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Bedillion MF, Claus ED, Wemm SE, Fox HC, Ansell EB. The effects of simultaneous alcohol and cannabis use on subjective drug effects: A narrative review across methodologies. ALCOHOL, CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 48:988-999. [PMID: 38641546 PMCID: PMC11238947 DOI: 10.1111/acer.15322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2024] [Accepted: 03/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/21/2024]
Abstract
Over 75% of young adults who use cannabis also report drinking alcohol, leading to increased risks that include impaired cognition, substance use disorders, and more heavy and frequent substance use. Studies suggest that subjective responses to either alcohol or cannabis can serve as a valuable indicator for identifying individuals at risk of prolonged substance use and use disorder. While laboratory studies show additive effects when alcohol and cannabis are used together, the impact of co-using these substances, specifically with respect to cannabidiol, on an individual's subjective experience remains unclear. This narrative review explores the effects of simultaneous alcohol and cannabis (SAM) use on subjective drug effects, drawing from qualitative research, laboratory experiments, and naturalistic studies. Experimental findings are inconsistent regarding the combined effects of alcohol and cannabis, likely influenced by factors such as dosage, method of administration, and individual substance use histories. Similarly, findings from qualitative and naturalistic studies are mixed regarding subjective drug effects following SAM use. These discrepancies may be due to recall biases, variations in assessment methods, and the measurement in real-world contexts of patterns of SAM use and related experiences. Overall, this narrative review highlights the need for more comprehensive research to understand more fully subjective drug effects of SAM use in diverse populations and settings, emphasizing the importance of frequent and nuanced assessment of SAM use and subjective responses in naturalistic settings.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eric D Claus
- The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | - Helen C Fox
- Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA
| | - Emily B Ansell
- The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
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2
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Liu C, Filbey FM. Unlocking the age-old secrets of reward and substance use. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2024; 239:173766. [PMID: 38604456 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2024.173766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Revised: 03/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Abstract
Although substance use is widespread across the lifespan from early adolescence to older adulthood, the prevalence of substance use disorder (SUD) differs between age groups. These age differences in SUD rates necessitate an investigation into how age moderates reward sensitivity, and consequently influences the risks and consequences related to substance use. This theoretical review integrates evidence from the literature to address the dynamic interplay between age and reward in the context of substance use. Overall, increasing evidence demonstrates that age moderates reward sensitivity and underlying reward system neurobiology. Reward sensitivity undergoes a non-linear trajectory across the lifespan. Low levels of reward sensitivity are associated with childhood and late adulthood. In contrast, high levels are associated with early to late adolescence, followed by a decline in the twenties. These fluctuations in reward sensitivity across the lifespan contribute to complex associations with substance use. This lends support to adolescence and young adulthood as vulnerable periods for the risk of subsequent SUD. More empirical research is needed to investigate reward sensitivity during SUD maintenance and recovery. Future research should also involve larger sample sizes and encompass a broader range of age groups, including older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Che Liu
- School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, The University of Texas at Dallas, Dallas, TX 75235, United States of America.
| | - Francesca M Filbey
- School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, The University of Texas at Dallas, Dallas, TX 75235, United States of America
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3
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Gresko SA, Rieselbach M, Corley RP, Hopfer CJ, Stallings MC, Hewitt JK, Rhee SH. Subjective effects as predictors of substance use disorders in a clinical sample: A longitudinal study. Drug Alcohol Depend 2023; 249:110822. [PMID: 37331303 PMCID: PMC10851615 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2023.110822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The literature on the association between subjective effects (SEs; i.e., how an individual perceives their physiological and psychological reactions to a drug) and substance use disorders (SUDs) is largely limited to community samples. The present study addressed the following aims in a clinical sample: whether SEs predict general versus substance-specific SUD in adolescence and adulthood after controlling for conduct disorder symptoms (CDsymp); whether SEs predict SUDs across drug classes; whether SEs predict change in SUD from adolescence to adulthood; and whether there are racial/ethnic differences in associations. METHODS Longitudinal analyses were conducted using data from a sample of 744 clinical probands recruited from residential and outpatient SUD treatment facilities in CO during adolescence (Mage = 16.26) and re-assessed twice in adulthood (Mages = 22.56 and 28.96), approximately seven and twelve years after first assessment. SEs and CDsymp were assessed in adolescence. SUD severity was assessed at adolescence and twice during adulthood. RESULTS SEs assessed in adolescence robustly predicted general SUD for legal and illegal substances in adolescence and adulthood, whereas CDsymp predicted SUD primarily in adolescence. Higher positive and negative SEs in adolescence were associated with greater SUD severity after controlling for CDsymp, with similar magnitudes. Results indicated cross-substance effects of SEs on SUD. We found no evidence for racial/ethnic differences in associations. CONCLUSIONS We investigated the progression of SUD in a high-risk sample with greater odds of sustained SUD. In contrast to CDsymp, both positive and negative SEs consistently predicted general SUD across substances in adolescence and adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley A Gresko
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, United States; Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, United States.
| | - Maya Rieselbach
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, United States; Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, United States
| | - Robin P Corley
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, United States
| | - Christian J Hopfer
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, United States; University of Colorado Denver Medical School, United States
| | - Michael C Stallings
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, United States; Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, United States
| | - John K Hewitt
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, United States; Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, United States
| | - Soo Hyun Rhee
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, United States; Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, United States
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4
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Spinella TC, Bartholomeusz J, Stewart SH, Barrett SP. Perceptions about THC and CBD effects among adults with and without prior cannabis experience. Addict Behav 2023; 137:107508. [PMID: 36270038 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cannabis is associated with a range of therapeutic and non-therapeutic, positive and negative effects. While some benefits and harms may be specific to individual cannabinoid constituents (THC, CBD), individual expectancies may also play a role. OBJECTIVES Evaluate the extent to which individuals hold expectancies about the effects of CBD, THC, and THC & CBD combined, and whether this differs with prior cannabis experience. METHODS Canadian adults (N = 345; n = 58 no prior cannabis use, n = 287 prior cannabis use) completed a Qualtrics survey. Participants provided information regarding their expectancies about the effects of cannabinoids (THC, CBD, THC & CBD combined) via a 15-item questionnaire, which included various therapeutic (e.g., helps with pain) and non-therapeutic positive (e.g., enhances positive feelings) and negative (e.g., risk for addiction) effects. They recorded their perceptions about the effects of each cannabinoid on a scale (0="definitely not true", 10="definitely true"). Data was analyzed using linear mixed models. RESULTS For most therapeutic effects, CBD-containing products (CBD, THC & CBD) were rated higher than THC. For most positive and negative non-therapeutic effects, THC-containing products (THC, THC & CBD) were rated higher than CBD. Those with prior cannabis use (vs no prior use) rated all cannabinoids higher regarding their association with many therapeutic and positive effects, while endorsing weaker expectancies about their role in some negative effects. CONCLUSIONS Adults endorsed stronger expectancies that CBD-containing products are responsible for producing a rage of therapeutic effects. Those with prior cannabis use experience tended to emphasize the benefits and minimize potential harmful effects of cannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toni C Spinella
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Jeremy Bartholomeusz
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Sherry H Stewart
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Sean P Barrett
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
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5
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Schnell T, Grömm CM, Klöckner N. Predictive impact of different acute cannabis intoxication effects with regard to abstinence motivation and cessation of use. Sci Rep 2023; 13:709. [PMID: 36639397 PMCID: PMC9839715 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-27592-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabis use is a common risk factor for psychoses. But although prevalence of consumption as well as potency of cannabis increased, the incidence of schizophrenia remained stable. The discontinuation hypothesis suggests that a potential increase of psychoses incidence may be relativized by more frequent cessation of consumption due to higher rates of adverse psychosis-like intoxication effects (PLE), caused by stronger cannabis. A mixed methods online survey was administered to 441 current and past users to analyze the predictive impact of different acute intoxication effects regarding abstinence motivation/cessation of use. Our hypothesis was that PLE would be experienced as the most aversive intoxication effect and therefore have the highest predictive significance. Possible confounds were included (craving, patterns of consumption and sociodemographics). Further analyzes compared past versus current users regarding the quality of intoxication effects, suggesting that past users retrospectively experienced more unpleasant experiences than current users. Free-text data explored subjective reasons for abstinence. We found that paranoid/dysphoric intoxication effects were most predictive for abstinence motivation. Less predictive were psychosis-like intoxication effects such as hallucinations. Group comparisons revealed significant more unpleasurable and less positive intoxication effects in past users compared with current users. Current users with the intention to stop consumption showed significantly more paranoia/dysphoria intoxication compared to users with no intention to stop use. As a conclusion, different intoxication experiences have different effects on abstinence motivation and substance use behavior. They therefore provide a focus that should be increasingly integrated into treatment concepts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Schnell
- Medical School Hamburg, University of Applied Sciences and Medical University, Am Kaiserkai 1, 20457, Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Christina-Marie Grömm
- Medical School Hamburg, University of Applied Sciences and Medical University, Am Kaiserkai 1, 20457, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Nils Klöckner
- Medical School Hamburg, University of Applied Sciences and Medical University, Am Kaiserkai 1, 20457, Hamburg, Germany
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Stone BM. A positive psychology framework for why people use substances: Implications for treatment. Front Psychol 2022; 13:1017186. [PMID: 36248491 PMCID: PMC9557359 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1017186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Bryant M. Stone
- Department of Psychological and Behavioral Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States
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7
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Fleming CB, Graupensperger S, Calhoun BH, Lee CM. Alcohol Use Motives and Cannabis Use among Young Adults: Between- and Within-Person Associations Based on Monthly Data from a Community Sample. Subst Use Misuse 2022; 57:1673-1680. [PMID: 35938742 PMCID: PMC9536187 DOI: 10.1080/10826084.2022.2107672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Objective: Alcohol use motives may characterize types of drinking that have unique associations with cannabis use and illuminate psychological processes underlying cannabis use. This study examined how alcohol use motives, both on average across two years and in a particular month, were associated with any and frequent cannabis use. Method: A young adult community sample (n = 486; 54% female, age 18-23 at enrollment) who used alcohol and cannabis in the year prior to study enrollment provided two years of monthly data. Multilevel logistic regression models predicting any and frequent (10+ occasions) past-month cannabis use estimated both between- and within-person effects of alcohol use motives, controlling for frequency of alcohol use and demographic covariates. Results: Alcohol use frequency was positively associated with any cannabis use at the between- and within-person levels and frequent cannabis use at the within-person level. Across two years, individuals who had higher average coping drinking motives and lower average social and conformity drinking motives were more likely to use cannabis frequently. Further, between-person variation in social motives was negatively associated with any cannabis use. Within-person, months with greater enhancement and social motives were associated with higher probability of any cannabis use. Conclusions: Using alcohol for coping reasons, rather than other-focused social reasons, indicated greater risk for frequent cannabis use, although drinking for social and enhancement reasons in a particular month signaled slightly increased short-term probability of any cannabis use. Assessment of alcohol motives may help guide targeting and timing of prevention related to cannabis use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles B. Fleming
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Scott Graupensperger
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Brian H. Calhoun
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Christine M. Lee
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
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Bosnyak D, McDonald AC, Gasperin Haaz I, Qi W, Crowley DC, Guthrie N, Evans M. Use of a Novel EEG-Based Objective Test, the Cognalyzer ®, in Quantifying the Strength and Determining the Action Time of Cannabis Psychoactive Effects and Factors that May Influence Them Within an Observational Study Framework. Neurol Ther 2022; 11:51-72. [PMID: 34727345 PMCID: PMC8857346 DOI: 10.1007/s40120-021-00293-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Current methods to detect recent delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) use cannot objectively quantify its psychoactive effects (PE). The Cognalyzer®, an electroencephalography (EEG)-based method, detects and quantifies the strength of THC-induced PE on a scale from 0 to 100%. This study assesses the relationship between the magnitude of Cognalyzer® PE predictions and reported subjective drug effects for 4-h post-cannabis inhalation. METHODS Seventy-five participants were enrolled in the study. Prior to ad libitum cannabis inhalation, an EEG recording episode was completed. Immediately after inhalation, the Drug Effects Questionnaire (DEQ) was administered and another EEG recording performed. For 25 participants, the study ended. For 50 participants, assessments were repeated at 30-min intervals for 4 h. EEG files were blinded and analyzed using two versions of the Cognalyzer® algorithm. The relationship between the Cognalyzer® PE level results and the DEQ was assessed using generalized linear models and multiple regression. RESULTS There were significant PE increases from pre-cannabis for up to 3.5 h. Mean reports of feeling drug effects were > 0 at all post-inhalation time points (p ≤ 0.024). Furthermore, there were significant relationships between the Cognalyzer® PE and self-reported perception of drug effects (p ≤ 0.001). Subgroup analysis showed that Cognalyzer® PE levels were impacted by cannabis use history, subjective ratings of drug effects, oral fluid THC concentration and the cannabis product inhaled. CONCLUSION The findings show that the Cognalyzer® can be used to objectively determine the strength of cannabis psychoactive effects that cannabis products create on consumers and how it changes depending on their experience with cannabis. The Cognalyzer® can be used to conduct scientific consumer research to generate trustworthy informational material about the psychoactive experience of cannabis products. For clinical research, the Cognalyzer® can be used to study the pharmacodynamics of cannabinoids or delivery systems, such as nano-emulsifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Bosnyak
- Zentrela Inc. Suite B21, 175 Longwood Rd S, Hamilton, ON, L8P 0A1, Canada.
| | | | | | - Weikai Qi
- Zentrela Inc. Suite B21, 175 Longwood Rd S, Hamilton, ON, L8P 0A1, Canada
| | - David C Crowley
- KGK Science Inc., 255 Queens Ave, London, ON, N6A 5R8, Canada
| | - Najla Guthrie
- KGK Science Inc., 255 Queens Ave, London, ON, N6A 5R8, Canada
| | - Malkanthi Evans
- KGK Science Inc., 255 Queens Ave, London, ON, N6A 5R8, Canada
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9
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Pabon E, Rockwood F, Norman GJ, de Wit H. Acute effects of oral delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) on autonomic cardiac activity and their relation to subjective and anxiogenic effects. Psychophysiology 2022; 59:e13955. [PMID: 34665890 PMCID: PMC8724445 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis is the most commonly used psychotropic drug in the United States, after alcohol. Despite its apparent sedative and calming effects, cannabis and its main psychoactive constituent, ∆9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) can produce serious adverse effects including tachycardia and anxiety. These effects can be especially pronounced in women, who remain underrepresented in clinical cannabinoid research. The present study is one of the first to characterize the effects of single doses of oral THC on autonomic nervous system function in healthy adult women. Occasional female cannabis users participated in three laboratory sessions in which they received oral THC (7.5 and 15 mg) and placebo. Autonomic measures included heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP), pre-ejection period (PEP) a measure of cardiac sympathetic functioning, and high frequency heart rate variability (HF-HRV) a measure of parasympathetic cardiac control. Autonomic responses were examined in relation to subjective drug effects. THC dose-dependently increased HR, decreased HF-HRV, and increased ratings of feeling a drug effect, cannabis-like intoxication, and anxiety. Although the drug did not significantly affect BP or PEP, HR was negatively related to both PEP and HF-HRV. HF-HRV, the measure of parasympathetic activity, was significantly negatively related to subjective measures of cannabis intoxication (but not anxiety) at the 15 mg dose only. PEP was not significantly related to any subjective measure. These results extend our knowledge of the autonomic effects of THC in relation to subjective drug experience. This and future studies will help us to understand risk factors related to cannabis use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Pabon
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA,Corresponding author: Elisa Pabon, B.S., Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, 5841 S Maryland Avenue, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA, Phone: 773-702-7611;
| | | | - Greg J. Norman
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Harriet de Wit
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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10
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Bourgault Z, Matheson J, Mann RE, Brands B, Wickens CM, Tiwari AK, Zai CC, Kennedy J, Le Foll B. Mu opioid receptor gene variant modulates subjective response to smoked cannabis. Am J Transl Res 2022; 14:623-632. [PMID: 35173880 PMCID: PMC8829626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The mu-opioid receptor (MOR) mediates the rewarding properties of many psychoactive drugs and is an important target in the treatment of addictions. Functional interactions between the opioid and endocannabinoid systems are established and have been hypothesized to contribute to the effects of cannabis. We investigated associations between three single nucleotide polymorphisms in the MOR gene OPRM1 (rs1799971, rs2281617, and rs510769) and subjective responses to smoked cannabis. Fifty-two regular cannabis users (1-4 days/week) were given a cannabis cigarette (12.5% THC) and rated their subjective responses on visual analog scales at baseline and at multiple time points after smoking. Blood samples were collected for THC quantification. There was a significant impact of the intronic variant rs510769 on subjective cannabis effects and THC blood levels. The influence of this gene variant may thus be mediated by pharmacodynamics and/or pharmacokinetic factors. We provide novel evidence that variability in OPRM1 contributes to individual responses to cannabis and may affect risk of cannabis use disorder. Our findings add to the growing body of literature on the genetic basis of individual responses to cannabis and may have implications for targeting the endogenous opioid system in the treatment of cannabis use disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoe Bourgault
- Translational Addiction Research Laboratory, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, University of Toronto33 Ursula Franklin Street, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada
| | - Justin Matheson
- Translational Addiction Research Laboratory, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, University of Toronto33 Ursula Franklin Street, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Robert E Mann
- Institute for Mental Health Policy Research, Centre for Addiction and Mental HealthToronto, Canada
- Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental HealthToronto, Ontario, Canada
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of TorontoToronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Bruna Brands
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada
- Institute for Mental Health Policy Research, Centre for Addiction and Mental HealthToronto, Canada
- Controlled Substances and Cannabis Directorate, Health CanadaOttawa, Canada
| | - Christine M Wickens
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada
- Institute for Mental Health Policy Research, Centre for Addiction and Mental HealthToronto, Canada
- Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental HealthToronto, Ontario, Canada
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of TorontoToronto, Ontario, Canada
- Institute of Health Policy, Management and Evaluation, University of TorontoToronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Arun K Tiwari
- Neurogenetics Section, Tanenbaum Centre for Pharmacogenetics, Molecular Brain Science, Campbell Family Mental Health Research InstituteCAMH, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada
| | - Clement C Zai
- Neurogenetics Section, Tanenbaum Centre for Pharmacogenetics, Molecular Brain Science, Campbell Family Mental Health Research InstituteCAMH, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada
- Institute of Medical Science, University of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada
- Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of TorontoON, Canada
- T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard UniversityBoston, MA, USA
- Broad InstituteCambridge, MA, USA
| | - James Kennedy
- Neurogenetics Section, Tanenbaum Centre for Pharmacogenetics, Molecular Brain Science, Campbell Family Mental Health Research InstituteCAMH, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada
- Institute of Medical Science, University of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada
| | - Bernard Le Foll
- Translational Addiction Research Laboratory, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, University of Toronto33 Ursula Franklin Street, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada
- Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental HealthToronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada
- Institute of Medical Science, University of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada
- Acute Care Program, Centre for Addiction and Mental HealthToronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada
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11
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Carlyle M, Constable T, Walter ZC, Wilson J, Newland G, Hides L. Cannabis-induced dysphoria/paranoia mediates the link between childhood trauma and psychotic-like experiences in young cannabis users. Schizophr Res 2021; 238:178-184. [PMID: 34717186 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2021.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Childhood trauma (abuse and neglect) is a major risk factor for cannabis use disorder and psychotic-spectrum disorders. Psychotic-like experiences (PLEs) in young people who use cannabis may be an early indicator of psychosis risk following cannabis use. We examined whether (i) childhood trauma moderates the association between cannabis use and PLEs, (ii) the association between childhood trauma and cannabis use is mediated by subjective effects of cannabis (euphoria and dysphoria/paranoia), and (iii) the association between childhood trauma and PLEs is also mediated by these subjective effects. Participants were 2630 cannabis users (aged 16-25) recruited online. They were asked to complete a cross-sectional survey measuring cannabis and other substance use, childhood trauma, PLEs, and the subjective effects of cannabis (euphoria and dysphoria/paranoia). A significant interaction indicated that the effect of cannabis on PLE frequency was stronger for individuals with more severe childhood trauma. Childhood trauma was also associated with greater cannabis use and PLE frequency, both of which were mediated by subjective dysphoria/paranoia when using the drug. This suggests childhood trauma is associated with greater PLEs in young people who use cannabis, which may be linked with an increased susceptibility to the dysphoric/paranoid subjective effects when using the drug. Childhood trauma should be addressed early in young people who use cannabis to mitigate the psychosis-associated harms of the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly Carlyle
- Lives Lived Well research group, School of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia; National Centre for Youth Substance Use Research, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
| | - Toby Constable
- Lives Lived Well research group, School of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Zoe C Walter
- Lives Lived Well research group, School of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia; National Centre for Youth Substance Use Research, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Joanna Wilson
- Lives Lived Well research group, School of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Grace Newland
- Lives Lived Well research group, School of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia; National Centre for Youth Substance Use Research, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Leanne Hides
- Lives Lived Well research group, School of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia; National Centre for Youth Substance Use Research, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
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12
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An Observational, Longitudinal Study of Cognition in Medical Cannabis Patients over the Course of 12 Months of Treatment: Preliminary Results. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2021; 27:648-660. [PMID: 34261553 DOI: 10.1017/s1355617721000114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Cannabis use has increased dramatically across the country; however, few studies have assessed the long-term impact of medical cannabis (MC) use on cognition. Studies examining recreational cannabis users generally report cognitive decrements, particularly in those with adolescent onset. As MC patients differ from recreational consumers in motives for use, product selection, and age of onset, we assessed cognitive and clinical measures in well-characterized MC patients over 1 year. Based on previous findings, we hypothesized MC patients would not show decrements and might instead demonstrate improvements in executive function over time. METHOD As part of an ongoing study, MC patients completed a baseline visit prior to initiating MC and evaluations following 3, 6, and 12 months of treatment. At each visit, patients completed a neurocognitive battery assessing executive function, verbal learning/memory, and clinical scales assessing mood, anxiety, and sleep. Exposure to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) was also quantified. RESULTS Relative to baseline, MC patients demonstrated significant improvements on measures of executive function and clinical state over the course of 12 months; verbal learning/memory performance generally remained stable. Improved cognitive performance was not correlated with MC use; however, clinical improvement was associated with higher CBD use. Analyses suggest cognitive improvements were associated with clinical improvement. CONCLUSIONS Study results extend previous pilot findings, indicating that MC patients may exhibit enhanced rather than impaired executive function over time. Future studies should examine distinctions between recreational and MC use to identify potential mechanisms related to cognitive changes and the role of clinical improvement.
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Rinehart L, Spencer S. Which came first: Cannabis use or deficits in impulse control? Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2021; 106:110066. [PMID: 32795592 PMCID: PMC7750254 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.110066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 07/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Impulse control deficits are often found to co-occur with substance use disorders (SUDs). On the one hand, it is well known that chronic intake of drugs of abuse remodels the brain with significant consequences for a range of cognitive behaviors. On the other hand, individual variation in impulse control may contribute to differences in susceptibility to SUDs. Both of these relationships have been described, thus leading to a "chicken or the egg" debate which remains to be fully resolved. Does impulsivity precede drug use or does it manifest as a function of problematic drug usage? The link between impulsivity and SUDs has been most strongly established for cocaine and alcohol use disorders using both preclinical models and clinical data. Much less is known about the potential link between impulsivity and cannabis use disorder (CUD) or the directionality of this relationship. The initiation of cannabis use occurs most often during adolescence prior to the brain's maturation, which is recognized as a critical period of development. The long-term effects of chronic cannabis use on the brain and behavior have started to be explored. In this review we will summarize these observations, especially as they pertain to the relationship between impulsivity and CUD, from both a psychological and biological perspective. We will discuss impulsivity as a multi-dimensional construct and attempt to reconcile the results obtained across modalities. Finally, we will discuss possible avenues for future research with emerging longitudinal data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Rinehart
- University of Minnesota, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
| | - Sade Spencer
- University of Minnesota, Department of Pharmacology, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
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Ewusi Boisvert E, Bae D, Pang RD, Davis JP, Kelley-Quon LI, Barrington-Trimis JL, Kirkpatrick MG, Chai SH, Leventhal AM. Subjective effects of combustible, vaporized, and edible cannabis: Results from a survey of adolescent cannabis users. Drug Alcohol Depend 2020; 206:107716. [PMID: 31718923 PMCID: PMC10408718 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.107716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Revised: 10/02/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Data from controlled laboratory experiments in adults indicate that the subjective effects of cannabis vary by administration method (e.g., combustible, vaporized). Whether the subjective effects of cannabis experienced in the natural ecology and among adolescents differ by cannabis administration method is unknown. In this observational study, adolescents' retrospective reports of subjective effects after combustible, edible, and vaporized cannabis use were examined. METHODS Students from ten public schools in Los Angeles, CA, USA (M[SD] age = 16.1 [.43] years) who reported past 6-month use of combustible, edible, or vaporized cannabis (N = 584) were surveyed on subjective effects experienced after use (yes/no). They were provided with a 12 item self-report checklist of six positive (e.g., relaxed, energetic) and six negative (e.g., drowsy, lazy) subjective effects. For each method of administration, affirmative responses were summed in positive (range: 0-6) and negative (range: 0-6) effect composite scores. RESULTS Generalized estimating equations adjusted for demographics and recent cannabis use revealed a graded pattern of differences in positive subjective effects across products, with highest scores for combustible (M[SD] = 3.98[1.76]), followed by edible (M[SD] = 3.58 [2.04]) and vaporized (M[SD] = 3.11 [2.21]) cannabis (all pairwise cross-product contrasts p < .01). Mean negative effect score was highest for edible (M[SD] = 2.27 [1.95]), followed by combustible (M[SD] = 1.94 [1.66]), and vaporized (M[SD] = 1.34 [1.73]) cannabis, respectively (all pairwise contrasts p < .02). CONCLUSION Adolescents' reports of subjective effects varied across cannabis administration methods. Combustible cannabis' more desirable subjective effects profile might be indicative of higher abuse liability.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dayoung Bae
- Department of Home Economics Education, College of Education, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Raina D Pang
- Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Jordan P Davis
- Department of Children, Youth, and Families, Suzanne Dworak-Peck School of Social Work, USC Center for Artificial Intelligence in Society, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Lorraine I Kelley-Quon
- Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States; Division of Pediatric Surgery, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States; Department of Surgery, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | | | - Matthew G Kirkpatrick
- Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Stephanie H Chai
- Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Adam M Leventhal
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States; Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States.
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4/20 Cannabis Use is Greater than Other High-Risk Events: Identification of Psychosocial Factors Related to 4/20 Use. COGNITIVE THERAPY AND RESEARCH 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10608-019-10019-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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16
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Zeiger JS, Silvers WS, Fleegler EM, Zeiger RS. Age related differences in cannabis use and subjective effects in a large population-based survey of adult athletes. J Cannabis Res 2019; 1:7. [PMID: 33526101 PMCID: PMC7819305 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-019-0006-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is a paucity of information regarding cannabis use behaviors in adult community-based athletes as most research in athletes has focused on misuse of cannabis in elite, adolescent, university-based athletes. We aimed to determine whether age related differences exist in patterns of cannabis use and subjective effects to cannabis in adult athletes. METHODS The Athlete PEACE Survey used mainly social media and email blasts to recruit and SurveyGizmo to collect data. Cannabis patterns of use (duration of use, frequency of use, routes of administration, cannabinoid used, concurrent use with exercise), benefits, and adverse effects were reported. Age was reported by decade from 21 to ≥60. Age trends in cannabis use patterns and subjective effects were assessed using linear trend analysis. RESULTS Of the 1161 participants, 301 (26%) athletes currently used cannabis. Younger athletes compared to older athletes reported significantly more positive and adverse subjective effects to cannabis, used cannabis longer, and used both tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol for medical and recreational purposes. Younger athletes used cannabis concurrently with exercise more often than older athletes and consumed edibles, vaporized, and smoked more than older athletes. CONCLUSIONS We found age-related cannabis patterns of use and subjective effects to cannabis. Concerns about cannabis mis-use and abuse in athletes maybe overstated with the potential benefits (improved sleep, decreased anxiety, less pain) outweighing the adverse effects (increased anxiety, increased appetite, difficulty concentrating).
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna S Zeiger
- Canna Research Group, 3996 Savannah Ct., Boulder, CO, 80301, USA.
| | - William S Silvers
- Canna Research Group, 3996 Savannah Ct., Boulder, CO, 80301, USA
- Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, 12700 E. 19th Ave., Room 10C03, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Edward M Fleegler
- Canna Research Group, 3996 Savannah Ct., Boulder, CO, 80301, USA
- To-Life in Peace, LLC, 3812 Taft Court, Wheat Ridge, Colorado, 80033, USA
| | - Robert S Zeiger
- Canna Research Group, 3996 Savannah Ct., Boulder, CO, 80301, USA
- Kaiser Permanente Southern California, 7060 Clairemont Mesa Blvd, San Diego, CA, 92111, USA
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Zeiger JS, Silvers WS, Fleegler EM, Zeiger RS. Cannabis use in active athletes: Behaviors related to subjective effects. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0218998. [PMID: 31251769 PMCID: PMC6598761 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0218998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis use has not been well characterized in athletes. Studies primarily examine problematic use or its categorization by anti-doping bodies as a banned substance. Patterns of use, reasons for use, and responses to cannabis consumption have not been studied in a community-based sample of adult athletes. The Athlete PEACE Survey examined cannabis use patterns and subjective effects to cannabis in a community-based cohort of adult athletes. We used mainly social media and email blasts to recruit and SurveyGizmo to collect data. 1,161 (91.1%) of the 1,274 athletes taking the survey completed it. Current cannabis use was evaluated by asking "In the past two weeks, have you used marijuana (including THC and/or CBD)?" and cannabis type used was assessed by asking "What do you primarily use THC, CBD, or both?". Cannabis benefits and adverse effects (i.e. subjective effects) and patterns of use were reported. 302 athletes (26%) currently use cannabis of whom 301 had complete data for cluster analysis. Cluster analysis was used to determine cannabis user phenotypes and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to create subjective effects factors. Associations between cannabis user phenotype clusters and the subjective effects factors were explored using multivariate analysis. Cluster analysis identified three statistically distinct cannabis user phenotypes: (1) older athletes who primarily use medical CBD, (2) mixed age athletes who use cannabis mainly recreationally with both THC and CBD use, and (3) mixed age athletes who used cannabis the longest with primary THC and CBD use. EFA showed three subjective effects factors: (1) Well-being, (2) Calm, and (3) Adverse. Mean positive subjective were higher than mean adverse subjective effects (p<0.001). The cluster using THC and CBD showed the highest mean scores for all three subjective effects factors (p<0.001). Athletes who use a combination of THC and CBD exhibited the most benefit to well-being and calm with minimal adverse effects. Our methodology can be used to develop real-world evidence to inform future use of medical cannabis products.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - William S. Silvers
- Canna Research Group, Boulder, CO, United States of America
- University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, United States of America
| | - Edward M. Fleegler
- Canna Research Group, Boulder, CO, United States of America
- To-Life in Peace, LLC, Wheat Ridge, CO, United States of America
| | - Robert S. Zeiger
- Canna Research Group, Boulder, CO, United States of America
- Kaiser Permanente Southern California, San Diego, CA, United States of America
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Sami M, Notley C, Kouimtsidis C, Lynskey M, Bhattacharyya S. Psychotic-like experiences with cannabis use predict cannabis cessation and desire to quit: a cannabis discontinuation hypothesis. Psychol Med 2019; 49:103-112. [PMID: 29566773 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291718000569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Evidence suggests that cannabis-induced psychotic-like experiences may be a marker of psychosis proneness. The effect of such experiences on cannabis use has not systematically been examined. METHODS We undertook a mixed-methods online survey of 1231 cannabis users (including 926 continued users) using the Cannabis Experiences Questionnaire. We examined the effect of psychotic-like and pleasurable experiences on cessation of cannabis and intention to quit. Socio-demographic variables, cannabis use parameters and substance misuse history were included as covariates. Free-text data explored subjective reasons for changes in use. RESULTS Cessation of cannabis use was associated with greater psychotic-like experiences [p < 0.001, Exp(B) 1.262, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.179-1.351], whilst continued cannabis users were more likely to report pleasurable experiences [p < 0.001, Exp(B) 0.717, 95% CI 0.662-0.776]. Intention to quit cannabis in continued users was associated with greater psychotic-like experiences [p < 0.003, Exp(B) 1.131, 95% CI 1.044-1.225], whilst intention to not quit was significantly associated with increased pleasurable experiences [p < 0.015, Exp(B) 0.892, 95% CI 0.814-0.978]. Whereas former users clearly ascribed cessation to negative experiences, continued users who expressed intention to quit less readily ascribed the intention to negative experiences. CONCLUSIONS Elucidation of psychotic-like experiences may form the basis of a therapeutic intervention for those who wish to quit. Cessation in those with cannabis-induced psychotomimetic experiences may offset the risk for the development of a psychotic disorder, in this higher risk group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Musa Sami
- Institute of Psychiatry,Psychology & Neuroscience,King's College London,UK
| | - Caitlin Notley
- Norwich Medical School,University of East Anglia,Norwich,UK
| | | | - Michael Lynskey
- National Addiction Centre,Addiction Sciences Building,King's College London,UK
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Yoder J, Caserta DA. Associations Between Substance Use in Commission of Sexual Crimes and Offense Characteristics Among Youth: Mitigating Effects of Substance Use Treatment. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF OFFENDER THERAPY AND COMPARATIVE CRIMINOLOGY 2018; 62:655-675. [PMID: 27252127 DOI: 10.1177/0306624x16651903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The small extant research base on substance use and youth sexual offending has very few descriptive details. Furthermore, research has yet to test associations between the use of substances in the commission of sexual crimes and offense-related characteristics and how substance use treatment can mitigate these effects. In a sample of residentially housed youth adjudicated of a sexual crime ( N = 332), prevalence patterns are broken down by type of substance use behavior. Sequential regression models are run to test the associations between substance use prior to a sexual crime and number of victims, sexual deviance, and non-sexual criminality. Substance use treatment is tested as a mitigating factor in these relationships. Results reveal high levels of family substance use, and high rates of alcohol, marijuana, and other substance use. There were associations between substance use prior to sexual criminality and sexual deviance and non-sexual criminality. Substance use treatment reduced the effects of substance use on non-sexual criminality. Research and treatment implications are offered.
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20
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Associations of anxiety sensitivity and emotional symptoms with the subjective effects of alcohol, cigarettes, and cannabis in adolescents. Addict Behav 2017; 73:192-198. [PMID: 28544955 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Revised: 05/15/2017] [Accepted: 05/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Maladaptive emotional traits (anxiety sensitivity [AS], fear of anxiety-related sensations and consequences) and symptoms (major depressive disorder [MDD] and generalized anxiety disorder [GAD] symptoms) could play a role in altering sensitivity to the subjective effects of drugs of abuse in adolescents. Data were drawn from a longitudinal study of high school students in Los Angeles, CA, USA who completed surveys and reported past six-month use of alcohol (n=1054), cigarettes (n=297), or cannabis (n=706). At each of the four semi-annual waves during mid-adolescence (14-16years old), students reported positive and negative subjective drug effects experienced in the prior six-months. Controlling for covariates and the simultaneous covariance across the three domains of emotional dysfunction, AS was associated with more positive and negative cannabis effects (βs=0.09-0.16, ps<0.05), and MDD symptoms were associated with fewer negative cigarette effects (β=-0.13, p=0.04) and more negative cannabis effects (β=0.10, p=0.004). The acceleration of positive alcohol and cannabis effects over time was slower among adolescents with higher baseline MDD (MDD×time: β=-0.04, p=0.044) and GAD (GAD×time: β=-0.05, p=0.03) symptoms, respectively. These findings suggest that emotional dysfunction factors show differential and overlapping effects on subjective drug effects, which may vary across time. Future research should investigate emotional dysfunctions and subjective drug effects in relation to substance use across adolescence and emerging adulthood.
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21
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Mathai DS, Verrico CD, Shorter D, Coverdale JH, Kosten TR. "Just one bad high:" considering synthetic cannabinoid outcome expectancies in adolescents. Am J Addict 2016; 25:620-622. [PMID: 27749024 DOI: 10.1111/ajad.12457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2016] [Revised: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 10/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES Certain medical consequences seem unique to synthetic cannabinoid (SC) and not cannabis use. We report the case of an adolescent, whose drug expectancies appear to minimize the severity of SC-related adverse events. METHODS/RESULTS An 18-year-old male presented with altered mental status and seizure, complicated by respiratory failure. He was stabilized and on discharge, despite counseling on the harms of SC usage, the patient planned to resume use, insisting that the hospitalization was "just one bad high". DISCUSSION/CONCLUSIONS/SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE Diminished negative expectancies related to SC use among adolescents may reflect generalizations from cannabis. Effective interventions should counter cannabis-related expectancies of minimal harm. (Am J Addict 2016;XX:1-3).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christopher D Verrico
- Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas.,Department of Neuroscience, Pharmacology, Immunology & Pathology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas.,Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Daryl Shorter
- Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas.,Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center, Houston, Texas
| | - John H Coverdale
- Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Thomas R Kosten
- Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas.,Department of Neuroscience, Pharmacology, Immunology & Pathology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas.,Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center, Houston, Texas
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22
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Gruber SA, Sagar KA, Dahlgren MK, Racine MT, Smith RT, Lukas SE. Splendor in the Grass? A Pilot Study Assessing the Impact of Medical Marijuana on Executive Function. Front Pharmacol 2016; 7:355. [PMID: 27790138 PMCID: PMC5062916 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2016.00355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Currently, 25 states and Washington DC have enacted full medical marijuana (MMJ) programs while 18 states allow limited access to MMJ products. Limited access states permit low (or zero) tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and high cannabidiol (CBD) products to treat specified conditions such as uncontrolled epilepsy. Although MMJ products are derived from the same plant species as recreational MJ, they are often selected for their unique cannabinoid constituents and ratios, not typically sought by recreational users, which may impact neurocognitive outcomes. To date, few studies have investigated the potential impact of MMJ use on cognitive performance, despite a well-documented association between recreational marijuana (MJ) use and executive dysfunction. The current study assessed the impact of 3 months of MMJ treatment on executive function, exploring whether MMJ patients would experience improvement in cognitive functioning, perhaps related to primary symptom alleviation. As part of a larger longitudinal study, 24 patients certified for MMJ use completed baseline executive function assessments and 11 of these so far have returned for their first follow-up visit 3 months after initiating treatment. Results suggest that in general, MMJ patients experienced some improvement on measures of executive functioning, including the Stroop Color Word Test and Trail Making Test, mostly reflected as increased speed in completing tasks without a loss of accuracy. On self-report questionnaires, patients also indicated moderate improvements in clinical state, including reduced sleep disturbance, decreased symptoms of depression, attenuated impulsivity, and positive changes in some aspects of quality of life. Additionally, patients reported a notable decrease in their use of conventional pharmaceutical agents from baseline, with opiate use declining more than 42%. While intriguing, these findings are preliminary and warrant further investigation at additional time points and in larger sample sizes. Given the likelihood of increased MMJ use across the country, it is imperative to determine the potential impact of short- and long-term treatment on cognitive performance as well as the efficacy of MMJ treatment itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- Staci A. Gruber
- Cognitive and Clinical Neuroimaging Core, McLean Hospital Imaging CenterBelmont, MA, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical SchoolBoston, MA, USA
| | - Kelly A. Sagar
- Cognitive and Clinical Neuroimaging Core, McLean Hospital Imaging CenterBelmont, MA, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical SchoolBoston, MA, USA
| | - Mary K. Dahlgren
- Cognitive and Clinical Neuroimaging Core, McLean Hospital Imaging CenterBelmont, MA, USA
- Department of Psychology, Tufts UniversityMedford, MA, USA
| | - Megan T. Racine
- Cognitive and Clinical Neuroimaging Core, McLean Hospital Imaging CenterBelmont, MA, USA
| | - Rosemary T. Smith
- Cognitive and Clinical Neuroimaging Core, McLean Hospital Imaging CenterBelmont, MA, USA
| | - Scott E. Lukas
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical SchoolBoston, MA, USA
- Behavioral Psychopharmacology Research Laboratory, McLean Hospital Imaging Center, McLean HospitalBelmont, MA, USA
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Cavazos-Rehg PA, Sowles SJ, Krauss MJ, Agbonavbare V, Grucza R, Bierut L. A content analysis of tweets about high-potency marijuana. Drug Alcohol Depend 2016; 166:100-8. [PMID: 27402550 PMCID: PMC4983477 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.06.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2016] [Revised: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 06/28/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION "Dabbing" involves heating extremely concentrated forms of marijuana to high temperatures and inhaling the resulting vapor. We studied themes describing the consequences of using highly concentrated marijuana by examining the dabbing-related content on Twitter. METHODS Tweets containing dabbing-related keywords were collected from 1/1-1/31/2015 (n=206,854). A random sample of 5000 tweets was coded for content according to pre-determined categories about dabbing-related behaviors and effects experienced using a crowdsourcing service. An examination of tweets from the full sample about respiratory effects and passing out was then conducted by selecting tweets with relevant keywords. RESULTS Among the 5000 randomly sampled tweets, 3540 (71%) were related to dabbing marijuana concentrates. The most common themes included mentioning current use of concentrates (n=849; 24%), the intense high and/or extreme effects from dabbing (n=763; 22%) and excessive/heavy dabbing (n=517; 15%). Extreme effects included both physiological (n=124/333; 37%) and psychological effects (n=55/333; 17%). The most common physiologic effects, passing out (n=46/333; 14%) and respiratory effects (n=30/333; 9%), were then further studied in the full sample of tweets. Coughing was the most common respiratory effect mentioned (n=807/1179; 68%), and tweeters commonly expressed dabbing with intentions to pass out (416/915; 45%). CONCLUSIONS This study adds to the limited understanding of marijuana concentrates and highlights self-reported physical and psychological effects from this type of marijuana use. Future research should further examine these effects and the potential severity of health consequences associated with concentrates.
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Bidwell LC, Knopik VS, Audrain-McGovern J, Glynn TR, Spillane NS, Ray LA, Riggs NR, Guillot CR, Pang RD, Leventhal AM. Novelty Seeking as a Phenotypic Marker of Adolescent Substance Use. SUBSTANCE ABUSE-RESEARCH AND TREATMENT 2015; 9:1-10. [PMID: 26106262 PMCID: PMC4472033 DOI: 10.4137/sart.s22440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2015] [Revised: 04/07/2015] [Accepted: 04/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Trait novelty seeking has been consistently implicated in substance use, yet the origins and mechanisms of novelty seeking in substance use proneness are unclear. We aimed to characterize novelty seeking as a phenotypic marker of substance use proneness in adolescence, a critical period for drug use experimentation. To this end, we parsed novelty seeking's two constituent subdimensions - exploratory excitability (drive for novel experience) and impulsiveness (careless decision-making) - and explored the individual relations of these dimensions to: (1) the use of a variety of licit and illicit substances, (2) family history of substance use, and (3) subjective drug effects. Five hundred eighty five adolescents (mean age = 14.5 years) completed surveys of key variables. Results indicated that, when accounting for the covariation among exploratory excitability and impulsiveness, impulsiveness emerged as the more salient correlate of substance use and was independently associated with initiation of nearly all drug classes. Mediation analyses of the mechanisms of novelty seeking-related risk illustrated that impulsiveness mediated the association of family history of substance use with both initiation and past 30-day frequency of use. Both impulsiveness and exploratory excitability were associated with increased positive and negative subjective drug effects, and the analyses supported a significant indirect pathway from impulsiveness to a more frequent use via positive subjective effects. Although limited by a cross-sectional design, these findings suggest that impulsiveness-like aspects of the novelty seeking construct may represent a useful phenotypic marker for early substance use proneness that potentially (1) increases initiation risk, (2) has familial origins, and (3) promotes more frequent use by altering subjective drug response.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Cinnamon Bidwell
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA. ; Center for Alcohol and Addiction Studies, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA. ; Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Valerie S Knopik
- Division of Behavioral Genetics, Department of Psychiatry, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI, USA. ; Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Janet Audrain-McGovern
- Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Tiffany R Glynn
- Center for Alcohol and Addiction Studies, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Nichea S Spillane
- Center for Alcohol and Addiction Studies, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Lara A Ray
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Nathaniel R Riggs
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Casey R Guillot
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Raina D Pang
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Adam M Leventhal
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA. ; Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Agrawal A, Madden PA, Bucholz KK, Heath AC, Lynskey MT. Initial reactions to tobacco and cannabis smoking: a twin study. Addiction 2014; 109:663-71. [PMID: 24325652 PMCID: PMC3951663 DOI: 10.1111/add.12449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2013] [Revised: 07/02/2013] [Accepted: 12/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Initial subjective reactions to cannabis and tobacco, broadly classified as positive or negative, have previously been explored for their associations with onset and maintenance of subsequent abuse/dependence. We examine (i) the factorial architecture of self-reported initial reactions to cannabis and tobacco; (ii) whether these factors associate with concurrently reported age at onset of DSM-IV diagnosis of nicotine dependence and cannabis abuse/dependence; and (iii) estimate heritable variation in and covariation between the factors. DESIGN Factorial and exploratory structural equation modeling was conducted to examine the factor structure of initial reactions. Cox proportional hazards modeling was employed to examine their association with time to onset of diagnosis of DSM-IV nicotine dependence and cannabis abuse/dependence. Classical twin modeling, using univariate and multivariate models, was used to parse variance in each factor (and the covariance between factors) to their additive genetic, shared environmental and non-shared environmental sources. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS General population sample of Caucasian female twins aged 18-32 years, with a life-time history of tobacco [n = 2393] and cannabis [n = 1445] use. MEASUREMENT Self-report of initial subjective reactions to tobacco (cigarettes) and cannabis the first time they were used and time to onset of life-time history of DSM-IV diagnosis of abuse (cannabis) and dependence (cannabis or nicotine). FINDINGS Factors representing putatively positive and negative reactions to cannabis and tobacco emerged. Initial reactions to tobacco were associated with onset of DSM-IV diagnosis of nicotine dependence and cannabis abuse/dependence while initial reactions to cannabis were associated with onset of DSM-IV diagnosis of cannabis abuse/dependence alone. Genetic factors played a moderate role in each factor (heritability of 27-35%, P < 0.05), with the remaining variance attributed to individual-specific environment. Covariation across the factors indexing positive and negative initial reactions was attributable to genetic sources (0.18-0.58, P < 0.05) and to overlapping individual-specific environmental factors (-0.16 to 0.36, P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Initial subjective reactions to tobacco are associated with onset of DSM-IV diagnosis of nicotine dependence and cannabis abuse/dependence while initial subjective reactions to cannabis are only associated with onset of diagnosis of DSM-IV cannabis abuse/dependence. Genetic and environmental factors underpin the overlap across the factors representing initial reactions, both positive and negative.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arpana Agrawal
- Washington University School of Medicine, Dept. of Psychiatry, 660 S. Euclid, CB 8134, Saint Louis, MO 63110
| | - Pamela A.F. Madden
- Washington University School of Medicine, Dept. of Psychiatry, 660 S. Euclid, CB 8134, Saint Louis, MO 63110
| | - Kathleen K. Bucholz
- Washington University School of Medicine, Dept. of Psychiatry, 660 S. Euclid, CB 8134, Saint Louis, MO 63110
| | - Andrew C. Heath
- Washington University School of Medicine, Dept. of Psychiatry, 660 S. Euclid, CB 8134, Saint Louis, MO 63110
| | - Michael T. Lynskey
- Washington University School of Medicine, Dept. of Psychiatry, 660 S. Euclid, CB 8134, Saint Louis, MO 63110,Addictions Department, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London, UK
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Do early experiences with cannabis vary in cigarette smokers? Drug Alcohol Depend 2013; 128:255-9. [PMID: 23010290 PMCID: PMC3614406 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2012] [Revised: 08/31/2012] [Accepted: 09/01/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION We examine whether regular cigarette smokers were more likely to be exposed to and use cannabis at an earlier age, and further, upon initiation, whether their initial experiences with cannabis varied from those reported by never/non-regular cigarette smokers. METHOD A sample of 3797 Australian twins and siblings aged 21-46 years was used. Survival analyses examined whether cigarette smokers were at increased likelihood of early opportunity to use cannabis and early onset of cannabis use. Logistic regression examined whether cigarette smokers reported greater enjoyment of their cannabis experience, inhaling on the first try, differing positive and negative initial subjective reactions, smoked cigarettes with cannabis the first time and were more likely to try cannabis again within a week. RESULTS Regular cigarette smokers were more likely to report an earlier opportunity to use cannabis and early onset of cannabis use. Regular cigarette smokers were also considerably more likely to have enjoyed their first experience with cannabis and reported higher rates of positive initial reactions. They were more likely to report inhaling on the first try and smoking cigarettes with cannabis. Potentially negative subjective reactions were also elevated in regular cigarette smokers. Importantly, cigarette smokers were at 1.87 increased odds of smoking cannabis within a week of their initial use. CONCLUSION These findings indicate that the well-known overlap in cannabis and cigarette smoking behaviors may evolve as early as opportunity to use and extend through the course of the substance use trajectory.
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Lee GP, Storr CL, Ialongo NS, Martins SS. Association between adverse life events and addictive behaviors among male and female adolescents. Am J Addict 2012; 21:516-23. [PMID: 23082829 PMCID: PMC3481175 DOI: 10.1111/j.1521-0391.2012.00285.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Adverse life events have been associated with gambling and substance use as they can serve as forms of escapism. Involvement in gambling and substance use can also place individuals in adversely stressful situations. OBJECTIVES To explore potential male-female differences in the association between addictive behavior and adverse life events among an urban cohort of adolescents. METHOD The study sample comprised of 515 adolescent participants in a randomized prevention trial. With self-reported data, four addictive behavior groups were created: nonsubstance users and nongamblers, substance users only, gamblers only, and substance users and gamblers. Multinomial logistic regression analyses with interaction terms of sex and adverse life events were conducted. RESULTS Adverse life events and engaging in at least one addictive behavior were common for both sexes. Substance users and gamblers had more than twice the likelihood of nonsubstance users and nongamblers to experience any event as well as events of various domains (ie, relationship, violence, and instability). Neither relationship nor instability events' associations with the co-occurrence of substance use and gambling significantly differed between sexes. Conversely, females exposed to violence events were significantly more likely than similarly exposed males to report the co-occurrence of substance use and gambling. CONCLUSION Findings from the current study prompt future studies to devote more attention to the development of effective programs that teach adaptive coping strategies to adolescents, particularly to females upon exposure to violence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace P Lee
- Department of Mental Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Zeiger JS, Haberstick BC, Corley RP, Ehringer MA, Crowley TJ, Hewitt JK, Hopfer CJ, Stallings MC, Young SE, Rhee SH. Subjective effects for alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana association with cross-drug outcomes. Drug Alcohol Depend 2012; 123 Suppl 1:S52-8. [PMID: 22445481 PMCID: PMC3729264 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2011] [Revised: 01/28/2012] [Accepted: 02/14/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
METHODS The cross-drug relationship of subjective experiences between alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana and problem drug use behaviors were examined. Data were drawn from 3853 individuals between the ages of 11 and 30 years of age participating in the Colorado Center on Antisocial Drug Dependence [CADD]. Subjective experiences were assessed using a 13-item questionnaire that included positive and negative responses for alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana. Lifetime abuse and dependence on these three drugs was assessed using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview, Substance Abuse Module [CIDI-SAM]. RESULTS Positive and negative subjective experience scales were similar for alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana, although the hierarchical ordering of items differed by drug. Subjective experience scales for each of the three drugs examined correlated significantly, with the strongest relationship being for alcohol and marijuana experiences. Significant associations were identified between how a person experienced a drug and abuse and dependence status for the same or different drug. CONCLUSION Cross-drug relationships provide evidence for a common liability or sensitivity towards responding in a similar manner to drugs of abuse within and across different pharmacological classes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna S. Zeiger
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Campus Box 447, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - Brett C. Haberstick
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Campus Box 447, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - Robin P. Corley
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Campus Box 447, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - Marissa A. Ehringer
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Campus Box 447, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado, Campus Box 354, Boulder, Colorado, 80309, USA
| | - Thomas J. Crowley
- Division of Substance Dependence, Department of Psychiatry, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Campus Box C268-35, Denver, Colorado, 80206, USA
| | - John K. Hewitt
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Campus Box 447, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Colorado, Campus Box 345, Boulder, Colorado, 80309. USA
| | - Christian J. Hopfer
- Division of Substance Dependence, Department of Psychiatry, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Campus Box C268-35, Denver, Colorado, 80206, USA
| | - Michael C. Stallings
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Campus Box 447, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Colorado, Campus Box 345, Boulder, Colorado, 80309. USA
| | - Susan E. Young
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Campus Box 447, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - Soo Hyun Rhee
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Campus Box 447, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Colorado, Campus Box 345, Boulder, Colorado, 80309. USA
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Vann RE, Walentiny DM, Burston JJ, Tobey KM, Gamage TF, Wiley JL. Enhancement of the behavioral effects of endogenous and exogenous cannabinoid agonists by phenylmethyl sulfonyl fluoride. Neuropharmacology 2011; 62:1019-27. [PMID: 22051632 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2011] [Revised: 10/07/2011] [Accepted: 10/24/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Marijuana's effects in humans are most often reported as intoxicating or therapeutic; yet, some humans report dysphoria or other negative affect. To evaluate whether differences in endocannabinoid levels might account for this variability, the present study examined whether sensitivity to cannabinoids changed when anandamide (AEA) metabolism was inhibited through administration of phenylmethyl sulfonyl fluoride (PMSF) a non-specific irreversible amidase inhibitor. Male Long Evans rats were trained to discriminate 3 mg/kg Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) versus vehicle in 2-lever drug discrimination procedure. ED(50)s for THC and CP 55,940 were lower when administered with PMSF than alone. PMSF administration also potentiated characteristic cannabimimetic effects of THC in ICR mice. Potentiation of AEA's in vivo effects by PMSF were also observed, primarily as a consequence of PMSF inhibition of the enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase. Enhancement of the effects of THC and CP 55,940 through this mechanism is unlikely, as these cannabinoids are predominantly metabolized through the P450 system. Mass spectrometry revealed that, in the presence of THC, endogenous AEA levels in the brain decreased and that this decrease was prevented by PMSF, suggesting that increased AEA levels may have acted additively with exogenously administered cannabinoids to increase cannabimimetic effects. These findings may account for the varying affect in response to marijuana in humans or cannabinoids in animals while also suggesting that metabolic inhibitors of AEA may potentiate marijuana's intoxicating effects in humans. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder'.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Vann
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298-0613, United States
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Haberstick BC, Zeiger JS, Corley RP, Hopfer CJ, Stallings MC, Rhee SH, Hewitt JK. Common and drug-specific genetic influences on subjective effects to alcohol, tobacco and marijuana use. Addiction 2011; 106:215-24. [PMID: 20955487 PMCID: PMC3006038 DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03129.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
AIM To examine variation in positive and negative subjective effects to alcohol, tobacco and marijuana and covariation between these three drugs and each effect. DESIGN Retrospective self-reports of subjective effects were collected to estimate the genetic and environmental influences and the extent of their specificity across three drugs. PARTICIPANTS Data were drawn from 1299 adolescent and young adult same- and opposite sex twin- and sibling-pairs participating in the Colorado Center for Antisocial Drug Dependence (CADD). SETTING A large, collaborative, longitudinal study of substance use and antisocial behavior in community and clinical adolescents. MEASUREMENT Subjective effects were assessed using a 13-item questionnaire that included positive and negative responses to alcohol, tobacco and marijuana. FINDINGS Heritable influences contributed moderately (additive genetic effects 16-56%) to positive and negative subjective effects to all three drugs and did not differ for males and females. Genetic and environmental contributions to positive and negative subjective effects are largely non-overlapping for tobacco and marijuana. Multivariate genetic modeling indicated that subjective effects to alcohol, tobacco and marijuana share a common, heritable etiology and that drug-specific genetic influences were an important contributor to individual differences in drug response. CONCLUSIONS Results from our genetic analyses suggest that subjective effects to these commonly used and misused drugs are heritable and that the genetic and environmental influences on effects to one drug also influence subjective effects to other drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett C. Haberstick
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Joanna S. Zeiger
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Robin P. Corley
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Christian J. Hopfer
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado, USA
| | - Michael C. Stallings
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Soo Hyun Rhee
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - John K. Hewitt
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
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