populations can be an important aspect affecting their collective movement and tissue-mechanical properties, determining for example their effective viscoelasticity. Differences in cell-level properties and behaviour within a group of moving cells can give rise to unexpected and non-intuitive behaviours at the tissue level. Such emergent phenomena often manifest themselves through spatiotemporal patterns at an intermediate 'mesoscale' between cell and tissue scales, typically involving tens of cells. Focussing on the development of embryonic animal tissues, we review recent evidence for the importance of heterogeneity at the mesoscale for collective cell migration and convergence and extension movements. We further discuss approaches to incorporate heterogeneity into computational models to complement experimental investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guy B Blanchard
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3DY, UK.
| | - Alexander G Fletcher
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Sheffield, Hicks Building, Hounsfield Road, Sheffield, S3 7RH, UK; Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Firth Court, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK.
| | - Linus J Schumacher
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK.
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