Associations between ultrafine and fine particles and mortality in five central European cities - Results from the UFIREG study

Predicting within-city spatiotemporal variations in daily median outdoor ultrafine particle number concentrations and size in Montreal and Toronto, Canada

Background

Epidemiological evidence suggests that long-term exposure to outdoor ultrafine particles (UFPs, <0.1 μm) may have important human health impacts. However, less is known about the acute health impacts of these pollutants as few models are available to estimate daily within-city spatiotemporal variations in outdoor UFPs.

Methods

Several machine learning approaches (i.e., generalized additive models, random forest models, and extreme gradient boosting) were used to predict daily spatiotemporal variations in outdoor UFPs (number concentration and size) across Montreal and Toronto, Canada using a large database of mobile monitoring measurements. Separate models were developed for each city and all models were evaluated using a 10-fold cross-validation procedure.

Results

In total, our models were based on measurements from 12,705 road segments in Montreal and 10,929 road segments in Toronto. Daily median outdoor UFP number concentrations varied substantially across both cities with 1st-99th percentiles ranging from 1389 to 181,672 in Montreal and 2472 to 118,544 in Toronto. Outdoor UFP size tended to be smaller in Montreal (mean [SD]: 34 nm [15]) than in Toronto (mean [SD]: 44 nm [25]). Extreme gradient boosting models performed best and explained the majority of spatiotemporal variations in outdoor UFP number concentrations (Montreal, R 2: 0.727; Toronto, R 2: 0.723) and UFP size (Montreal, R 2: 0.823; Toronto, R 2: 0.898) with slopes close to one and intercepts close to zero for relationships between measured and predicted values.

Conclusion

These new models will be applied in future epidemiological studies examining the acute health impacts of outdoor UFPs in Canada's two largest cities.

Federated Bayesian network approach for cross-regional air pollution classification: a case study of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region

Although machine learning methods have enabled considerable progress in air quality assessment, challenges persist regarding data privacy, cross-regional data processing, and model generalization. To address these issues, we introduce an advanced federated Bayesian network (FBN) approach. By integrating federated learning, adaptive optimization algorithms, and homomorphic encryption technologies, we substantially enhanced the efficiency and security of cross-regional air quality data processing. The novelty of this research lies in the improvements implemented in federated learning for air quality data analysis, particularly in distributed model training optimization and data consistency. Through the integration of adaptive structural modification strategies and simulated annealing immune optimization algorithms, we markedly enhanced the structural learning accuracy of the Bayesian network, resulting in a 20% improvement in prediction accuracy. Moreover, employing homomorphic encryption ensured data transmission security and confidentiality. In our Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei case study, our method demonstrated a 15% improvement in air quality classification accuracy compared to conventional methods and exhibited superior interpretability in analyzing environmental factor interactions. We quantified complex air pollution patterns across regions and found that a 30% fluctuation in the air quality index correlated with NO2 concentrations. We also observed a moderate positive correlation between specific pollutant indicators in Hebei Province and Tianjin and changes in air quality. Additionally, the FBN exhibited better operational efficiency and data confidentiality than other machine learning models in handling large-scale and multisource environmental data. Our FBN approach presents a novel perspective for environmental monitoring and assessment, vital for understanding complex air pollution patterns and formulating future ecological protection policies.

The relative contributions of traffic and non-traffic sources in ultrafine particle formations in Tehran mega city

Emissions of ultrafine particles (UFPs; diameter < 100 nm) are strongly associated with traffic-related emissions and are a growing global concern in urban environments. The aim of this study was to investigate the variations of particle number concentration (PNC) with a diameter > 10 nm at nine stations and understand the major sources of UFPs (primary vs. secondary) in Tehran megacity. The study was carried out in Tehran in 2020. NOx and PNC were reported from a total of nine urban site locations in Tehran and BC concentrations were examined at two monitoring stations. Data from all stations showed diurnal changes with peak morning and evening rush hours. The hourly PNC was correlated with NOx. PNCs in Tehran were higher compared to those of many cities reported in the literature. The highest concentrations were at District 19 station (traffic) and the lowest was at Punak station (residential) such that the average PNC varied from 8.4 × 103 to 5.7 × 104 cm-3. In Ray and Sharif stations, the average contributions of primary and secondary sources of PNC were 67 and 33%, respectively. Overall, we conclude that a decrease in primary emission leads to a decrease in the total concentration of aerosols, despite an increase in the formation of new particles by photo nucleation.

Quantifying the contributions of road and air traffic to ambient ultrafine particles in two urban communities

Traffic-related activities are widely acknowledged as a primary source of urban ambient ultrafine particles (UFPs). However, a notable gap exists in quantifying the contributions of road and air traffic to size-resolved and total UFPs in urban areas. This study aims to delineate and quantify the traffic's contributions to size-resolved and total UFPs in two urban communities. To achieve this, stationary sampling was conducted at near-road and near-airport communities in Seattle, Washington State, to monitor UFP number concentrations during 2018-2020. Comprehensive correlation analyses among all variables were performed. Furthermore, a fully adjusted generalized additive model, incorporating meteorological factors, was developed to quantify the contributions of road and air traffic to size-resolved and total UFPs. The study found that vehicle emissions accounted for 29% of total UFPs at the near-road site and 13% at the near-airport site. Aircraft emissions contributed 14% of total UFPs at the near-airport site. Notably, aircraft predominantly emitted UFP sizes below 20 nm, while vehicles mainly emitted UFP sizes below 50 nm. These findings reveal the variability in road and air traffic contributions to UFPs in distinct areas. Our study emphasizes the pivotal role of traffic layout in shaping urban UFP exposure.

Influence of a large commercial airport on the ultrafine particle number concentration in a distant residential area under different wind conditions and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic

Exposure to ultrafine particles has a significant influence on human health. In regions with large commercial airports, air traffic and ground operations can represent a potential particle source. The particle number concentration was measured in a low-traffic residential area about 7 km from Frankfurt Airport with a Condensation Particle Counter in a long-term study. In addition, the particle number size distribution was determined using a Fast Mobility Particle Sizer. The particle number concentrations showed high variations over the entire measuring period and even within a single day. A maximum 24 h-mean of 24,120 cm-3 was detected. Very high particle number concentrations were in particular measured when the wind came from the direction of the airport. In this case, the particle number size distribution showed a maximum in the particle size range between 5 and 15 nm. Particles produced by combustion in jet engines typically have this size range and a high potential to be deposited in the alveoli. During a period with high air traffic volume, significantly higher particle number concentrations could be measured than during a period with low air traffic volume, as in the COVID-19 pandemic. A large commercial airport thus has the potential to lead to a high particle number concentration even in a distant residential area. Due to the high particle number concentrations, the critical particle size, and strong concentration fluctuations, long-term measurements are essential for a realistic exposure analysis.

MicroRNAs as Potential Biomarkers of Environmental Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Their Link with Inflammation and Lung Cancer

Exposure to atmospheric air pollution containing volatile organic compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) has been shown to be a risk factor in the induction of lung inflammation and the initiation and progression of lung cancer. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small single-stranded non-coding RNA molecules of ~20-22 nucleotides that regulate different physiological processes, and their altered expression is implicated in various pathophysiological conditions. Recent studies have shown that the regulation of gene expression of miRNAs can be affected in diseases associated with outdoor air pollution, meaning they could also be useful as biomarkers of exposure to environmental pollution. In this article, we review the published evidence on miRNAs in relation to exposure to PAH pollution and discuss the possible mechanisms that may link these compounds with the expression of miRNAs.

The bio-distribution, clearance pathways, and toxicity mechanisms of ambient ultrafine particles

Ambient particles severely threaten human health worldwide. Compared to larger particles, ultrafine particles (UFPs) are highly concentrated in ambient environments, have a larger specific surface area, and are retained for a longer time in the lung. Recent studies have found that they can be transported into various extra-pulmonary organs by crossing the air-blood barrier (ABB). Therefore, to understand the adverse effects of UFPs, it is crucial to thoroughly investigate their bio-distribution and clearance pathways in vivo after inhalation, as well as their toxicological mechanisms. This review highlights emerging evidence on the bio-distribution of UFPs in pulmonary and extra-pulmonary organs. It explores how UFPs penetrate the ABB, the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and the placental barrier (PB) and subsequently undergo clearance by the liver, kidney, or intestine. In addition, the potential underlying toxicological mechanisms of UFPs are summarized, providing fundamental insights into how UFPs induce adverse health effects.

Impact of Ambient Ultrafine Particles on Cause-Specific Mortality in Three German Cities

Rationale: Exposure to ambient air pollution has been associated with adverse effects on morbidity and mortality. However, the evidence for ultrafine particles (UFPs; 10-100 nm) based on epidemiological studies remains scarce and inconsistent. Objectives: We examined associations between short-term exposures to UFPs and total particle number concentrations (PNCs; 10-800 nm) and cause-specific mortality in three German cities: Dresden, Leipzig, and Augsburg. Methods: We obtained daily counts of natural, cardiovascular, and respiratory mortality between 2010 and 2017. UFPs and PNCs were measured at six sites, and measurements of fine particulate matter (PM2.5; ⩽2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter) and nitrogen dioxide were collected from routine monitoring. We applied station-specific confounder-adjusted Poisson regression models. We investigated air pollutant effects at aggregated lags (0-1, 2-4, 5-7, and 0-7 d after UFP exposure) and used a novel multilevel meta-analytical method to pool the results. Additionally, we assessed interdependencies between pollutants using two-pollutant models. Measurements and Main Results: For respiratory mortality, we found a delayed increase in relative risk of 4.46% (95% confidence interval, 1.52 to 7.48%) per 3,223-particles/cm3 increment 5-7 days after UFP exposure. Effects for PNCs showed smaller but comparable estimates consistent with the observation that the smallest UFP fractions showed the largest effects. No clear associations were found for cardiovascular or natural mortality. UFP effects were independent of PM2.5 in two-pollutant models. Conclusions: We found delayed effects for respiratory mortality within 1 week after exposure to UFPs and PNCs but no associations for natural or cardiovascular mortality. This finding adds to the evidence on the independent health effects of UFPs.

Hourly Ultrafine Particle Exposure and Acute Myocardial Infarction Onset: An Individual-Level Case-Crossover Study in Shanghai, China, 2015-2020

Associations between ultrafine particles (UFPs) and hourly onset of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) have rarely been investigated. We aimed to evaluate the impacts of UFPs on AMI onset and the lag patterns. A time-stratified case-crossover study was performed among 20,867 AMI patients from 46 hospitals in Shanghai, China, between January 2015 and December 2020. Hourly data of AMI onset and number concentrations of nanoparticles of multiple size ranges below 0.10 μm (0.01-0.10, UFP/PNC_0.01-0.10; 0.01-0.03, PNC_0.01-0.03; 0.03-0.05, PNC_0.03-0.05; and 0.05-0.10 μm, PNC_0.05-0.10) were collected. Conditional logistic regressions were applied. Transient exposures to these nanoparticles were significantly associated with AMI onset, with almost linear exposure-response curves. These associations occurred immediately after exposure, lasted for approximately 6 h, and attenuated to be null thereafter. Each interquartile range increase in concentrations of total UFPs, PNC_0.01-0.03, PNC_0.03-0.05, and PNC_0.05-0.10 during the preceding 0-6 h was associated with increments of 3.29, 2.08, 2.47, and 2.93% in AMI onset risk, respectively. The associations were stronger during warm season and at high temperatures and were robust after adjusting for criteria air pollutants. Our findings provide novel evidence that hourly UFP exposure is associated with immediate increase in AMI onset risk.

Particle surface area, ultrafine particle number concentration, and cardiovascular hospitalizations

While the health impacts of larger particulate matter, such as PM₁₀ and PM_2.5, have been studied extensively, research regarding ultrafine particles (UFPs or PM_0.1) and particle surface area concentration (PSC) is lacking. This case-crossover study assessed the associations between exposure to PSC and UFP number concentration (UFPnc) and hospital admissions for cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) in New York State (NYS), 2013-2018. We used a time-stratified case-crossover design to compare the PSC and UFPnc levels between hospitalization days and control days (similar days without admissions) for each CVD case. We utilized NYS hospital discharge data to identify all CVD cases who resided in NYS. UFP simulation data from GEOS-Chem-APM, a state-of-the-art chemical transport model, was used to define PSC and UFPnc. Using a multi-pollutant model and conditional logistic regression, we assessed excess risk (ER)% per inter-quartile change of PSC and UFPnc after controlling for meteorological factors, co-pollutants, and time-varying variables. We found immediate and lasting associations between PSC and overall CVDs (lag0-lag0-6: ERs% (95% CI%) ranges: 0.4 (0.1,0.7) - 0.9 (0.7-1.2), and delayed and prolonged ERs%: 0.1-0.3 (95% CIs: 0.1-0.5) between UFPnc and CVDs (lag0-3-lag0-6). Exposure to larger PSC was associated with immediate ER increases in stroke, hypertension, and ischemic heart diseases (1.1%, 0.7%, 0.8%, respectively, all p < 0.05). The adverse effects of PSC on CVDs were highest among children (5-17 years old), in the fall and winter, and during cold temperatures. In conclusion, we found an immediate, lasting effects of PSC on overall CVDs and a delayed, prolonged impact of UFPnc. PSC was a more sensitive indicator than UFPnc. The PSC effects were higher among certain CVD subtypes, in children, in certain seasons, and during cold days. Further studies are needed to validate our findings and evaluate the long-term effects.

Exposure characteristics of ultrafine particles on urban streets and its impact on pedestrians

In order to investigate the pedestrian exposure characteristics of ultrafine particles (UFPs) on urban streets, both mobile and fixed-point monitoring experiments were conducted. A generalized additive model and a respiratory deposition dose model were used to quantify the influencing factors and potential harm of UFPs, respectively. The results showed that UFPs' hotspots were more likely to manifest at places where vehicles tend to cluster, namely at road intersections and bus stops. The pedestrian bridge had the lowest number concentration of UFPs in comparison with the pedestrian crossing and underground passage at the same intersection. Aboveground, a "weekend effect" acting upon urban streets and evidence for periodicity at the intersections were found. The UFPs' number concentration was comprehensively explained-about 62.7% of its variation-by traffic volume, wind speed, temperature, and relative humidity. The UFPs were mainly deposited in the alveolar region of the respiratory system, but the deposition doses of males exceeded those of females under the same conditions. Based on these findings, the study also provides appropriate suggestions for better managing traffic pollution sources, traffic infrastructure, and traffic organization.

Transmission of COVID-19 pandemic (Turkey) associated with short-term exposure of air quality and climatological parameters

The study aims to investigate associations between air pollution, climate parameters, and the diffusion of COVID-19-confirmed cases in Turkey using Spearman's correlation test as an empirical methodology by Statgraphics Centurion XVI (version 16.1) and to determine the risk factors accelerating the spread of SARS-CoV-2 virus. The present study demonstrates the strong impacts of air pollutants and weather conditions on the transmission of COVID-19 morbidity. Particularly, O₃ and PM₁₀ from air quality parameters exhibited the strongest correlation with the number of daily cases in Kütahya (rs = -0.62; p < 0.05) and Sivas (rs = -0.62; p < 0.05) provinces, respectively. In meteorological parameters, rainfall showed the highest impact (rs = 0.76; p < 0.05) on the number of daily COVID-19 cases in Denizli distinct. Moreover, this study suggested that the diffusion of the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 in regions with high levels of air pollution and low wind speed is dominant. To prevent the negative effects of the future pandemic crisis on public health and economic systems, manifold implications to encourage strategies to reduce air pollution in the polluted region such as being prevalent the usage of renewable energy technologies in particular electricity generation and sustainable policies such as improving the health system should be implemented by decision-makers.

Analysis of ways to reduce potential health risk from ultrafine and fine particles emitted from 3D printers in the makerspace

Due to the growing maker culture, maker spaces using multiple fused deposition modeling (FDM)-3D printers have spread around the world. However, the 3D printing process is known to cause the release of ultrafine and fine particles, which may have adverse health effects on occupants. Therefore, this experiment-based study was conducted on FDM-3D printers placed in an actual makerspace by the following three scenarios: the number of operating FDM-3D printers, ventilation, and measurement location to compare the concentrations of ultrafine and fine particles. In addition, the deposited dose in alveolar region for ultrafine and fine particles was predicted using a respiratory deposition model to analyze the potential health risk on occupants. As a result, the scenario-based comparison revealed that if the number of operating 3D printers is reduced by less than half, the potential health risk can be decreased by 34.1%, proper ventilation can reduce potential health risk by 55.5%, and working away from the 3D printer can also reduce potential health risk by up to 27.5%. This study analyzed the potential health risk of multiple FDM-3D printers on users in an actual makerspace, and proposed various improvement measures to reduce the potential health risk of ultrafine and fine particles.

New Homogeneous Spatial Areas Identified Using Case-Crossover Spatial Lag Grid Differences between Aerosol Optical Depth-PM2.5 and Respiratory-Cardiovascular Emergency Department Visits and Hospitalizations

Optimal use of Hierarchical Bayesian Model (HBM)-assembled aerosol optical depth (AOD)-PM2.5 fused surfaces in epidemiologic studies requires homogeneous temporal and spatial fused surfaces. No analytical method is available to evaluate spatial heterogeneity. The temporal case-crossover design was modified to assess the spatial association between four experimental AOD-PM2.5 fused surfaces and four respiratory–cardiovascular hospital events in 12 km2 grids. The maximum number of adjacent lag grids with significant odds ratios (ORs) identified homogeneous spatial areas (HOSAs). The largest HOSA included five grids (lag grids 04; 720 km2) and the smallest HOSA contained two grids (lag grids 01; 288 km2). Emergency department asthma and inpatient asthma, myocardial infarction, and heart failure ORs were significantly higher in rural grids without air monitors than in urban grids with air monitors at lag grids 0, 1, and 01. Rural grids had higher AOD-PM2.5 concentration levels, population density, and poverty percentages than urban grids. Warm season ORs were significantly higher than cold season ORs for all health outcomes at lag grids 0, 1, 01, and 04. The possibility of elevated fine and ultrafine PM and other demographic and environmental risk factors synergistically contributing to elevated respiratory–cardiovascular chronic diseases in persons residing in rural areas was discussed.

Spring 2020 Atmospheric Aerosol Contamination over Kyiv City

Extraordinarily high aerosol contamination was observed in the atmosphere over the city of Kyiv, Ukraine, during the March–April 2020 period. The source of contamination was the large grass and forest fires in the northern part of Ukraine and the Kyiv region. The level of PM2.5 load was investigated using newly established AirVisual sensor mini-networks in five areas of the city. The aerosol data from the Kyiv AERONET sun-photometer site were analyzed for that period. Aerosol optical depth, Ångström exponent, and the aerosol particles properties (particle size distribution, single-scattering albedo, and complex refractive index) were analyzed using AERONET sun-photometer observations. The smoke particles observed at Kyiv site during the fires in general correspond to aerosol with optical properties of biomass burning aerosol. The variability of the optical properties and chemical composition indicates that the aerosol particles in the smoke plumes over Kyiv city were produced by different burning materials and phases of vegetation fires at different times. The case of enormous PM2.5 aerosol contamination in the Kyiv city reveals the need to implement strong measures for forest fire control and prevention in the Kyiv region, especially in its northwest part, where radioactive contamination from the Chernobyl disaster is still significant.

Impacts of Household Coal Combustion on Indoor Ultrafine Particles—A Preliminary Case Study and Implication on Exposure Reduction

Ultrafine particles (UFPs) significantly affect human health and climate. UFPs can be produced largely from the incomplete burning of solid fuels in stoves; however, indoor UFPs are less studied compared to outdoor UFPs, especially in coal-combustion homes. In this study, indoor and outdoor UFP concentrations were measured simultaneously by using a portable instrument, and internal and outdoor source contributions to indoor UFPs were estimated using a statistical approach based on highly temporally resolved data. The total concentrations of indoor UFPs in a rural household with the presence of coal burning were as high as 1.64 × 10⁵ (1.32 × 10⁵–2.09 × 10⁵ as interquartile range) #/cm³, which was nearly one order of magnitude higher than that of outdoor UFPs. Indoor UFPs were unimodal, with the greatest abundance of particles in the size range of 31.6–100 nm. The indoor-to-outdoor ratio of UFPs in a rural household was about 6.4 (2.7–16.0), while it was 0.89 (0.88–0.91) in a home without strong internal sources. A dynamic process illustrated that the particle number concentration increased by ~5 times during the coal ignition period. Indoor coal combustion made up to over 80% of indoor UFPs, while in an urban home without coal combustion sources indoors, the outdoor sources may contribute to nearly 90% of indoor UFPs. A high number concentration and a greater number of finer particles in homes with the presence of coal combustion indicated serious health hazards associated with UFP exposure and the necessity for future controls on indoor UFPs.

Maternal exposure to traffic-related ambient particles and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus with isolated fasting hyperglycaemia: A retrospective cohort study in Beijing, China

BACKGROUND

Ambient particles have been associated with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), however, no study has evaluated the effects of traffic-related ambient particles on the risks of GDM subgroups classified by oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) values.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis was conducted among 24,001 pregnant women who underwent regular prenatal care and received OGTT at Haidian Maternal and Child Health Hospital in Beijing, China, 2014-2017. A total of 3,168 (13.2%) pregnant women were diagnosed with GDM, including 1,206 with isolated fasting hyperglycaemia (GDM-IFH). At a fixed-location monitoring station, routinely monitored ambient particles included fine particulate matter (PM_2.5), black carbon (BC) and particles in size ranges of 5-560 nm (PNC_5-560). Contributions of PNC_5-560 sources were apportioned by positive matrix factorization model. Logistic regression model was applied to estimate odds ratio (OR) of ambient particles on GDM risk.

RESULTS

Among the 24,001 pregnancy women recruited in this study, 3,168 (13.2%) were diagnosed with GDM, including 1,206 with isolated fasting hyperglycaemia (GDM-IFH) and 1,295 with isolated post-load hyperglycaemia (GDM-IPH). We observed increased GDM-IFH risk with per interquartile range increase in first-trimester exposures to PM_2.5 (OR = 1.94; 95% Confidence Intervals: 1.23-3.07), BC (OR = 2.14; 1.73-2.66) and PNC_5-560 (OR = 2.46; 1.90-3.19). PNC_5-560 originated from diesel and gasoline vehicle emissions were found in associations with increases in GDM-IFH risk, but not in GDM-IPH risk.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that exposure to traffic-related ambient particles may increase GDM risk by exerting adverse effects on fasting glucose levels during pregnancy, and support continuing efforts to reduce traffic emissions for protecting vulnerable population who are at greater risk of glucose metabolism disorder.

Using Real Time Measurements to Derive the Indoor and Outdoor Contributions of Submicron Particulate Species and Trace Gases

The indoor environment is usually more polluted than outdoors due to emissions of gas and particle-phase pollutants from multiple sources, leading to their accumulation on top of the infiltration of outdoor pollution. While it is widely recognized that negative health effects arise from the exposure to outdoor air pollution, exposure to indoor pollutants also needs to be well assessed since we spend most of our time (~90%) breathing indoors. Indoor concentrations of pollutants are driven by physicochemical processes and chemical transformations taking place indoors, acting as sources and/or sinks. While these basic concepts are understood, assessing the contribution of each process is still challenging. In this study, we deployed online instrumentation in an unoccupied room to test a methodology for the apportionment of indoor and outdoor pollutant sources. This method was successfully applied to the apportionment of PM₁ and VOCs, however, there are limitations for reactive gases such as O₃. The results showed that this unoccupied indoor environment acts as a source of VOCs and contributes 87% on OVOCs and 6% on C_xH_y, while it acts as a sink for particles, likely due to losses through volatilization up to 60%.

Maternal exposures to fine and ultrafine particles and the risk of preterm birth from a retrospective study in Beijing, China

Maternal exposure to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) has been associated with increased risk of preterm birth (PTB), but evidence on particles in smaller sizes and PTB risk remains limited. In this retrospective analysis, we included birth records of 24,001 singleton live births from Haidian Maternal and Child Health Hospital in Beijing, China, 2014-2017. Concurrently, number concentrations of size-fractioned particles in size ranges of 5-560 nm (PNC_5-560) and mass concentrations of PM_2.5, black carbon (BC) and gaseous pollutants were measured from a fixed-location monitoring station in central Haidian District. Logistic regression models were used to estimate the odds ratio (OR) of air pollutants on PTB risk after controlling for temperature, relative humidity, and individual covariates (e.g., maternal age, ethnicity, gravidity, parity, gestational weight gain, fetal gender, the year and season of conception). Positive matrix factorization models were then used to apportion the sources of PNC_5-560. Among the 1062 (4.4%) PTBs, increased PTB risk was observed during the third trimester of pregnancy per 10 μg/m³ increase in PM_2.5 [OR = 1.92; 95% Confidence Interval (95% CI): 1.76, 2.09], per 1000 particles/cm³ increase in PNC_25-100 (OR = 1.09; 95% CI: 1.03, 1.15) and PNC_100-560 (OR = 1.22; 95% CI: 1.05, 1.42). Among the identified sources of PNC_5-560, emissions from gasoline and diesel vehicles were significantly associated with increased PTB risk, with ORs of 1.14 (95% CI: 1.01, 1.29) and 1.11 (95% CI: 1.04, 1.18), respectively. Exposures to other traffic-related air pollutants, such as BC and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) were also significantly associated with increased PTB risk. Our findings highlight the importance of traffic emission reduction in urban areas.

Intervention of an Upgraded Ventilation System and Effects of the COVID-19 Lockdown on Air Quality at Birmingham New Street Railway Station

High NO2 concentrations (long term average of 383 µg/m3 in 2016/2017) recorded at Birmingham New Street railway station have resulted in the upgrade of the bi-directional fan system to aid wind dispersion within the enclosed platform environment. This paper attempts to examine how successful this intervention has been in improving air quality for both passengers and workers within the station. New air pollution data in 2020 has enabled comparisons to the 2016/2017 monitoring campaign revealing a 23-42% decrease in measured NO2 concentrations. The new levels of NO2 are below the Occupational Health standards but still well above the EU Public Health Standards. This reduction, together with a substantial decrease (up to 81%) in measured Particulate Matter (PM) concentrations, can most likely be attributed to the new fan system effectiveness. Carbon Monoxide levels were well below Occupational and Public Health Standards at all times. The COVID-19 pandemic "initial lockdown" period has also allowed an insight into the resultant air quality at lower rail-traffic intensities, which produced a further reduction in air pollutants, to roughly half the pre-lockdown concentrations. This study shows the scope of improvement that can be achieved through an engineering solution implemented to improve the ventilation system of an enclosed railway station. Further reduction in air pollution would require additional approaches, such as the removal of diesel engine exhaust emissions via the adoption of electric or diesel-electric hybrid powered services.

Longitudinal relationship of particulate matter and metabolic control and severe hypoglycaemia in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes

BACKGROUND

Evidence for the metabolic impact of long-term exposure to air pollution on diabetes is lacking. We investigated the association of particulate matter <10 μm (PM₁₀) and <2.5 μm (PM_2.5) with yearly averages of HbA1c, daily insulin dose (IU/kg) and rates of severe hypoglycaemia in type 1 diabetes (T1D).

METHODS

We studied data of 44,383 individuals with T1D < 21 years which were documented in 377 German centres within the diabetes prospective follow-up registry (DPV) between 2009 and 2018. Outcomes were aggregated by year and by patient. PM₁₀-and PM_2.5-yearly averages prior to the respective treatment year were linked to individuals via the five-digit postcode areas of residency. Repeated measures linear and negative binomial regression were used to study the association between PM-quartiles (Q1 lowest, Q4 highest concentration) and yearly averages of HbA1c, daily insulin dose and rates of severe hypoglycaemia (confounders: sex, time-dependent age, age at diabetes onset, time-dependent type of treatment, migratory background, degree of urbanisation and socioeconomic index of deprivation).

RESULTS

Adjusted mean HbA1c increased with PM₁₀ (Q1: 7.96% [95%-CI: 7.95-7.98], Q4: 8.03% [8.02-8.05], p-value<0.001) and with PM_2.5 (Q1: 7.97% [7.95-7.99], Q4: 8.02% [8.01-8.04], p < 0.001). Changes in daily insulin dose were inversely related to PM (PM₁₀ and PM_2.5: Q1 0.85 IU/kg [0.84-0.85], Q4: 0.83 IU/kg [0.82-0.83], p < 0.001). Adjusted rates of severe hypoglycaemia increased with PM-quartile groups (PM₁₀ Q1:11.2 events/100 PY [10.9-11.5], PM₁₀ Q4: 15.3 [14.9-15.7], p < 0.001; PM_2.5 Q1: 9.9 events/100 PY [9.6-10.2], PM_2.5 Q4: 14.2 [13.9-14.6], p < 0.001).

DISCUSSION

Air pollution was associated with higher HbA1c levels and increased risk of severe hypoglycaemia in people with T1D, consequently indicating a higher risk of diabetes complications. Further studies are needed to explore causal pathways of the observed associations.

Particle emissions from mobile sources: Discussion of ultrafine particle emissions and definition

There is no universally agreed upon definition for ultrafine particles (UFP). Commonly used definitions for UFP are either particle number below 100 nm or total particle number, but without an agreed upon lower cut point. For example, a lower cut point of 3 nm compared to 10 nm could result in a substantially higher count. Another definition for UFP is total particle mass but without a commonly agreed upon aerodynamic diameter upper cut point, e.g., below 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, etc. Yet another definition is lung deposited surface area weighted by lung deposition fraction, found mainly in the particle mobility diameter range from 20 to 400 nm. It is clear from these definitions that there are inconsistencies in the way UFP is used and defined in the literature. Sometimes these metrics are well correlated, sometimes not. In this paper we suggest three exposure metrics: UFP-N, UFP-M, and UFP-S, that we believe will add clarity. These metrics represent total number, mass, and surface area below 500 nm, respectively. For surface area and mass, the 500 nm cut point can be either aerodynamic or mobility diameter depending upon measurement methodology. For all metrics, this cut point captures nearly all of the primary particle emissions from mobile sources. Furthermore, UFP-N would include a lower cut point of 3-6 nm and would not require an upper size cut point because there is very little particle number above 500 nm or even above 100 nm. Thus, our definition of UFP-N is consistent with the current definition of ultrafine number except for, importantly, the specification of a lower cut point. These exposure metrics can help facilitate consistency in the characterization of both short- and long-term UFP ambient exposures and associated health effects in epidemiological studies.

Longitudinal Trends of the Annual Exposure to PM2.5 Particles in European Countries

BACKGROUND

PM_2.5 emission is known as a major challenge to environmental health and is the cause of approximately 7 million deaths annually. This study aimed at investigating the main patterns of PM_2.5 trend changes among European countries.

METHODS

The annual exposure to PM_2.5 pollutants was retrieved from the World Bank for 41 countries during 2010 to 2017, and a latent growth model was applied to identify the main patterns using Mplus 7.4 software.

RESULTS

Monitoring the overall mean annual exposure to PM_2.5 in the Europe showed a downward pattern with an annual decrease of 2.48% during the study period. Turkey had the highest PM_2.5 exposure with 43.82 μg/m³ in 2010, reaching 44.31 μg/m³ in 2017. Likewise, with 7.19 μg/m³ in 2010, Finland had the lowest exposure level which decreased to 5.86 μg/m³ in 2017. Two main patterns for the mean annual PM_2.5 exposure were identified via the latent growth model. Countries in the first pattern, including Turkey and Ukraine, had experienced a slow annual increase in the mean exposure of PM_2.5 pollutant. Likewise, the other 39 countries belonged to the second pattern with a moderate falling trend in the mean exposure to PM_2.5.

CONCLUSION

Although the trend changes of mean annual exposure to PM_2.5 in Europe were falling, Turkey and Ukraine had experienced a slow annual increase. It is advisable to take appropriate measures to curb the current raising exposure to PM_2.5 in Turkey and Ukraine.

Personal exposure to average weekly ultrafine particles, lung function, and respiratory symptoms in asthmatic and non-asthmatic adolescents

An increasing amount of evidence suggests ultrafine particles (UFPs) are linked to adverse health effects, especially in those with chronic conditions such as asthma, due to their small size and physicochemical characteristics. Toxicological and experimental studies have demonstrated these properties, and the mechanisms by which they deposit and translocate in the body result in increased toxicity in comparison to other air pollutants. However, current epidemiological literature is limited due to exposure misclassification and thus identifying health outcomes associated with UFPs. The objective of this study was to investigate the association between weekly personal UFP exposure with lung function and respiratory symptoms in 117 asthmatic and non-asthmatic adolescents between 13 and 17 years of age in the Cincinnati area. Between 2017 and 2019, participants collected weekly UFP concentrations by sampling for 3 h a day in their home, school, and during transit. In addition, pulmonary function was evaluated at the end of the sampling week, and respiratory symptoms were logged on a mobile phone application. Multivariable linear regression and zero-inflated Poisson (ZIP) models were used to estimate the association between personal UFP and respiratory outcomes. The average median weekly UFP exposure of all participants was 4340 particles/cm3 (p/cc). Results of fully adjusted regression models revealed a negative association between UFPs and percent predicted forced expiratory volume/forced vital capacity ratio (%FEV1/FVC) (β:-0.03, 95% CI [-0.07, 0.02]). Prediction models estimated an association between UFPs and respiratory symptoms, which was greater in asthmatics compared to non-asthmatics. Our results indicate an interaction between asthma status and the likelihood of experiencing respiratory symptoms when exposed to UFPs, indicating an exacerbation of this chronic condition. More research is needed to determine the magnitude of the role UFPs play on respiratory health.

Associations between sources of particle number and mortality in four European cities

BACKGROUND

The evidence on the association between ultrafine (UFP) particles and mortality is still inconsistent. Moreover, health effects of specific UFP sources have not been explored. We assessed the impact of UFP sources on daily mortality in Barcelona, Helsinki, London, and Zurich.

METHODS

UFP sources were previously identified and quantified for the four cities: daily contributions of photonucleation, two traffic sources (fresh traffic and urban, with size mode around 30 nm and 70 nm, respectively), and secondary aerosols were obtained from data from an urban background station. Different periods were investigated in each city: Barcelona 2013-2016, Helsinki 2009-2016, London 2010-2016, and Zurich 2011-2014. The associations between total particle number concentrations (PNC) and UFP sources and daily (natural, cardiovascular [CVD], and respiratory) mortality were investigated using city-specific generalized linear models (GLM) with quasi-Poisson regression.

RESULTS

We found inconsistent results across cities, sources, and lags for associations with natural, CVD, and respiratory mortality. Increased risk was observed for total PNC and natural mortality in Helsinki (lag 2; 1.3% [0.07%, 2.5%]), CVD mortality in Barcelona (lag 1; 3.7% [0.17%, 7.4%]) and Zurich (lag 0; 3.8% [0.31%, 7.4%]), and respiratory mortality in London (lag 3; 2.6% [0.84%, 4.45%]) and Zurich (lag 1; 9.4% [1.0%, 17.9%]). A similar pattern of associations between health outcomes and total PNC was followed by the fresh traffic source, for which we also found the same associations and lags as for total PNC. The urban source (mostly aged traffic) was associated with respiratory mortality in Zurich (lag 1; 12.5% [1.7%, 24.2%]) and London (lag 3; 2.4% [0.90%, 4.0%]) while the secondary source was associated with respiratory mortality in Zurich (lag 1: 12.0% [0.63%, 24.5%]) and Helsinki (4.7% [0.11%, 9.5%]). Reduced risk for the photonucleation source was observed for respiratory mortality in Barcelona (lag 2, -8.6% [-14.5%, -2.4%]) and for CVD mortality in Helsinki, as this source is present only in clean atmospheres (lag 1, -1.48 [-2.75, -0.21]).

CONCLUSIONS

We found inconsistent results across cities, sources and lags for associations with natural, CVD, and respiratory mortality.

Associations of ultrafine and fine particles with childhood emergency room visits for respiratory diseases in a megacity

BACKGROUND

Ambient fine particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 µm (PM_2.5) has been associated with deteriorated respiratory health, but evidence on particles in smaller sizes and childhood respiratory health has been limited.

METHODS

We collected time-series data on daily respiratory emergency room visits (ERVs) among children under 14 years old in Beijing, China, during 2015-2017. Concurrently, size-fractioned number concentrations of particles in size ranges of 5-560 nm (PNC_5-560) and mass concentrations of PM_2.5, black carbon (BC) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) were measured from a fixed-location monitoring station in the urban area of Beijing. Confounder-adjusted Poisson regression models were used to estimate excessive risks (ERs) of particle size fractions on childhood respiratory ERVs, and positive matrix factorisation models were applied to apportion the sources of PNC_5-560.

RESULTS

Among the 136 925 cases of all-respiratory ERVs, increased risks were associated with IQR increases in PNC_25-100 (ER=5.4%, 95% CI 2.4% to 8.6%), PNC_100-560 (4.9%, 95% CI 2.5% to 7.3%) and PM_2.5 (1.3%, 95% CI 0.1% to 2.5%) at current and 1 prior days (lag0-1). Major sources of PNC_5-560 were identified, including nucleation (36.5%), gasoline vehicle emissions (27.9%), diesel vehicle emissions (18.9%) and secondary aerosols (10.6%). Emissions from gasoline and diesel vehicles were found of significant associations with all-respiratory ERVs, with increased ERs of 6.0% (95% CI 2.5% to 9.7%) and 4.4% (95% CI 1.7% to 7.1%) at lag0-1 days, respectively. Exposures to other traffic-related pollutants (BC and NO₂) were also associated with increased respiratory ERVs.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that exposures to higher levels of PNC_5-560 from traffic emissions could be attributed to increased childhood respiratory morbidity, which supports traffic emission control priority in urban areas.

Association between Prevailing Circulation Patterns and Coarse Particles in Portugal

Air pollution is one of the major environmental concerns today, with high socio-economic and public health impacts, which are expected to worsen in the future due to anthropogenic warming. Among the toxic agents present in the atmosphere, coarse particles (PM10 and PM2.5) are some of the most harmful for human health and the environment. Therefore, the study of these particles and their association with meteorological constraining factors is of utmost importance. The aim of this study is to analyze the circulation weather types (CWT) affecting PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations measured at background monitoring stations in Portugal between 2006 and 2018. PM10 and PM2.5 were analyzed in terms of their intra-annual and inter-annual variability, their relations with CWT and the characteristics of two major extreme events over Portugal. The analysis of the extreme events relied on both background stations and through the near-real time data from Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS) outputs. The inter-annual assessment showed a decrease in concentrations over the studied years, mainly for PM10. Intra-annual assessment pointed to higher concentrations during winter months. Higher PM concentrations were mostly associated with CWTs with easterly or southerly components, characterized by low frequency of rainfall and advection of dry air masses. The two analyzed extreme events, associated with mega wildfires (15–17 October 2017) and dust intrusion (1–10 August 2018) were analyzed in more detail. Prominent southerly and easterly circulations were observed during the onset and peak of the events, which then later decayed due to the change to maritime flows (westerly and northerly circulation types) which dispersed the particles.

Particulate emissions of a modern diesel passenger car under laboratory and real-world transient driving conditions

Exhaust emissions from diesel vehicles are significant sources of air pollution. In this study, particle number emissions and size distributions of a modern Euro 5b -compliant diesel passenger car exhaust were measured under the NEDC and US06 standard cycles as well as during different transient driving cycles. The measurements were conducted on a chassis dynamometer; in addition, the transient cycles were repeated on-road by a chase method. Since the diesel particulate filter (DPF) removed practically all particles from the engine exhaust, it was by-passed during most of the measurements in order to determine effects of lubricant on the engine-out exhaust aerosol. Driving conditions and lubricant properties strongly affected exhaust emissions, especially the number emissions and volatility properties of particles. During acceleration and steady speeds particle emissions consisted of non-volatile soot particles mainly larger than ∼50 nm independently of the lubricant used. Instead, during engine motoring particle number size distribution was bimodal with the modes peaking at 10-20 nm and 100 nm. Thermal treatment indicated that the larger mode consisted of non-volatile particles, whereas the nanoparticles had a non-volatile core with volatile material condensed on the surfaces; approximately, 59-64% of the emitted nanoparticles evaporated. Since during engine braking the engine was not fueled, the origin of these particles is lubricant oil. The particle number emission factors over the different cycles varied from 1.0 × 10¹⁴ to 1.3 × 10¹⁵ #/km, and engine motoring related particle emissions contributed 12-65% of the total particle emissions. The results from the laboratory and on-road transient tests agreed well. According to authors' knowledge, high particle formation during engine braking under real-world driving conditions has not been reported from diesel passenger cars.

First data analysis about possible COVID-19 virus airborne diffusion due to air particulate matter (PM): The case of Lombardy (Italy)

The severe cases of COVID-19 infections in Italy, and notably in Lombardy (mainly in Brescia and Bergamo areas), registered at the beginning of March 2020, occurred after a period of PM10 pollution, that exceeded the concentration of 50 μg/m3 (the attention limit) for several days. The two events were supposed to be correlated, also based on the limited information available about the new virus. Despite that clear indications about the role of particulate matter (PM) in the virus mechanism dispersion cannot be found in literature, some researchers supposed that PM can act as virus carrier, promoting its diffusion through the air. This paper, for the first time, analyses the PM10 situation in Lombardy (from 10th February to March 27, 2020), several days before the sanitary emergency explosion. The data of the detected infection cases are reported and discussed parallelly. As a comparison, the situation of Piedmont, located near to the Lombardy is also presented. Data are reported for Brescia, Bergamo, Cremona, Lodi, Milano, Monza-Brianza, Pavia (Lombardy), Alessandria, Vercelli, Novara, Biella, Asti, and Torino (Piedmont). The results show that it is not possible to conclude that COVID-19 diffusion mechanism also occurs through the air, by using PM10 as a carrier. In particular, it is shown that Piedmont cities, presenting lower detected infections cases in comparison to Brescia and Bergamo in the investigated period, had most sever PM10 pollution events in comparison to Lombardy cities. This first study may serve as a reference to better understand and predict the factors affecting the COVID-19 diffusion and transmission routes, focusing on the role of air particulate matter in the atmosphere.

Influence of meteorological conditions on PM2.5 concentrations across China: A review of methodology and mechanism

Air pollution over China has attracted wide interest from public and academic community. PM_2.5 is the primary air pollutant across China. Quantifying interactions between meteorological conditions and PM_2.5 concentrations are essential to understand the variability of PM_2.5 and seek methods to control PM_2.5. Since 2013, the measurement of PM_2.5 has been widely made at 1436 stations across the country and more than 300 papers focusing on PM_2.5-meteorology interactions have been published. This article is a comprehensive review on the meteorological impact on PM_2.5 concentrations_. We start with an introduction of general meteorological conditions and PM_2.5 concentrations across China, and then seasonal and spatial variations of meteorological influences on PM_2.5 concentrations. Next, major methods used to quantify meteorological influences on PM_2.5 concentrations are checked and compared. We find that causality analysis methods are more suitable for extracting the influence of individual meteorological factors whilst statistical models are good at quantifying the overall effect of multiple meteorological factors on PM_2.5 concentrations. Chemical Transport Models (CTMs) have the potential to provide dynamic estimation of PM_2.5 concentrations by considering anthropogenic emissions and the transport and evolution of pollutants. We then comprehensively examine the mechanisms how major meteorological factors may impact the PM_2.5 concentrations, including the dispersion, growth, chemical production, photolysis, and deposition of PM_2.5. The feedback effects of PM_2.5 concentrations on meteorological factors are also carefully examined. Based on this review, suggestions on future research and major meteorological approaches for mitigating PM_2.5 pollution are made finally.

The unidirectional causality influence of factors on PM2.5 in Shenyang city of China

Air quality issue such as particulate matter pollution (PM_2.5 and PM₁₀) has become one of the biggest environmental problem in China. As one of the most important industrial base and economic core regions of China, Northeast China is facing serious air pollution problems in recent years, which has a profound impact on the health of local residents and atmospheric environment in some part of East Asia. Therefore, it is urgent to understand temporal-spatial characteristics of particles and analyze the causality factors. The results demonstrated that variation trend of particles was almost similar, the annual, monthly and daily distribution had their own characteristics. Particles decreased gradually from south to north, from west to east. Correlation analysis showed that wind speed was the most important factor affecting particles, and temperature, air pressure and relative humidity were key factors in some seasons. Path analysis showed that there was complex unidirectional causal relationship between particles and individual or combined effects, and NO₂ and CO were key factors affecting PM_2.5. The hot and cold areas changed little with the seasons. All the above results suggests that planning the industrial layout, adjusting industrial structure, joint prevention and control were necessary measure to reduce particles concentration.

Ultrafine Particle Features Associated with Pro-Inflammatory and Oxidative Responses: Implications for Health Studies

Suspected detrimental health effects associated with ultrafine particles (UFPs) are impressive. However, epidemiological evidence is still limited. This is potentially due to challenges related to UFP exposure assessment and the lack of consensus on a standard methodology for UFPs. It is imperative to focus future health studies on those UFP metrics more likely to represent health effects. This is the purpose of this paper, where we extend the results obtained during the CARE (“Carbonaceous Aerosol in Rome and Environs”) experiment started in 2017 in Rome. The major purpose is to investigate features of airborne UFPs associated with pro-inflammatory and oxidative responses. Aerosol chemical, microphysical, and optical properties were measured, together with the oxidative potential, at temporal scales relevant for UFPs (minutes to hours). The biological responses were obtained using both in-vivo and in-vitro tests carried out directly under environmental conditions. Findings indicate that caution should be taken when assessing health-relevant exposure to UFPs through the conventional metrics like total particle number concentration and PM2.5 and Black Carbon (BC) mass concentration. Conversely, we recommend adding to these, a UFP source apportionment analysis and indicators for both ultrafine black carbon and the size of particles providing most of the total surface area to available toxic molecules.

Fifteen Years of Airborne Particulates in Vitro Toxicology in Milano: Lessons and Perspectives Learned

Air pollution is one of the world’s leading environmental causes of death. The epidemiological relationship between outdoor air pollution and the onset of health diseases associated with death is now well established. Relevant toxicological proofs are now dissecting the molecular processes that cause inflammation, reactive species generation, and DNA damage. In addition, new data are pointing out the role of airborne particulates in the modulation of genes and microRNAs potentially involved in the onset of human diseases. In the present review we collect the relevant findings on airborne particulates of one of the biggest hot spots of air pollution in Europe (i.e., the Po Valley), in the largest urban area of this region, Milan. The different aerodynamic fractions are discussed separately with a specific focus on fine and ultrafine particles that are now the main focus of several studies. Results are compared with more recent international findings. Possible future perspectives of research are proposed to create a new discussion among scientists working on the toxicological effects of airborne particles.

Spatiotemporal variations of chlorinated paraffins in PM2.5 from Chinese cities: Implication of the shifting and upgrading of its industries

To highlight the levels and distributions and to assess the risk of human exposure of chlorinated paraffins (CPs) in PM_2.5 in China, the concentrations and homologue patterns of short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (MCCPs) in PM_2.5 from 10 cities in China were studied in 2013 and 2014. The mean concentrations of ΣSCCPs and ΣMCCPs were 19.9 ± 41.1 ng m^-3 and 15.6 ± 18.6 ng m^-3, respectively. Unexpectedly, the highest pollution levels occurred in two central cities (Xinxiang and Taiyuan) rather than in well-known eastern megacities such as Beijing, Nanjing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou. By comparing with earlier research, it has indicated the trend of CPs industry shifting from large eastern cities to small and medium-sized cities in central China to some extent. In addition, the composition pattern of SCCPs demonstrated an obviously differences from previous studies, with C₁₁ and Cl₇ predominating and accounting for 45.1% and 24.9%, respectively. Meanwhile, the ratio of MCCPs/SCCPs in most cities was less than 1.00 except for Guangzhou (1.92), Shanghai (1.29), and Taiyuan (1.11). Combined with the results of correlation analysis and principal component analysis, the observed pollution characteristics of CPs in PM_2.5 had similar sources, which were more influenced by the ratio of MCCPs/SCCPs than by organic carbon, elemental carbon, temperature, population, and gross domestic product. Overall, the composition of CPs reflected the characteristics of local industrial production and consumption, and also implied efforts of Chinese enterprises to reduce the content of short carbon groups of CPs production. The CPs mainly deposited in head airways during the process of entering the human respiratory system. However, at the present levels, there was no significant carcinogenic effect for human health.

Ultrafine particles: Levels in ambient air during outdoor sport activities

Conducting aerobic activity on regular basis is recognised as one of the steps to maintain healthier lifestyle. The positive outcomes though can be outweighed if conducted in polluted atmosphere. Furthermore, the specific inhalation during exercising, which results in bypass of nasal filtration systems and deeper penetration into the respiratory system, might result in higher risks especially to pollutants such as ultrafine particles (UFP), which aerodynamic particle diameter are <100 nm. Thus, this work aims to evaluate UFP levels at sites used for conducting physical sport activities outdoors and to estimate the respective inhalation doses considering various scenarios and different physical activities. Monitoring of UFP was conducted during three weeks (May-June 2015) at four different sites (S1-S4) regularly used to conduct physical exercising. The results showed that UFP highly varied (medians 5.1-20.0 × 10³ # cm^-3) across the four sites, with the highest UFP obtained when exercising next to trafficked streets whereas S3 and S4 (a garden and city park) exhibited 2-4 times lower UFP. In view of the obtained UFP concentrations, the estimated inhalation doses ranged 1.73 × 10⁸-3.81 × 10⁸ # kg^-1 when conducting moderately intense sport activities and 1.93 × 10⁸-5.95 × 10⁸ # kg^-1 for highly intense ones. Highly intense activities (i.e. running) led to twice higher UFP exposure; children and youths (5-17 yrs old) experienced 203-267% higher doses. Considering the age- and gender- differences, estimated UFP doses of males were 1.1-2.8 times higher than of females. Finally, UFP inhalation doses estimated for walking (commuting to work and/or schools) were 1.6-7.5 times lower than when conducting sport activities. Thus to protect public health and to promote healthy and physically active lifestyle, strategies to minimize the negative impacts of air pollution should be developed and implemented.

Source apportionment of particle number size distribution in urban background and traffic stations in four European cities

Ultrafine particles (UFP) are suspected of having significant impacts on health. However, there have only been a limited number of studies on sources of UFP compared to larger particles. In this work, we identified and quantified the sources and processes contributing to particle number size distributions (PNSD) using Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) at six monitoring stations (four urban background and two street canyon) from four European cities: Barcelona, Helsinki, London, and Zurich. These cities are characterised by different meteorological conditions and emissions. The common sources across all stations were Photonucleation, traffic emissions (3 sources, from fresh to aged emissions: Traffic nucleation, Fresh traffic - mode diameter between 13 and 37 nm, and Urban - mode diameter between 44 and 81 nm, mainly traffic but influenced by other sources in some cities), and Secondary particles. The Photonucleation factor was only directly identified by PMF for Barcelona, while an additional split of the Nucleation factor (into Photonucleation and Traffic nucleation) by using NO_x concentrations as a proxy for traffic emissions was performed for all other stations. The sum of all traffic sources resulted in a maximum relative contributions ranging from 71 to 94% (annual average) thereby being the main contributor at all stations. In London and Zurich, the relative contribution of the sources did not vary significantly between seasons. In contrast, the high levels of solar radiation in Barcelona led to an important contribution of Photonucleation particles (ranging from 14% during the winter period to 35% during summer). Biogenic emissions were a source identified only in Helsinki (both in the urban background and street canyon stations), that contributed importantly during summer (23% in urban background). Airport emissions contributed to Nucleation particles at urban background sites, as the highest concentrations of this source took place when the wind was blowing from the airport direction in all cities.

Modeling of the Concentrations of Ultrafine Particles in the Plumes of Ships in the Vicinity of Major Harbors

Marine traffic in harbors can be responsible for significant atmospheric concentrations of ultrafine particles (UFPs), which have widely recognized negative effects on human health. It is therefore essential to model and measure the time evolution of the number size distributions and chemical composition of UFPs in ship exhaust to assess the resulting exposure in the vicinity of shipping routes. In this study, a sequential modelling chain was developed and applied, in combination with the data measured and collected in major harbor areas in the cities of Helsinki and Turku in Finland, during winter and summer in 2010–2011. The models described ship emissions, atmospheric dispersion, and aerosol dynamics, complemented with a time–microenvironment–activity model to estimate the short-term UFP exposure. We estimated the dilution ratio during the initial fast expansion of the exhaust plume to be approximately equal to eight. This dispersion regime resulted in a fully formed nucleation mode (denoted as Nuc₂). Different selected modelling assumptions about the chemical composition of Nuc₂ did not have an effect on the formation of nucleation mode particles. Aerosol model simulations of the dispersing ship plume also revealed a partially formed nucleation mode (Nuc₁; peaking at 1.5 nm), consisting of freshly nucleated sulfate particles and condensed organics that were produced within the first few seconds. However, subsequent growth of the new particles was limited, due to efficient scavenging by the larger particles originating from the ship exhaust. The transport of UFPs downwind of the ship track increased the hourly mean UFP concentrations in the neighboring residential areas by a factor of two or more up to a distance of 3600 m, compared with the corresponding UFP concentrations in the urban background. The substantially increased UFP concentrations due to ship traffic significantly affected the daily mean exposures in residential areas located in the vicinity of the harbors.

Association of Long-Term Exposure to Fine Particulate Matter and Cardio-Metabolic Diseases in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review

: Background: Numerous epidemiological studies indicated high levels of particulate matter less than2.5 μm diameter (PM2.5) as a major cardiovascular risk factor. Most of the studies have been conducted in high-income countries (HICs), where average levels of PM2.5 are far less compared to low- and middle- income countries (LMICs), and their socio-economic profile, disease burden, and PM speciation/composition are very different. We systematically reviewed the association of long-term exposure to PM2.5 and cardio-metabolic diseases (CMDs) in LMICs.

METHODS

Multiple databases were searched for English articles with date limits until March 2018. We included studies investigating the association of long-term exposure to PM2.5 (defined as an annual average/average measure for 3 more days of PM2.5 exposure) and CMDs, such as hospital admissions, prevalence, and deaths due to CMDs, conducted in LMICs as defined by World Bank. We excluded studies which employed exposure proxy measures, studies among specific occupational groups, and specific episodes of air pollution.

RESULTS

A total of 5567 unique articles were identified, of which only 17 articles were included for final review, and these studies were from Brazil, Bulgaria, China, India, and Mexico. Outcome assessed were hypertension, type 2 diabetes mellitus and insulin resistance, and cardiovascular disease (CVD)-related emergency room visits/admissions, death, and mortality. Largely a positive association between exposure to PM2.5 and CMDs was found, and CVD mortality with effect estimates ranging from 0.24% to 6.11% increased per 10 μg/m3 in PM2.5. CVD-related hospitalizations and emergency room visits increased by 0.3% to 19.6%. Risk factors like hypertension had an odds ratio of 1.14, and type 2 diabetes mellitus had an odds ratio ranging from 1.14-1.32. Diversity of exposure assessment and health outcomes limited the ability to perform a meta-analysis.

CONCLUSION

Limited evidence on the association of long-term exposure to PM2.5 and CMDs in the LMICs context warrants cohort studies to establish the association.

Exposure to Atmospheric Ultrafine Particles Induces Severe Lung Inflammatory Response and Tissue Remodeling in Mice

Exposure to particulate matter (PM) is leading to various respiratory health outcomes. Compared to coarse and fine particles, less is known about the effects of chronic exposure to ultrafine particles, despite their higher number and reactivity. In the present study, we performed a time-course experiment in mice to better analyze the lung impact of atmospheric ultrafine particles, with regard to the effects induced by fine particles collected on the same site. Trace element and PAH analysis demonstrated the almost similar chemical composition of both particle fractions. Mice were exposed intranasally to FF or UFP according to acute (10, 50 or 100 µg of PM) and repeated (10 µg of PM 3 times a week during 1 or 3 months) exposure protocols. More particle-laden macrophages and even greater chronic inflammation were observed in the UFP-exposed mice lungs. Histological analyses revealed that about 50% of lung tissues were damaged in mice exposed to UFP for three months versus only 35% in FF-exposed mice. These injuries were characterized by alveolar wall thickening, macrophage infiltrations, and cystic lesions. Taken together, these results strongly motivate the update of current regulations regarding ambient PM concentrations to include UFP and limit their emission.

Healthy Air, Healthy Brains: Advancing Air Pollution Policy to Protect Children's Health

Evidence is growing on the adverse neurodevelopmental effects of exposure to combustion-related air pollution. Project TENDR (Targeting Environmental Neurodevelopmental Risks), a unique collaboration of leading scientists, health professionals, and children's and environmental health advocates, has identified combustion-related air pollutants as critical targets for action to protect healthy brain development. We present policy recommendations for maintaining and strengthening federal environmental health protections, advancing state and local actions, and supporting scientific research to inform effective strategies for reducing children's exposures to combustion-related air pollution. Such actions not only would improve children's neurological development but also would have the important co-benefit of climate change mitigation and further improvements in other health conditions.

The economic benefits of fulfilling the World Health Organization's limits for particulates: A case study in Algeciras Bay (Spain)

Algeciras Bay is an important industrial and port zone in the south of Spain whose pollution by particulate matter surpasses the threshold levels recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) in its 2005 Guide on Air Quality. This study analyses the mortality avoided and the economic benefit which would be derived from a reduction of the pollution of PM2.5 and PM10 to the levels recommended by the WHO in Algeciras Bay in the period 2005-2015. The analysis carried out shows that the industrial zones, such as Los Barrios and San Roque, are those which have greater levels of pollution and in which the relative risk is greater. The calculations for Algeciras Bay between 2000 and 2015 show 182 deaths which would be avoided if the particulate matter pollution were reduced to the levels recommended by the WHO. Likewise, the economic valuation which this impact has on health is carried out through two concepts: the cost of illness and the Value of Statistical Life (VSL). The result shows that the economic benefit that would come out with the cost of illness valuation is 5,329,110€ and from the VSL is 414,787,113€. Implications: PM_2.5 has a greater concentration in industrial localities and is linked to the industrial activity. When the particulate matter pollution is reduced to the levels recommended by the WHO in an industrialised area such as Algeciras (Spain), 182 deaths which would be avoided. The result shows that the economic benefit that would come out with the cost of illness valuation is 5,329,110€ and from the value of statistical life is 414,787,113€.

Association between Mortality and Short-Term Exposure to Particles, Ozone and Nitrogen Dioxide in Stockholm, Sweden

In this study, the effects on daily mortality in Stockholm associated with short-term exposure to ultrafine particles (measured as number of particles with a diameter larger than 4 nm, PNC₄), black carbon (BC) and coarse particles (PM_2.5–10) have been compared with the effects from more common traffic-pollution indicators (PM₁₀, PM_2.5 and NO₂) and O₃ during the period 2000–2016. Air pollution exposure was estimated from measurements at a 20 m high building in central Stockholm. The associations between daily mortality lagged up to two days (lag 02) and the different air pollutants were modelled by using Poisson regression. The pollutants with the strongest indications of an independent effect on daily mortality were O₃, PM_2.5–10 and PM₁₀. In the single-pollutant model, an interquartile range (IQR) increase in O₃ was associated with an increase in daily mortality of 2.0% (95% CI: 1.1–3.0) for lag 01 and 1.9% (95% CI: 1.0–2.9) for lag 02. An IQR increase in PM_2.5–10 was associated with an increase in daily mortality of 0.8% (95% CI: 0.1–1.5) for lag 01 and 1.1% (95% CI: 0.4–1.8) for lag 02. PM₁₀ was associated with a significant increase only at lag 02, with 0.8% (95% CI: 0.08–1.4) increase in daily mortality associated with an IQR increase in the concentration. NO₂ exhibits negative associations with mortality. The significant excess risk associated with O₃ remained significant in two-pollutant models after adjustments for PM_2.5–10, BC and NO₂. The significant excess risk associated with PM_2.5–10 remained significant in a two-pollutant model after adjustment for NO₂. The significantly negative associations for NO₂ remained significant in two-pollutant models after adjustments for PM_2.5–10, O₃ and BC. A potential reason for these findings, where statistically significant excess risks were found for O₃, PM_2.5–10 and PM₁₀, but not for NO₂, PM_2.5, PNC₄ and BC, is behavioral factors that lead to misclassification in the exposure. The concentrations of O₃ and PM_2.5–10 are in general highest during sunny and dry days during the spring, when exposure to outdoor air tend to increase, while the opposite applies to NO₂, PNC₄ and BC, with the highest concentrations during the short winter days with cold weather, when people are less exposed to outdoor air.

Occupational Exposure to Fine Particles and Ultrafine Particles in a Steelmaking Foundry

Several studies have shown an increased mortality rate for different types of tumors, respiratory disease and cardiovascular morbidity associated with foundry work. Airborne particles were investigated in a steelmaking foundry using an electric low-pressure impactor (ELPI+™), a Philips Aerasense Nanotracer and traditional sampling equipment. Determination of metallic elements in the collected particles was carried out by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The median of ultrafine particle (UFP) concentration was between 4.91 × 103 and 2.33 × 105 part/cm3 (max. 9.48 × 106 part/cm3). Background levels ranged from 1.97 × 104 to 3.83 × 104 part/cm3. Alveolar and deposited tracheobronchial surface area doses ranged from 1.3 × 102 to 8.7 × 103 mm2, and 2.6 × 101 to 1.3 × 103 mm2, respectively. Resulting inhalable and respirable fraction and metallic elements were below limit values set by Italian legislation. A variable concentration of metallic elements was detected in the different fractions of UFPs in relation to the sampling site, the emission source and the size range. This data could be useful in order to increase the knowledge about occupational exposure to fine and ultrafine particles and to design studies aimed to investigate early biological effects associated with the exposure to particulate matter in the foundry industries.

Long-Term Changes of Source Apportioned Particle Number Concentrations in a Metropolitan Area of the Northeastern United States

The northeastern United States has experienced significant emissions reductions in the last two decades leading to a decrease in PM2.5, major gaseous pollutants (SO2, CO, NOx) and ultrafine particles (UFPs) concentrations. Emissions controls were implemented for coal-fired power plants, and new heavy-duty diesel trucks were equipped with particle traps and NOx control systems, and ultralow sulfur content is mandatory for both road and non-road diesel as well as residual oil for space heating. At the same time, economic changes also influenced the trends in air pollutants. Investigating the influence of these changes on ultrafine particle sources is fundamental to determine the success of the mitigation strategies and to plan future actions. Particle size distributions have been measured in Rochester, NY since January 2002. The particle sources were investigated with positive matrix factorization (PMF) of the size distributions (11–470 nm) and measured criteria pollutants during five periods (2002–2003, 2004–2007, 2008–2010, 2011–2013, and 2014–2016) and three seasons (winter, summer, and transition). Monthly, weekly, and hourly source contributions patterns were evaluated.

Associations of Long-Term Exposure to Ultrafine Particles and Nitrogen Dioxide With Increased Incidence of Congestive Heart Failure and Acute Myocardial Infarction

Although long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide has been linked to cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality, little is known about the association between ultrafine particles (UFPs), defined as particles less than or equal to 0.1 μm in diameter, and incidence of major CVD events. We conducted a population-based cohort study to assess the associations of chronic exposure to UFPs and nitrogen dioxide with incident congestive heart failure (CHF) and acute myocardial infarction. Our study population comprised all long-term Canadian residents aged 30-100 years who lived in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, during the years 1996-2012. We estimated annual concentrations of UFPs and nitrogen dioxide by means of land-use regression models and assigned these estimates to participants' postal-code addresses in each year during the follow-up period. We estimated hazard ratios for the associations of UFPs and nitrogen dioxide with incident CVD using random-effects Cox proportional hazards models. We controlled for smoking and obesity using an indirect adjustment method. Our cohorts comprised approximately 1.1 million individuals at baseline. In single-pollutant models, each interquartile-range increase in UFP exposure was associated with increased incidence of CHF (hazard ratio for an interquartile-range increase (HRIQR) = 1.03, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.02, 1.05) and acute myocardial infarction (HRIQR = 1.05, 95% CI: 1.02, 1.07). Adjustment for fine particles and nitrogen dioxide did not materially change these estimated associations. Exposure to nitrogen dioxide was also independently associated with higher CHF incidence (HRIQR = 1.04, 95% CI: 1.03, 1.06).

Long-Term Exposure to Ultrafine Particles and Incidence of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Disease in a Prospective Study of a Dutch Cohort

BACKGROUND

There is growing evidence that exposure to ultrafine particles (UFP; particles smaller than [Formula: see text]) may play an underexplored role in the etiology of several illnesses, including cardiovascular disease (CVD).

OBJECTIVES

We aimed o investigate the relationship between long-term exposure to ambient UFP and incident cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease (CVA). As a secondary objective, we sought to compare effect estimates for UFP with those derived for other air pollutants, including estimates from two-pollutant models.

METHODS

Using a prospective cohort of 33,831 Dutch residents, we studied the association between long-term exposure to UFP (predicted via land use regression) and incident disease using Cox proportional hazard models. Hazard ratios (HR) for UFP were compared to HRs for more routinely monitored air pollutants, including particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter [Formula: see text] ([Formula: see text]), PM with aerodynamic diameter [Formula: see text] ([Formula: see text]), and [Formula: see text].

RESULTS

Long-term UFP exposure was associated with an increased risk for all incident CVD [[Formula: see text] per [Formula: see text]; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.03, 1.34], myocardial infarction (MI) ([Formula: see text]; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.79), and heart failure ([Formula: see text]; 95% CI: 1.17, 2.66). Positive associations were also estimated for [Formula: see text] ([Formula: see text]; 95% CI: 1.01, 1.48 per [Formula: see text]) and coarse PM ([Formula: see text]; HR for all [Formula: see text]; 95% CI: 1.01, 1.45 per [Formula: see text]). CVD was not positively associated with [Formula: see text] (HR for all [Formula: see text]; 95% CI: 0.75, 1.28 per [Formula: see text]). HRs for UFP and CVAs were positive, but not significant. In two-pollutant models ([Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text]), positive associations tended to remain for UFP, while HRs for [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] generally attenuated towards the null.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings strengthen the evidence that UFP exposure plays an important role in cardiovascular health and that risks of ambient air pollution may have been underestimated based on conventional air pollution metrics. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP3047.

Study of particle number size distributions at Azadi terminal in Tehran, comparing high-traffic and no traffic area

Vehicle traffic is known as the anthropogenic aerosol source in megacities. Exposure to ambient air pollution, especially particulate matter has become the most environmental risk factor. The main aim of this study is to determine the particle number and their size distribution in Tehran at Azadi terminal (located in the West of Tehran), crossing of Nawab and Azadi streets the area with high traffic, and campus of Tehran University as an area without traffic. Particle size distribution (0.3-1 μm) was measured using a Grimm Environmental Dust Monitor and was conducted in two seasons, hot and cold (summer 2016 and winter 2016). The measurement was performed twice per month. Although the average number of particles at Azadi Terminal was more than the other two locations in both seasons but it was not significant) p > 0.05). The average number of particles larger than 0.3 μm was 286.72 ± 129.55 and 183.61 ± 86.79 cm-3 in winter and summer respectively. In relation to particles size distribution, the average number of particles larger than 0.4, 0.5, 0.65, 0.8 and 1 μm in winter and summer were 111.5 ± 120, 29.3 ± 23.7, 8.2 ± 5.8, 4 ± 3, 2 ± 1.5 and 52.5 ± 37, 14.4 ± 10.8, 6.1 ± 5, 3.8 ± 3.5, 2.3 ± 2 cm-3 respectively. In the current study the highest number of particles significantly observed in winter time in comparison to summer. In addition, had no significant difference between the number of particles at three sampling locations.

An instantaneous spatiotemporal model for predicting traffic-related ultrafine particle concentration through mobile noise measurements

People living near roadways are exposed to high concentrations of ultrafine particles (UFP, diameter < 100 nm). This can result in adverse health effects such as respiratory illness and cardiovascular diseases. However, accurately characterizing the UFP number concentration requires expensive sets of instruments. The development of an UFP surrogate with cheap and convenient measures is needed. In this study, we used a mobile measurement platform with a Fast Mobility Particle Sizer (FMPS) and sound level meter to investigate the spatiotemporal relations of noise and UFP and identify the hotspots of UFP. UFP concentration levels were significantly influenced by temporal and spatial variations (p < 0.001). We proposed a Generalized Additive Models to predict UFP number concentration in the study area. The model uses noise and meteorological covariates to predict the UFP number concentrations at an industrial site in Taichung, Taiwan. During the one year sampling campaign from fall 2013 to summer 2014, mobile measurements were performed at least one week for each season, both on weekdays and weekends. The proposed model can explain 80% of deviance and has coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.77. Moreover, the developed UFP model was able to adequately predict UFP concentrations, and can provide people with a convenient way to determine UFP levels. Finally, the results from this study could help facilitate the future development of noise mobile measurement.