Biomonitoring of pesticides, pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs in a freshwater invertebrate to estimate toxic or effect pressure

Occurrence, ecotoxicity and ecological risks of psychoactive substances in surface waters

Psychoactive substances (PSs) represent a subset of emerging contaminants. Their widespread production and utilization contribute to a growing ecological burden and risk on a global scale. Conventional wastewater treatment methods have proven insufficient in adequately removing psychoactive substances, leading to their occurrence in surface water ecosystems worldwide. As of present, however, a thorough understanding of their geographical prevalence and distribution patterns remains elusive. Further, in the existing literature, there is a scarcity of comprehensive overviews that systematically summarize the toxicity of various psychoactive substances towards aquatic organisms. Through summarizing almost 140 articles, the present study provides an overview of the sources, pollution status, and biotoxicity of psychoactive substances in surface waters, as well as an assessment of their ecological risks. Concentrations of several psychoactive substances in surface waters were found to be as high as hundreds or even thousands of ng·L-1. In parallel, accumulation of psychoactive substances in the tissues or organs of aquatic organisms was found to potentially cause certain adverse effects, including behavioral disorders, organ damage, and DNA changes. Oxidative stress was found to be a significant factor in the toxic effects of psychoactive substances on organisms. The application of the risk quotient approach indicated that psychoactive substances posed a medium to high risk in certain surface water bodies, as well as the need for sustained long-term attention and management strategies.

Exposure to environmental pharmaceuticals affects the macromolecular composition of mussels digestive glands

Human pharmaceuticals represent a major challenge in natural environment. A better knowledge on their mechanisms of action and adverse effects on cellular pathways is fundamental to predict long-term consequences for marine wildlife. The FTIRI Imaging (FTIRI) spectroscopy represents a vibrational technique allowing to map specific areas of non-homogeneous biological samples, providing a unique biochemical and ultrastructural fingerprint of the tissue. In this study, FTIRI technique has been applied, for the first time, to characterize (i) the chemical building blocks of digestive glands of Mytilus galloprovincialis, (ii) alterations and (iii) resilience of macromolecular composition, after a 14-days exposure to 0.5 µg/L of carbamazepine (CBZ), valsartan (VAL) and their mixture, followed by a 14-days recovery period. Spectral features of mussels digestive glands provided insights on composition and topographical distribution of main groups of biological macromolecules, such as proteins, lipids, and glycosylated compounds. Pharmaceuticals caused an increase in the total amount of protein and a significant decrease of lipids levels. Changes in macromolecular features reflected the modulation of specific molecular and biochemical pathways thus supporting our knowledge on mechanisms of action of such emerging pollutants. Overall, the applied approach could represent an added value within integrated strategies for the effects-based evaluation of environmental contaminants.

A high-affinity fluorescent probe for human uridine-disphosphate glucuronosyltransferase 1A9 function monitoring under environmental pollutant exposure

Uridine-disphosphate glucuronosyltransferase 1A9 (UGT1A9), an important detoxification and inactivation enzyme for toxicants, regulates the exposure level of environmental pollutants in the human body and induces various toxicological consequences. However, an effective tool for high-throughput monitoring of UGT1A9 function under exposure to environmental pollutants is still lacking. In this study, 1,3-dichloro-7-hydroxy-9,9-dimethylacridin-2(9H)-one (DDAO) was found to exhibit excellent specificity and high affinity towards human UGT1A9. Remarkable changes in absorption and fluorescence signals after reacting with UGT1A9 were observed, due to the intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) mechanism. Importantly, DDAO was successfully applied to monitor the biological functions of UGT1A9 in response to environmental pollutant exposure not only in microsome samples, but also in living cells by using a high-throughput screening method. Meanwhile, the identified pollutants that disturb UGT1A9 functions were found to significantly influence the exposure level and retention time of bisphenol S/bisphenol A in living cells. Furthermore, the molecular mechanism underlying the inhibition of UGT1A9 by these pollutant-derived disruptors was elucidated by molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations. Collectively, a fluorescent probe to characterize the responses of UGT1A9 towards environmental pollutants was developed, which was beneficial for elucidating the health hazards of environmental pollutants from a new perspective.

Do Pharmaceuticals in the Environment Pose a Risk to Wildlife?

The vast majority of knowledge related to the question "To what extent do pharmaceuticals in the environment pose a risk to wildlife?" stems from the Asian vulture crisis (>99% decline of some species of Old World vultures on the Indian subcontinent related to the veterinary use of the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug [NSAID] diclofenac). The hazard of diclofenac and other NSAIDs (carprofen, flunixin, ketoprofen, nimesulide, phenylbutazone) to vultures and other avian species has since been demonstrated; indeed, only meloxicam and tolfenamic acid have been found to be vulture-safe. Since diclofenac was approved for veterinary use in Spain and Italy in 2013 (home to ~95% of vultures in Europe), the risk of NSAIDs to vultures in these countries has become one of the principal concerns related to pharmaceuticals and wildlife. Many of the other bodies of work on pharmaceutical exposure, hazard and risk to wildlife also relate to adverse effects in birds (e.g., poisoning of scavenging birds in North America and Europe from animal carcasses containing pentobarbital, secondary and even tertiary poisoning of birds exposed to pesticides used in veterinary medicine as cattle dips, migratory birds as a vector for the transfer of antimicrobial and antifungal resistance). Although there is some research related to endocrine disruption in reptiles and potential exposure of aerial insectivores, there remain numerous knowledge gaps for risk posed by pharmaceuticals to amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. Developing noninvasive sampling techniques and new approach methodologies (e.g., genomic, in vitro, in silico, in ovo) is important if we are to bridge the current knowledge gaps without extensive vertebrate testing. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:595-610. © 2022 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC. This article has been contributed to by U.S. Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.

Seasonal profile of common pharmaceuticals in edible bivalve molluscs

Pharmaceuticals are recognised as environmental contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) due to their increasing presence in the aquatic environment, along with high bioactivity linked to their therapeutic use. Therefore, information on environmental levels is urgently required. This study examined the presence of a range of common pharmaceuticals in oysters and mussels intended for human consumption from England and Wales using stable isotope dilution tandem mass spectrometry. A range of compounds were detected in bivalve tissue, with the Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor antidepressant sertraline being most abundant, reaching a maximum concentration of 22.1 ng/g wet weight shellfish tissue. Levels of all pharmaceuticals showed seasonal and geographical patterns. A dietary risk assessment revealed that the levels of pharmaceuticals identified in bivalve molluscs represent a clear hazard, but not a risk for the consumer. This study highlights the requirement for further monitoring of the presence of pharmaceuticals and other CECs in bivalve molluscs.

Occurrence, ecological risk, and advanced removal methods of herbicides in waters: a timely review

Coastal pollution caused by the importation of agricultural herbicides is one of the main environmental problems that directly affect the coastal primary productivity and even the safety of human seafood. It is urgent to evaluate the ecological risk objectively and explore feasible removal strategies. However, existing studies focus on the runoff distribution and risk assessment of specific herbicides in specific areas, and compared with soil environment, there are few studies on remediation methods for water environment. Therefore, we systematically reviewed the current situation of herbicide pollution in global coastal waters and the dose-response relationships of various herbicides on phytoplankton and higher trophic organisms from the perspective of ecological risks. In addition, we believe that compared with the traditional single physical and chemical remediation methods, biological remediation and its combined technology are the most promising methods for herbicide pollution remediation currently. Therefore, we focus on the application prospects, challenges, and management strategies of new bioremediation systems related to biology, such as constructed wetlands, membrane bioreactor processes, and microbial co-metabolism, in order to provide more advanced methods for reducing herbicide pollution in the water environment.

Identification of polar organic chemicals in the aquatic foodweb: Combining high-resolution mass spectrometry and trend analysis

Environmental risk assessment of chemical contaminants requires prioritizing of substances taken up by biota as it is a starting point for potential adverse effects. Although knowledge about the occurrence of known chemical pollutants in aquatic organisms has significantly improved during the last decade, there is still a poor understanding for a broad range of more polar compounds. To tackle this issue, we proposed an approach that identifies bioaccumulative and biomagnifiable polar chemicals using liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization to high resolution tandem mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS/MS) and combine it with trend analysis using hierarchical clustering. As a proof-of-concept, this approach was implemented on various organisms and compartments (sediment, litter leaves, periphytic biofilm, invertebrates and fish) collected from a small urban river. HRMS/MS data measured via data-independent acquisition mode were retrospectively analysed using two analytical strategies: (1) retrospective target and (2) suspect/non-target screening. In the retrospective target analysis, 56 of 361 substances spanning a broad range of contaminant classes were detected (i.e. 26 in fish, 18 in macroinvertebrates, 28 in leaves, 29 in periphyton and 32 in sediments, with only 7 common to all compartments), among which 49 could be quantified using reference standards. The suspect screening approach based on two suspect lists (in-house, Norman SusDat) led to the confirmation of 5 compounds with standards (three xenobiotics at level 1 and two lipids at level 2) and tentative identification of seven industrial or natural chemicals at level 2 and 3 through a mass spectra library match. Overall, this proof-of-concept study provided a more comprehensive picture of the exposure of biota to emerging contaminants (i.e., the internal chemical exposome) and potential bioaccumulation or biomagnification of polar compounds along the trophic chain.

An effective method for the simultaneous extraction of 173 contaminants of emerging concern in freshwater invasive species and its application

A robust and efficient extraction method was developed to detect a broad range of pollutants of emerging interest in three freshwater invasive species: American red crab (Prokambarus clarkii), Asian clam (Corbicula fluminea), and pumpkinseed fish (Lepomis gibbosus). One native species, "petxinot" clam (Anodonta cygnea), was also evaluated. Invasive species are often more resistant to contamination and could be used in biomonitoring studies to assess the effect of contaminants of emerging concern on aquatic ecosystems while preserving potentially threatened native species. So far, most extraction methods developed for this purpose have focused on analyzing fish and generally focus on a limited number of compounds, especially analyzing compounds from the same family. In this sense, we set out to optimize a method that would allow the simultaneous extraction of 87 PhACs, 11 flame retardants, 21 per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances, and 54 pesticides. The optimized method is based on ultrasound-assisted solvent extraction. Two tests were performed during method development, one to choose the extraction solvent with the best recovery efficiencies and one to select the best clean-up. The analysis was performed by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry. The method obtained recoveries between 40 and 120% and relative standard deviations of less than 25% for 85% of the analytes in the four validated matrices. Limits of quantification between 0.01 ng g-1 and 22 ng g-1 were obtained. Application of the method on real samples from the Albufera Natural Park of Valencia (Spain) confirmed the presence of contaminants of emerging concern in all samples, such as acetaminophen, hydrochlorothiazide, tramadol, PFOS, carbendazim, and fenthion. PFAS were the group of compounds with the highest mean concentrations. C. fluminea was the species with the highest detection frequency, and P. clarkii had the highest average concentrations, so its use is prioritized for biomonitoring studies.

A One-Health environmental risk assessment of contaminants of emerging concern in London's waterways throughout the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic had huge impacts on global urban populations, activity and health, yet little is known about attendant consequences for urban river ecosystems. We detected significant changes in occurrence and risks from contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in waterways across Greater London (UK) during the pandemic. We were able to rapidly identify and monitor large numbers of CECs in n = 390 samples across 2019-2021 using novel direct-injection liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry methods for scalable targeted analysis, suspect screening and prioritisation of CEC risks. A total of 10,029 measured environmental concentrations (MECs) were obtained for 66 unique CECs. Pharmaceutical MECs decreased during lockdown in 2020 in the R. Thames (p ≤ 0.001), but then increased significantly in 2021 (p ≤ 0.01). For the tributary rivers, the R. Lee, Beverley Brook, R. Wandle and R. Hogsmill were the most impacted, primarily via wastewater treatment plant effluent and combined sewer overflows. In the R. Hogsmill in particular, pharmaceutical MEC trends were generally correlated with NHS prescription statistics, likely reflecting limited wastewater dilution. Suspect screening of ∼ 1,200 compounds tentatively identified 25 additional CECs at the five most impacted sites, including metabolites such as O-desmethylvenlafaxine, an EU Watch List compound. Lastly, risk quotients (RQs) ≥ 0.1 were calculated for 21 compounds across the whole Greater London freshwater catchment, of which seven were of medium risk (RQ ≥ 1.0) and three were in the high-risk category (RQ ≥ 10), including imidacloprid (RQ = 19.6), azithromycin (15.7) and diclofenac (10.5). This is the largest spatiotemporal dataset of its kind for any major capital city globally and the first for Greater London, representing ∼ 16 % of the population of England, and delivering a foundational One-Health case study in the third largest city in Europe across a global pandemic.

Prioritizing pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) based on occurrence-persistency-mobility-toxicity (OPMT) criteria: an application to the Brazilian scenario

A study of Quantitative Structure Activity Relationship (QSAR) was performed to assess the possible adverse effects of 25 pharmaceuticals commonly found in the Brazilian water compartments and to establish a ranking of environmental concern. The occurrence (O), the persistence (P), the mobility (M), and the toxicity (T) of these compounds in the Brazilian drinking water reservoirs were evaluated. Moreover, to verify the predicted OPMT dataset outcomes, a quality index (QI) was also developed and applied. The main results showed that: (i) after in silico predictions through VEGA QSAR, 19 from 25 pharmaceuticals consumed in Brazil were classified as persistent; (ii) moreover, after in silico predictions through OPERA QSAR, 15 among those 19 compounds considered persistent, were also classified as mobile or very mobile. On the other hand, the results of toxicity indicate that only 9 pharmaceuticals were classified with the highest toxicity level. Ultimately, the QI of 7 from 25 pharmaceuticals were categorized as 'optimal'; 15 pharmaceuticals were categorized as 'good'; and only 3 pharmaceuticals were categorized as 'regular'. Therefore, based on the QI criteria used, it is possible to assume that this OPMT prediction dataset had a good reliability. Efforts to reduce emissions of OPMT-pharmaceuticals in Brazilian drinking water reservoirs are encouraged.

Cellular and oxidative stress responses of Mytilus galloprovincialis to chlorpromazine: implications of an antipsychotic drug exposure study

Introduction: Bivalve molluscs like Mytilus galloprovincialis are valuable bioindicators due to their filter-feeding lifestyle, wide distribution, and ability to concentrate xenobiotics. Studying the effects of pharmaceuticals on these molluscs is crucial given their presence in surface waters. This study investigated the response of M. galloprovincialis to chlorpromazine (Cpz), an antipsychotic with antiviral activity against influenza, HIV, and coronaviruses in human cells. Methods: In this study, we examined the 14-day impact of chlorpromazine (Cpz) on the model species M. galloprovincialis at two concentrations (Cpz 1: 12 ng L-1 or 37 pM; Cpz 2: 12 µg L-1 or 37 nM). To ensure controlled exposure, a stock solution of Cpz was prepared and introduced into the tanks to match the intended concentrations. Seawater and stock solutions were refreshed every 48 h. The primary focus of this study centered on evaluating cell viability, cell volume regulation, and oxidative stress indicators. Results: Although cell volume regulation, as assessed by decreasing regulatory volume Regulation volume decrease, did not show statistically significant changes during the experiment, digestive cell viability, on the other hand, showed a significant decrease (p < 0.01) in the Cpz 2 group, suggesting effects on the general health and survival of these cells. Biochemically, in both Cpz 1 and Cpz 2, superoxide dismutase activity increased, while catalase (CAT) decreased, causing an elevated lipid peroxidation thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances and protein carbonyls, particularly in the Cpz 2 group. The level of reduced glutathione (GSH) increased in both exposures, whereas the level of GSSG increased only in the Cpz 1 group. Consequently, the GSH/GSSG ratio was elevated in the Cpz 2 group only. Discussion: A comparison of the magnitudes of anti- and pro-oxidative manifestations indicated a pro-oxidative shift in both exposures. These findings show that Cpz induces non-specific symptoms of biochemical and cellular disturbances in M. galloprovincialis even at the low picomolar concentration.

Relationship closeness of tolerance to two neonicotinoids with their internal body burden in two estuarine resident marine crustaceans

The estuarine resident crustacean sand shrimp, Crangon uritai, has a higher tolerance to neonicotinoid insecticides than that of the kuruma prawns, Penaeus japonicus. However, the reason for the differential sensitivities between the two marine crustaceans remains to be understood. This study explored the mechanism underlying differential sensitivities based on insecticide body residues after exposing both said crustaceans to two insecticides (acetamiprid and clothianidin) with or without oxygenase inhibitor piperonyl butoxide (PBO) for 96 h. Two graded-concentration groups were formed; group H (1/15-1 times the 96-h LC₅₀ values) and L (one-tenth the concentration of group H). Results showed that the internal concentration in survived specimens tended to be lower in sand shrimp than in kuruma prawns. Co-treatment of PBO with two neonicotinoids not only increased sand shrimp mortality in the H group, but also altered metabolism of acetamiprid into its metabolite, N-desmethyl acetamiprid. Furthermore, molting during the exposure period enhanced bioconcentration of insecticides, but not affects survival. Collectively, the higher tolerance of sand shrimp than that of kuruma prawns to the two neonicotinoids can be explained by lower bioconcentration potential and more involvement of oxygenase in their alleviating lethal toxicity.

Computer-aided toxicity prediction and potential risk assessment of two novel neonicotinoids, paichongding and cycloxaprid, to hydrobionts

Paichongding (IPP) and cycloxaprid (CYC) have been effectively used as the alternative products of imidacloprid (IMI) against IMI-resistant insects and exhibit a great market potential. However, risk assessment of IPP and CYC for non-target organisms, especially ecological risk assessment for non-target aquatic organisms, is still lacking. Here, we predicted the toxicity and potential risks of IPP, CYC, and their transformation products (TPs) to hydrobionts. The results indicated that IPP and CYC could generate 428 and 113 TPs, respectively, via aerobic microbial transformation. Nearly half of the IPP TPs and nearly 41 % of the CYC TPs exhibited high or moderate toxicity to Daphnia or fish. Moreover, we found that IPP, CYC, and 80 TPs of them posed potential risks to aquatic ecosystems. Almost all harmful TPs contained a 6-chloropyridine ring structure, suggesting that this structure may be associated with the strong toxicity of these TPs to aquatic organisms, and these TPs (IPP-TP2 or CYC-TP2, IPP-TP197 or CYC-TP71, IPP-TP198 or CYC-TP72, and IPP-TP212 or CYC-TP80) may appear in aquatic environments as final products. The risks posed by these TPs to aquatic ecosystems require more attention. This study provides insights into the toxicity and ecological risks of IPP and CYC.

Mixtures of environmental pharmaceuticals in marine organisms: Mechanistic evidence of carbamazepine and valsartan effects on Mytilus galloprovincialis

Unravelling the adverse outcomes of pharmaceuticals mixture represents a research priority to characterize the risk for marine ecosystems. The present study investigated, for the first time, the interactions between two of the most largely detected pharmaceuticals in marine species: carbamazepine (CBZ) and valsartan (VAL), elucidating mechanisms that can modulate bioaccumulation, excretion and the onset of toxicity. Mytilus galloprovincialis were exposed to environmental levels of CBZ and VAL dosed alone or in combination: measurement of drug bioaccumulation was integrated with changes in the whole transcriptome and responsiveness of various biochemical and cellular biomarkers. Interactive and competing mechanisms between tested drugs were revealed by the much higher CBZ accumulation in mussels exposed to this compound alone, while an opposite trend was observed for VAL. A complex network of responses was observed as variations of gene expression, functional effects on neurotransmission, cell cycle, immune responses and redox homeostasis. The elaboration of results through a quantitative Weight of Evidence model summarized a greater biological reactivity of CBZ compared to VAL and antagonistic interactions between these compounds, resulting in a reduced effect of the antiepileptic when combined with valsartan. Overall, new perspectives are highlighted for a more comprehensive risk assessment of environmental mixtures of pharmaceuticals.

A year-long study of the occurrence and risk of over 140 contaminants of emerging concern in wastewater influent, effluent and receiving waters in the Republic of Ireland

Despite being a developed country in the European Union (EU), knowledge of the nature and extent of contamination of water bodies with contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in Ireland is limited. In this study, >140 CECs including pharmaceuticals, pesticides and personal care products were monitored in monthly samples of wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) influent, effluent and receiving surface waters at both an urban and a rural location (72 samples in total) in Ireland over a 12-month period in 2018-2019. In total, 58 CECs were detected, including several EU Water Framework Directive Watch List compounds. Of all classes, the highest concentrations were measured for pharmaceuticals across all media, i.e., propranolol in surface waters (134 ng·L^-1), hydrochlorothiazide in effluent (1067 ng·L^-1) and venlafaxine in influent wastewater (8273 ng·L^-1). Overall, high wastewater treatment removal was observed and a further reduction in CEC occurrence and concentration was measured via dilution in the receiving river environment. Lastly, an environmental risk assessment (ERA) was performed using risk quotients (RQ), which revealed that in surface waters, total RQ for all CECs was an order of magnitude lower than in effluents. The majority of CECs in surface waters posed a lower risk except E2 and EE2 which presented a medium risk (RQs of 3.5 and 1.1, respectively) in the rural area. This work represents the most comprehensive CEC monitoring dataset to date for Ireland which allowed for an ERA prioritisation to be performed for the first time.

Origin, transport and ecological risk assessment of illicit drugs in the environment - A review

Illicit drugs are a novel group of emerging pollutants. A growing global environmental load and ecological risk is created by the ongoing release of these toxins into the environment. Conventional water processing plants fail to completely remove drugs of abuse from both surface water and wastewater. The origin, environmental fate and ecological repercussions of illicit drugs, despite their detection in surface waterways around the world, are not well understood. In this review, illicit drug detections in potable water, surface water and wastewater globally have been studied during the past 15 years in order to establish a baseline for future years. The most common drugs with abuse potential detected in different sources of potable and surface water were methadone (0.12-22.7 ng/L), cocaine (0.05-506.6 ng/L), benzoylecgonine (0.07-1019 ng/L), amphetamine (1.4-342.6 ng/L), and codeine (0.002-42 ng/L). The bulk of research only looked at a small number of drugs of abuse, indicating that despite widespread use, a large spectrum of these intoxicants has yet to be detected. This review focuses on the origin of illicit drug contaminants in water bodies, air, and soil, their persistence in the environment, and the typical concentrations at which they occur in the environment. The impact of these drugs on aquatic organisms like Elliptio complanata mussels, crayfish and zebrafish has also been reviewed.

Ecological and human health risks of antibiotics in marine species through mass transfer from sea to land in a coastal area: A case study in Qinzhou Bay, the South China sea

Antibiotics have been detected in aquatic environment around the world. Understanding internal concentrations of antibiotics in organisms could further improve risk governance. In this study, we investigated the occurrence of seven sulfonamides, four tetracyclines, five fluoroquinolones, and five macrolides antibiotics in six fish, four crustaceans, and five mollusks species collected from Qinzhou Bay, an important part of the Beibu Gulf in the South China Sea in 2018. 19 of all the 21 target antibiotics were detectable in biota. The total concentrations of the antibiotics ranged from 15.2 to 182 ng/g dry weight in all marine organisms, with sulfonamides and macrolides being the most abundant antibiotics. Mollusks accumulated more antibiotics than fish and crustaceans, implying the species-specific bioaccumulation of antibiotics. The pH dependent partition coefficients of antibiotics exhibited significantly positive correlation with their concentrations in organisms. The ecological risk assessment suggested that marine species in Qinzhou Bay were threatened by azithromycin and norfloxacin. The annual mass loading of antibiotics from Qinzhou Bay to the coastal land area for human ingestion via marine fishery catches was 4.02 kg, with mollusks being the predominant migration contributor. The estimated daily intakes of erythromycin indicated that consumption of seafood from Qinzhou Bay posed considerable risks to children (2-5 years old). The results in this study provide important insights for antibiotics pollution assessment and risk management.

Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient Uptake by Zebrafish (Danio rerio) Oct2 (slc22a2) Transporter Expressed in Xenopus laevis Oocytes

Uptake of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) across the gill epithelium of fish is via either a passive or facilitated transport process, with the latter being more important at the lower concentrations more readily observed in the environment. The solute carrier (SLC) 22A family, which includes the organic cation transporter OCT2 (SLC22A2), has been shown in mammals to transport several endogenous chemicals and APIs. Zebrafish oct2 was expressed in Xenopus oocytes and the uptake of ranitidine, propranolol, and tetraethylammonium characterized. Uptake of ranitidine and propranolol was time- and concentration-dependent with a k_m and V_max for ranitidine of 246 µM and 45 pmol/(oocyte × min) and for propranolol of 409 µM and 190 pmol/(oocyte × min), respectively. Uptake of tetraethylammonium (TEA) was inhibited by propranolol, amantadine, and cimetidine, known to be human OCT2 substrates, but not quinidine or ranitidine. At external media pH 7 and 8 propranolol uptake was 100-fold greater than at pH 6; pH did not affect ranitidine or TEA uptake. It is likely that cation uptake is driven by the electrochemical gradient across the oocyte. Uptake kinetics parameters, such as those derived in the present study, coupled with knowledge of transporter localization and abundance and API metabolism, can help derive pharmacokinetic models. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:2993-2998. © 2022 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

Assessment of contaminants of emerging concern in European apex predators and their prey by LC-QToF MS wide-scope target analysis

Apex predators are good indicators of environmental pollution since they are relatively long-lived and their high trophic position and spatiotemporal exposure to chemicals provides insights into the persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic (PBT) properties of chemicals. Although monitoring data from apex predators can considerably support chemicals' management, there is a lack of pan-European studies, and longer-term monitoring of chemicals in organisms from higher trophic levels. The present study investigated the occurrence of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in 67 freshwater, marine and terrestrial apex predators and in freshwater and marine prey, gathered from four European countries. Generic sample preparation protocols for the extraction of CECs with a broad range of physicochemical properties and the purification of the extracts were used. The analysis was performed utilizing liquid (LC) chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS), while the acquired chromatograms were screened for the presence of more than 2,200 CECs through wide-scope target analysis. In total, 145 CECs were determined in the apex predator and their prey samples belonging in different categories, such as pharmaceuticals, plant protection products, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, their metabolites and transformation products. Higher concentration levels were measured in predators compared to prey, suggesting that biomagnification of chemicals through the food chain occurs. The compounds were prioritized for further regulatory risk assessment based on their frequency of detection and their concentration levels. The majority of the prioritized CECs were lipophilic, although the presence of more polar contaminants should not be neglected. This indicates that holistic analytical approaches are required to fully characterize the chemical universe of biota samples. Therefore, the present survey is an attempt to systematically investigate the presence of thousands of chemicals at a European level, aiming to use these data for better chemicals management and contribute to EU Zero Pollution Ambition.

Effects of Pesticides on the Survival of Shredder Nectopsyche sp. (Trichoptera) and Leaf Decomposition Rates in Tropical Andes: A Microcosm Approach

Andean streams are becoming increasingly impacted by agricultural activities. However, the potential effects of pesticides on their aquatic biodiversity remain unassessed. In order to address this knowledge gap, we conducted an experiment over 37 days in microcosms to assess the effect of two pesticides commonly used in Ecuador (Engeo and Chlorpyrifos) on the aquatic insect Nectopsyche sp. (Trichoptera: Leptoceridae) at 0, 0.10, 5 and 10 μg L^-1 concentrations. The highest concentration corresponds to the maximum concentration allowed by the Equatorian legislation. We assessed insect mortality every 24 h, with leaf litter decomposition rates of organic matter determined by deploying Andean alder (Alnus acuminata) dry leaf packs in the microcosms. We found significant mortality of Nectopsyche sp. at high concentrations of Chlorpyrifos, whereas leaf litter was not significantly affected by any of the treatments. We conclude that the environmental legislation of Ecuador might not be fully protecting aquatic biodiversity from pesticide pollution. Further studies are needed, especially when considering that the maximum permitted concentration is very likely exceeded in many areas of the country. We also suggest that the maximum permissible values should be reviewed, considering each pesticide individually.

Ecotoxicity of Polyvinylidene Difluoride (PVDF) and Polylactic Acid (PLA) Microplastics in Marine Zooplankton

The aim of this study was to investigate the ecotoxicity of polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) and polylactic acid (PLA) microplastics (MPs) in two marine zooplankton: the crustacean Artemia franciscana and the cnidarian Aurelia sp. (common jellyfish). To achieve this goal, (i) MP uptake, (ii) immobility, and (iii) behavior (swimming speed, pulsation mode) of crustacean larval stages and jellyfish ephyrae exposed to MPs concentrations (1, 10, 100 mg/L) were assessed for 24 h. Using traditional and novel techniques, i.e., epifluorescence microscopy and 3D holotomography (HT), PVDF and PLA MPs were found in the digestive systems of the crustaceans and in the gelatinous tissue of jellyfish. Immobility was not affected in either organism, while a significant behavioral alteration in terms of pulsation mode was found in jellyfish after exposure to both PVDF and PLA MPs. Moreover, PLA MPs exposure in jellyfish induced a toxic effect (EC50: 77.43 mg/L) on the behavioral response. This study provides new insights into PLA and PVDF toxicity with the potential for a large impact on the marine ecosystem, since jellyfish play a key role in the marine food chain. However, further investigations incorporating additional species belonging to other trophic levels are paramount to better understand and clarify the impact of such polymers at micro scale in the marine environment. These findings suggest that although PVDF and PLA have been recently proposed as innovative and, in the case of PLA, biodegradable polymers, their effects on marine biota should not be underestimated.

Occurrence of pharmaceuticals and cocaine in the urban drainage channels located on the outskirts of the São Vicente Island (São Paulo, Brazil) and related ecological risk assessment

"Wealth by the sea and poverty away from the sea breeze" is a metaphor that mirrors what happens along the Brazilian coastal zone, namely in São Vicente Island, São Paulo, Brazil. Due to the high cost of the properties on this shore, the impoverished population started to migrate to the northern outskirts of the island (away from the tourist beaches), potentiating the emergence of poor housing conditions, namely stilt-house slums. Consequently, the urban drainage channels across these outskirts neighbourhoods are potentially contaminated by human wastes. In this context, the occurrence and preliminary ecological risk assessment of eleven pharmaceuticals of various therapeutic classes (including cocaine and its primary metabolite, benzoylecgonine) were investigated, for the first time, in five urban drainage channels whose diffuse loads flow continuously to the estuarine waters of São Vicente Island. The results showed the widespread presence of these environmental stressors in all urban channels analysed, namely losartan (7.3-2680.0 ng/L), caffeine (314.0-726.0 ng/L), acetaminophen (7.0-78.2 ng/L), atenolol (6.2-23.6 ng/L), benzoylecgonine (10.2-17.2 ng/L), furosemide (1.0-7.2 ng/L), cocaine (2.3-6.7 ng/L), carbamazepine (0.2-2.6 ng/L), diclofenac (1.1-2.5 ng/L), orphenadrine (0.2-1.1 ng/L) and chlortalidone (0.5-1.0 ng/L). The overall total estimated load of pharmaceuticals and personal care products flowing to the estuarine waters of São Vicente Island is on the order of 41.1 g/day. The ecological risk assessment revealed a great environmental concern for São Vicente Island, ranging between low (e.g. carbamazepine and cocaine) and moderate to high (e.g. caffeine, acetaminophen and losartan) threats for the aquatic biota. Therefore, initiatives promoting basic sanitation, land-use regularisation and population awareness are highly recommended.

A rapid evidence assessment of the potential risk to the environment presented by active ingredients in the UK's most commonly sold companion animal parasiticides

A number of parasiticides are commercially available as companion animal treatments to protect against parasite infestation and are sold in large volumes. These treatments are not intended to enter the wider environment but may be washed off or excreted by treated animals and have ecotoxic impacts. A systematic literature review was conducted to identify the existing evidence for the toxicity of the six most used parasiticides in the UK: imidacloprid, fipronil, fluralaner, afoxolaner, selamectin, and flumethrin. A total of 17,207 published articles were screened, with 690 included in the final evidence synthesis. All parasiticides displayed higher toxicity towards invertebrates than vertebrates, enabling their use as companion animal treatments. Extensive evidence exists of ecotoxicity for imidacloprid and fipronil, but this focuses on exposure via agricultural use and is not representative of environmental exposure that results from use in companion animal treatments, especially in urban greenspace. Little to no evidence exists for the ecotoxicity of the remaining parasiticides. Despite heavy usage, there is currently insufficient evidence to understand the environmental risk posed by these veterinary treatments and further studies are urgently needed to quantify the levels and characterise the routes of environmental exposure, as well as identifying any resulting environmental harm.

Molting enhances internal concentrations of fipronil and thereby decreases survival of two estuarine resident marine crustaceans

In aquatic arthropods, molting is a pivotal physiological process for normal development, but it may also expose them to higher risks from xenobiotics, because the organism may take up additional water during that time. This study aimed to assess the effects of molting on bioconcentration and survival after 96-h exposure to insecticide fipronil with or without oxygenase (CYP450s) inhibitor piperonyl butoxide (PBO) of two estuarine resident marine crustacean species: the sand shrimp Crangon uritai and the kuruma prawn Penaeus japonicus, with 96-h LC₅₀ value of fipronil = 2.0 µg/L and 0.2 µg/L, respectively. Two graded concentrations included group high (H) (equivalent to the 96-h LC₅₀ values) and low (L) (one-tenth of the H group concentration). Molting and survival were individually checked, and internal concentrations of fipronil and its metabolites (fipronil desulfinyl, fipronil sulfide, fipronil sulfone) were measured. The results showed that, only fipronil and fipronil sulfone were detected from organism, and that internal concentrations of these insecticides in molted specimens were higher than those of unmolted ones but comparable with those of dead ones. Accordingly, mortality was more frequent in molted specimens than those that were unmolted. Furthermore, involvement of oxygenase and higher lethal body burden threshold may confer higher tolerance to fipronil in sand shrimp than in the kuruma prawn. This study is the first to demonstrate that the body-residue-based approach is useful for deciphering the causal factors underlying fipronil toxicity, but highlights the need to consider physiological factors in arthropods, which influence and lie beyond body burden, molting and drug metabolism.

Marine heatwaves hamper neuro-immune and oxidative tolerance toward carbamazepine in Mytilus galloprovincialis

The increased frequency and intensity of short-term extreme warming phenomena have been associated to harsh biological and ecosystem outcomes (i.e., mass mortalities in marine organisms). Marine heatwaves (MHWs), occurring when seasonal temperature threshold is exceeded for at least 5 consecutive days, may reduce the tolerance of coastal species toward additional pressures, but interactions between such multiple stressors are virtually unexplored. The present study aimed to characterize in Mytilus galloprovincialis the influence of a simulated MHW scenario on the toxicological effects of the pharmaceutical carbamazepine (CBZ), ubiquitously detected in the marine environment and chosen as model compound for this relevant class of emerging contaminants. The bioaccumulation of CBZ and responsiveness of various biological parameters, including immune system, antioxidant status, lipid metabolism and cellular integrity, were analyzed in exposed mussels both during and after the end of the heatwave. MHW appeared to strongly modulate accumulation of CBZ, paralleled by weakened immunocompetence and onset of oxidative disturbance that finally evolved to cellular damages and lipid metabolism disorders. Elaboration of the overall results through a quantitative Weight of Evidence model, revealed the highest hazard in organisms exposed to both the stressors 10 days after the end of the heatwave, suggesting that MHWs could leave a footprint on the capability of mussels to counteract CBZ toxicity, thus affecting their vulnerability and predisposition to adverse effects toward multiple stressors.

Environmental concentrations of Roundup in combination with chlorpromazine or heating causes biochemical disturbances in the bivalve mollusc Unio tumidus

Bivalve molluscs represent the most recognized bioindicators of freshwater pollution. However, their ability to indicate specific xenobiotics in complex exposures is unclear. In this study, we aimed to track the particular effects of the pesticide Roundup (Rnd) and the antipsychotic drug chlorpromazine (Cpz) on the mussel Unio tumidus at the simpler environmentally relevant models. We treated the mussels by Rnd (17 μg L-1), Cpz (18 μg L-1), the mixture of Rnd and Cpz at 18 °C (RndCpz), and Rnd at 25 °C (RndT) and examined their digestive glands after 14 days of exposure. We analyzed total antioxidant capacity, glutathione (GSH&GSSG) and protein carbonyls levels, total and Zn-related concentrations of metallothioneins (MT and Zn-MT, respectively), the activities of CYP450-related EROD, glutathione S-transferase, cholinesterase, caspase-3, citrate synthase (CS), lysosomal membrane integrity (NRR), and Zn level in the tissue. Shared responses were indicated as the increase of the antioxidant, Zn-MT, and EROD levels, whereas the changes of Zn concentration, NRR, and caspase-3 activity were most diverse compared to control. According to discriminant analysis, complex exposures abolished the individual response traits and intensified the harmful effects that caused a decrease in the Zn level in the RndCpz- and RndT-groups and the loss of lysosomal integrity in the RndT-group. We concluded that multi-marker expertise with the application of integrated indices had benefits when evaluating the effects of complex exposures.

Miniaturization of an extraction protocol for the monitoring of pesticides and polar transformation products in biotic matrices

Monitoring pesticides in the environment requires the use of sensitive analytical methods. However, existing methods are generally not suitable for analyzing small organisms, as they require large matrix masses. This study explores the development of a miniaturized extraction protocol for the monitoring of small organisms, based on only 30 mg of matrix. The miniaturized sample preparation was developed using fish and macroinvertebrate matrices. It allowed the characterization of 41 pesticides and transformation products (log P from -1.9 to 4.8) in small samples with LC-MS/MS, based on European guidelines (European Commission DG-SANTE, 2019). Quantification limits ranged from 3 to 460 ng g^-1 dry weight (dw) for fish and from 0.1 to 356 ng g^-1 dw for invertebrates, with most below 60 ng g^-1 dw. Extraction rates ranged from 70% to 120% for 35 molecules in fish. Recoveries ranged from 70% to 120% for 37 molecules in macroinvertebrates. Inter-day precision was below 30% for 32 molecules at quantification limits. The method was successfully applied to 17 fish and 19 macroinvertebrates collected from two ponds of the French region of Dombes in November and May 2018, respectively. Both sample matrices were nearly always contaminated with benzamide, imidacloprid-desnitro, and prosulfocarb at respective concentrations of 42-237, 3, and 30-165 ng g^-1 dw in fish, and 62-438, 2-6, and 15-29 ng g^-1 dw in macroinvertebrates. Results show that this method is an effective tool for characterizing polar pesticides in small biotic samples.

Evaluation of the genotoxic, mutagenic, and histopathological hepatic effects of polyoxyethylene amine (POEA) and glyphosate on Dendropsophus minutus tadpoles

Herbicides improve the productivity of a monoculture by eliminating weeds, although they may also be toxic and have negative effects on non-target organisms, such as amphibians. The present study evaluated the genotoxic, mutagenic, and histopathological hepatic responses of Dendropsophus minutus tadpoles to acute exposure (96 h) to the herbicide glyphosate (GLY, 65, 130, 260 and 520 μg/L) and the surfactant polyoxyethylene amine (POEA, 1.25, 2.5, 5 and 10 μg/L). On average, 174 % more genomic damage was observed in the tadpoles exposed to all concentrations of POEA in comparison with the control, while up to seven times more micronuclei were recorded, on average, at a concentration of 5 μg/L of POEA. All the individuals exposed to 10 μg/L of POEA died. The tadpoles exposed to GLY presented 165 % more DNA damage than the control, on average, at the highest concentrations (260 and 520 μg/L), and up to six times more micronuclei at 520 μg/L. The Erythrocyte Nuclear Abnormality test (ENA) detected a relatively high frequency of cells with lobed nuclei in the tadpoles expose to POEA at 5 μg/L and binucleated cells in those exposed to GLY at 520 μg/L. The hepatic histopathological observations revealed several types of lesions in the tadpoles exposed to both GLY and POEA. Overall, then, the results of the study indicate that both GLY and POEA have potential genotoxic, mutagenic, and hepatotoxic effects in D. minutus tadpoles. We emphasize the need for further studies to monitor the amphibian populations, such as those of D. minutus, which breed in aquatic environments associated with agricultural areas. The release of pollutants into natural habitats may have significant long-term impacts on the survival of anuran tadpoles.

Monitoring of pharmaceuticals in aquatic biota (Procambarus clarkii) of the Doñana National Park (Spain)

In this work the presence of different pharmaceuticals at Doñana National Park (Spain) and their main entry sources (input source or entry points) have been stated over the 2011-2016 years period. Twenty-three selected pharmaceuticals (corresponding to eight therapeutic families) were evaluated in crayfish and water samples from Doñana National Park (Spain) (six sampling points selected in order to cover different possible pollution sources into and surrounding the Park). The multiresidue determination was carried out using enzymatic-microwave assisted extraction prior to high performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry detection. Sulphonamides (sulfadiazine, sulfamerazine, sulfamethazine, and sulfamethoxazole); trimethoprim, an antibiotic that is frequently co-administered with sulfamethoxazole; amphenicols (chloramphenicol, florfenicol and thiamphenicol); fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin, enrofloxacin, flumequine, danofloxacin, gatifloxacin, norfloxacin, marbofloxacin and grepafloxacin); penicillins (amoxicillin); tetracyclines (chlortetracycline and oxytetracycline); non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (salicylic acid and ibuprofen); beta-blocker drugs (atenolol); and antiepileptics (carbamazepine) were analysed. Ciprofloxacin, ibuprofen, salicylic acid, flumequine, and carbamazepine were detected and/or quantified at some of the selected sampling points. A clear ecotoxicological risk to the ecosystem was demonstrated from the occurrence of ciprofloxacin in samples obtained after the punctual and massive presence of people inside the Park. Furthermore, flumequine and carbamazepine have been detected in Procambarus clarkii specimens in concentrations around 30 ng g^-1 and 14 ng g^-1, respectively, and their occurrence in the specimens could indicate the persistence of the discharge sources. The main source of pharmaceuticals into the Park might be the livestock farming activities, and the influence of urban wastewaters from surrounding villages does not seem to be very important.

Quantitative Determination and Environmental Risk Assessment of 102 Chemicals of Emerging Concern in Wastewater-Impacted Rivers Using Rapid Direct-Injection Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

The rapid source identification and environmental risk assessment (ERA) of hundreds of chemicals of emerging concern (CECs) in river water represent a significant analytical challenge. Herein, a potential solution involving a rapid direct-injection liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method for the quantitative determination of 102 CECs (151 qualitatively) in river water is presented and applied across six rivers in Germany and Switzerland at high spatial resolution. The method required an injection volume of only 10 µL of filtered sample, with a runtime of 5.5 min including re-equilibration with >10 datapoints per peak per transition (mostly 2 per compound), and 36 stable isotope-labelled standards. Performance was excellent from the low ng/L to µg/L concentration level, with 260 injections possible in any 24 h period. The method was applied in three separate campaigns focusing on the ERA of rivers impacted by wastewater effluent discharges (1 urban area in the Basel city region with 4 rivers, as well as 1 semi-rural and 1 rural area, each focusing on 1 river). Between 25 and 40 compounds were quantified directly in each campaign, and in all cases small tributary rivers showed higher CEC concentrations (e.g., up to ~4000 ng/L in total in the R. Schwarzach, Bavaria, Germany). The source of selected CECs could also be identified and differentiated from other sources at pre- and post- wastewater treatment plant effluent discharge points, as well as the effect of dilution downstream, which occurred over very short distances in all cases. Lastly, ERA for 41 CECs was performed at specific impacted sites, with risk quotients (RQs) at 1 or more sites estimated as high risk (RQ > 10) for 1 pharmaceutical (diclofenac), medium risk (RQ of 1–10) for 3 CECs (carbamazepine, venlafaxine, and sulfamethoxazole), and low risk (RQ = 0.1–1.0) for 7 CECs (i.e., RQ > 0.1 for 11 CECs in total). The application of high-throughput methods like this could enable a better understanding of the risks of CECs, especially in low flow/volume tributary rivers at scale and with high resolution.

Occurrence, bioaccumulation and toxicological effect of drugs of abuse in aquatic ecosystem: A review

Drugs of abuse are a group of emerging contaminants. As the prevalence of manufacture and consumption, there is a growing global environmental burden and ecological risk from the continuous release of these contaminants into environment. The widespread occurrence of drugs of abuse in waste wasters and surface waters is due to the incomplete removal through traditional wastewater treatment plants in different regions around the world. Although their environmental concentrations are not very high, they can potentially influence the aquatic organisms and ecosystem function. This paper reviews the occurrence of drugs of abuse and their metabolites in waste waters and surface waters, their bioaccumulation in aquatic plants, fishes and benthic organisms and even top predators, and the toxicological effects such as genotoxic effect, cytotoxic effect and even behavioral effect on aquatic organisms. In summary, drugs of abuse occur widely in aquatic environment, and may exert adverse impact on aquatic organisms at molecular, cellular or individual level, and even on aquatic ecosystem. It necessitates the monitoring and risk assessment of these compounds on diverse aquatic organisms in the further study.

Herbicides in Camps Bay (Cape Town, South Africa), supplemented

During 2017 the herbicides alachlor, atrazine, butachlor, metolachlor, and simazine were detected in water samples, beach sediments and marine biota collected at Camps Bay, Cape Town, South Africa. During that period, the annual rain catchment record was 77,000 m³, whereas the volume of chemically laden sewage discharged via the marine outfall was 693,500 m³ making the marine sewage outfall by far the most predominant source for these herbicides in the bay. The chemical load in the discharged sewage was not removed by the applied pre-treatment step, which only uses a 3 mm screen to eliminate plastic, paper, rags and other foreign materials. After passing through the Camps Bay pump station, the sewage is released to the bay at the following GPS position 33°56'42.214″ S 18°21'59.257″ E (Colenbrander et al., 2021) and at a discharge depth of 23 m and 1497 m from the beach. In our study the presence in marine biota of atrazine and simazine were taken as being indicative of the chemical signature of the sewage being released through the outfall, since these compounds were detected previously in the sewage prior to discharge. To our knowledge, our studies of the herbicides in diverse benthic organisms found in the near shore environment of Camps Bay are the first of their kind for this Western Cape region.

Metabolomic Profiling and Toxicokinetics Modeling to Assess the Effects of the Pharmaceutical Diclofenac in the Aquatic Invertebrate Hyalella azteca

The exposure of ecologically critical invertebrate species to biologically active pharmaceuticals poses a serious risk to the aquatic ecosystem. Yet, the fate and toxic effects of pharmaceuticals on these nontarget aquatic invertebrates and the underlying mechanisms are poorly studied. Herein, we investigated the toxicokinetic (TK) processes (i.e., uptake, biotransformation, and elimination) of the pharmaceutical diclofenac and its biotransformation in the freshwater invertebrate Hyalella azteca. We further employed mass spectrometry-based metabolomics to assess the toxic effects of diclofenac on the metabolic functions of H. azteca exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations (10 and 100 μg/L). The TK results showed a quick uptake of diclofenac by H. azteca (maximum internal concentration of 1.9 μmol/kg) and rapid formation of the conjugate diclofenac taurine (maximum internal concentration of 80.6 μmol/kg), indicating over 40 times higher accumulation of diclofenac taurine than that of diclofenac in H. azteca. Depuration kinetics demonstrated that the elimination of diclofenac taurine was 64 times slower than diclofenac in H. azteca. Metabolomics results suggested that diclofenac inhibited prostaglandin synthesis and affected the carnitine shuttle pathway at environmentally relevant concentrations. These findings shed light on the significance of the TK process of diclofenac, especially the formation of diclofenac taurine, as well as the sublethal effects of diclofenac on the bulk metabolome of H. azteca. Combining the TK processes and metabolomics provides complementary insights and thus a better mechanistic understanding of the effects of diclofenac in aquatic invertebrates.

Effect of Water pH on the Uptake of Acidic (Ibuprofen) and Basic (Propranolol) Drugs in a Fish Gill Cell Culture Model

Water pH is predicted to affect the uptake of ionizable pharmaceuticals in fish. The current study used an in vitro primary fish gill cell culture system to assess the effect of pH values in the range of 4.5-8.75 on the uptake rates of the base propranolol (pKa 9.42) and the acid ibuprofen (pKa 4.59). The rate-limiting step in the uptake was the diffusive supply flux of the unionized form from the water to the apical membrane, with subsequent rapid transfer across the epithelium. Computed uptake rate based on the unionized fraction best described the uptake of propranolol and ibuprofen over the range of pH values 5-8 and 6-8.75, respectively. For ibuprofen, the computed uptake rate overestimated the uptake below pH 6 where the unionized fraction increased from 4% at pH 6 to 55% at pH 4.5. As the unionized fraction increased, the uptake rate plateaued suggesting a saturation of the transport process. For both drugs, large variations in the uptake occur with only small fluctuations in pH values. This occurs between pH values 6 and 8, which is the pH range acceptable in regulatory test guidelines and seen in most of our freshwaters.

Developing in vitro models to assess fish gill excretion of emerging contaminants

Advances in analytical methods have enabled the detection of emerging contaminants at ever lower concentrations in freshwaters. However, such measurements need to be linked to effect-based assays to identify risks. The bioconcentration factor (BCF) forms part of a chemical's environmental risk assessment (ERA), and current regulatory testing guidelines to calculate fish BCFs use hundreds of fish per chemical. Due to ethical concerns a reduction in the numbers of animals used is desired, and there is a need to identify in vitro or in silico alternatives which meet regulatory acceptance. This study describes the successful demonstration of a FIsh Gill Cell culture System (FIGCS) to assess an often overlooked parameter in pharmacokinetics: the excretion of drugs across the gill. The FIGCS tolerates the application of natural waters on its apical surface, mimicking the situation of the live fish, and thus in combination with advanced analytical methods, offers an opportunity to take lab-based testing used for ERA, such as compound uptake, biotransformation or excretion directly into field for validation with natural waters. Here we used the basic drug propranolol and the acidic ibuprofen as a demonstration of the FIGCS utility in three separate experiments. Excretion across the apical membrane showed saturation kinetics, suggesting the involvement of carrier-mediated processes. Both propranolol and ibuprofen were excreted across the epithelium from the media (internal blood equivalent) to the water, with ibuprofen excretion being considerably slower than propranolol excretion. Further studies indicate that ibuprofen may be complexing with fetal bovine serum (FBS) reducing bioavailability; in contrast propranolol efflux rate was unaffected, indicating that drugs behave differently in the presence of FBS and other plasma proteins. A key issue in future ERA is to better understand the effects of mixtures of different pollutant classes found in environmental samples, and this model offers an ethical path to do this.

Mussels get higher: A study on the occurrence of cocaine and benzoylecgonine in seawater, sediment and mussels from a subtropical ecosystem (Santos Bay, Brazil)

Data on the occurrence of cocaine (COC) and benzoylecgonine (BE) in marine environmental compartments are still limited, with few studies reporting superficial water contamination, mainly in tropical zones. In this sense, environmental data of these substances are essential to identify potential polluting sources, as well as their impact in costal ecosystems. The aim of this study was to evaluate the occurrence of COC and BE in seawater, sediment and mussels from a subtropical coastal zone (Santos Bay, São Paulo, Brazil), as well as to determine a field measured Bioaccumulation Factor (BAF). COC and BE were detected in all water samples in concentrations ranging from 1.91 ng·L^-1 to 12.52 ng·L^-1 and 9.88 ng·L^-1 to 28.53 ng·L^-1, respectively. In sediments, only COC was quantified in concentrations ranging from 0.94 ng·g^-1 to 46.85 ng·g^-1. Similarly, only COC was detected in tissues of mussels 0.914 μg·kg^-1 to 4.58 μg·kg^-1 (ww). The field-measured BAF ranged from 163 to 1454 (L·kg^-1). Our results pointed out a widespread contamination by cocaine and its main human metabolite benzoylecgonine in Santos Bay. Mussels were able to accumulate COC in areas used by residents and tourists for bathing, fishing, and harvest, denoting concern to human health. Therefore, our data can be considered a preliminary assessment, which indicates the need to evaluate drugs (including illicit as COC) in environmental and seafood monitoring programs, in order to understand their risks on the ecosystem and human health.

Rapid direct analysis of river water and machine learning assisted suspect screening of emerging contaminants in passive sampler extracts

A novel and rapid approach to characterise the occurrence of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in river water is presented using multi-residue targeted analysis and machine learning-assisted in silico suspect screening of passive sampler extracts. Passive samplers (Chemcatcher®) configured with hydrophilic-lipophilic balanced (HLB) sorbents were deployed in the Central London region of the tidal River Thames (UK) catchment in winter and summer campaigns in 2018 and 2019. Extracts were analysed by; (a) a rapid 5.5 min direct injection targeted liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for 164 CECs and (b) a full-scan LC coupled to quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (QTOF-MS) method using data-independent acquisition over 15 min. From targeted analysis of grab water samples, a total of 33 pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs, drug metabolites, personal care products and pesticides (including several EU Watch-List chemicals) were identified, and mean concentrations determined at 40 ± 37 ng L^-1. For targeted analysis of passive sampler extracts, 65 unique compounds were detected with differences observed between summer and winter campaigns. For suspect screening, 59 additional compounds were shortlisted based on mass spectral database matching, followed by machine learning-assisted retention time prediction. Many of these included additional pharmaceuticals and pesticides, but also new metabolites and industrial chemicals. The novelty in this approach lies in the convenience of using passive samplers together with machine learning-assisted chemical analysis methods for rapid, time-integrated catchment monitoring of CECs.

Sample preparation and instrumental methods for illicit drugs in environmental and biological samples: A review

Detection of illicit drugs in the environmental samples has been challenged as the consumption increases globally. Current review examines the recent developments and applications of sample preparation techniques for illicit drugs in solid, liquid, and gas samples. For solid samples, traditional sample preparation methods such as liquid-phase extraction, solid-phase extraction, and the ones with external energy including microwave-assisted, ultrasonic-assisted, and pressurized liquid extraction were commonly used. The sample preparation methods mainly applied for liquid samples were microextraction techniques including solid-phase microextraction, microextraction by packed sorbent, dispersive solid-phase extraction, dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction, hollow fiber-based liquid-phase microextraction, and so on. Capillary microextraction of volatiles and airborne particulate sampling were primarily utilized to extract illicit drugs from gas samples. Besides, the paper introduced recently developed instrumental techniques applied to detect illicit drugs. Liquid chromatograph mass spectrometry and gas chromatograph mass spectrometry were the most widely used methods for illicit drugs samples. In addition, the development of ambient mass spectrometry techniques, such as desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and paper spray mass spectrometry, created potential for rapid in-situ analysis.

Multicompartment and cross-species monitoring of contaminants of emerging concern in an estuarine habitat

The fate of many chemicals in the environment, particularly contaminants of emerging concern (CEC), have been characterised to a limited extent with a major focus on occurrence in water. This study presents the characterisation, distribution and fate of multiple chemicals including pharmaceuticals, recreational drugs and pesticides in surface water, sediment and fauna representing different food web endpoints in a typical UK estuary (River Colne, Essex, UK). A comparison of contaminant occurrence across different benthic macroinvertebrates was made at three sites and included two amphipods (Gammarus pulex &Crangon crangon), a polychaete worm (Hediste diversicolor) and a gastropod (Peringia ulvae). Overall, multiple contaminants were determined in all compartments and ranged from; Collapse

Key Words

• Environmental risk
• Invertebrate
• Occurrence
• Pesticides
• Pharmaceuticals
• Sediment

Collapse

MESH Headings

• Animals
• Ecosystem
• Environmental Monitoring
• Pesticides/analysis
• Rivers
• Water Pollutants, Chemical/analysis

Collapse

Grants

• MR/S019669/1 Medical Research Council

Collapse

Affiliation(s)

Thomas H Miller Department of Life Sciences, College of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Brunel University London, Kingston Lane, UB8 3PH, UK; Department of Analytical, Environmental & Forensic Sciences, School of Population Health & Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, 150 Stamford Street, London, SE1 9NH, UK.
Keng Tiong Ng Department of Analytical, Environmental & Forensic Sciences, School of Population Health & Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, 150 Stamford Street, London, SE1 9NH, UK; Environmental Research Group, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, UK
Aaron Lamphiere School of Life Sciences, University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester, Essex, CO43SQ, UK
Tom C Cameron School of Life Sciences, University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester, Essex, CO43SQ, UK
Nicolas R Bury School of Science, Technology and Engineering, University of Suffolk, James Hehir Building, University Avenue, Ipswich, Suffolk, IP3 0FS, UK; Suffolk Sustainability, University of Suffolk, Waterfront Building, Neptune Quay, Ipswich, IP4 1QJUK, UK
Leon P Barron Department of Analytical, Environmental & Forensic Sciences, School of Population Health & Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, 150 Stamford Street, London, SE1 9NH, UK; Environmental Research Group, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, UK

Collapse

Removal of pharmaceuticals by ammonia oxidizers during nitrification

The adverse effect of pharmaceuticals on ecosystem and human health raises great interest for the removal of pharmaceuticals in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Enhanced removal of pharmaceuticals by ammonia oxidizers (AOs) has been observed during nitrification. This review provides a comprehensive summary on the removal of pharmaceuticals by AOs-ammonia oxidizing bacteria (AOB), ammonia oxidizing archaea (AOA), and complete ammonia oxidizer (comammox) during nitrification in pure ammonia oxidizing culture and mixed microbes systems. The superior removal of pharmaceuticals by AOs in conditions with nitrifying activity compared with the conditions without nitrifying activity was proposed. The contribution of AOs on pharmaceuticals removal in pure and mixed microbe systems was discussed and activated sludge modeling was suggested as the proper measure on assessing the contribution of AOs on the removal of pharmaceuticals in mixed microbe culture. Three transformation processes and the involved reaction types of pharmaceuticals transformation during nitrification were reviewed. The present paper provides a systematical summary on pharmaceuticals removal by different AOs across pure and mixed microbes culture during nitrification, which opens up the opportunity to optimize the wastewater biological treatment systems for enhanced removal of pharmaceuticals. KEY POINTS: • The superior removal of pharmaceuticals by ammonia oxidizers (AOs) was summarized. • The removal contribution of pharmaceuticals attributed by AOs was elucidated. • The transformation processes and reaction types of pharmaceuticals were discussed.

Environmental pharmaceuticals and climate change: The case study of carbamazepine in M. galloprovincialis under ocean acidification scenario

Contaminants of emerging concern and ocean changes are key environmental stressors for marine species with possibly synergistic, but still unexplored, deleterious effects. In the present study the influence of a simulated ocean acidification scenario (pH = 7.6) was investigated on metabolism and sub-lethal effects of carbamazepine, CBZ (1 µg/L), chosen as one of the most widely diffused pharmaceuticals in marine organisms. A multidisciplinary approach was applied on mussels, M. galloprovincialis, integrating measurement of drug bioaccumulation with changes in the whole transcriptome, responsiveness of various biochemical and cellular biomarkers including immunological parameters, lipid and oxidative metabolism, onset of genotoxic effects. Chemical analyses revealed a limited influence of hypercapnia on accumulation and excretion of CBZ, while a complex network of biological responses was observed in gene expression profile and functional changes at cellular level. The modulation of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) pathway suggested similarities with the Mechanism of Action known for vertebrates: immune responses, cellular homeostasis and oxidative system represented the processes targeted by combined stressors. The overall elaboration of results through a quantitative Weight of Evidence model, revealed clearly increased cellular hazard due to interactions of CBZ with acidification compared to single stressors.

The environmental risks of pharmaceuticals beyond traditional toxic effects: Chemical differences that can repel or entrap aquatic organisms

The aim of the present study was to assess the risks of four different pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs; diazepam, metformin, omeprazole and simvastatin). Acute and chronic toxicities were studied using the bacterium Aliivibrio fischeri and the microalgae Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata; while the repellency and attractiveness were assessed by avoidance tests with juvenile Cypirinus carpio using a multi-compartmented exposure system. Omeprazole was found to be an acutely toxic drug (EC₅₀: 0.015 mg/L), while the other PhACs, except simvastatin, showed some chronic toxicity. Regarding avoidance, simvastatin and omeprazole induced an escape response for 50% of the fish population at 0.032 and 0.144 mg/L, respectively; contrarily, diazepam was attractive, even at lethal concentrations, representing a dangerous trap for organisms. The toxicity of the PhACs seemed not to be directly related to their repellency; and the mode of action seems to determine the repellency or attractiveness of the chemicals. Contamination by PhACs is of concern due to the environmental disturbance they might cause, either due to their acute and chronic toxicity (at the individual level), repellency (at the ecosystem level: loss of local biodiversity) or attraction to potentially lethal levels.

Human pharmaceuticals in marine mussels: Evidence of sneaky environmental hazard along Italian coasts

Despite the increasing interest for pharmaceuticals in the marine environment, their accumulation in wild organisms and consequent environmental hazards are still poorly known. The Mediterranean Sea is highly challenged by the density of coastal populations, large consumption of pharmaceuticals and their often limited removal by Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs). In this respect, the present study aims to provide the first large-scale survey on the distribution of such contaminants of emerging concern in native mussels, Mytilus galloprovincialis from Italian coasts. Organisms were collected from 14 sites representative of relatively unpolluted marine waters along the Adriatic and Tyrrhenian Sea and analysed for 9 common pharmaceuticals including Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs: Diclofenac DIC, Ibuprofen IBU, Ketoprofen KET and Nimesulide NIM), the analgesic Acetaminophen AMP, the antiepileptic Carbamazepine CBZ, the antihypertensive Valsartan VAL, the anxiolytic Lormetazepam LOR and the antidepressant Paroxetine PAR. Results indicated the widespread occurrence of the majority of pharmaceuticals in mussel tissues: CBZ was measured in >90% of analysed samples, followed by VAL (>50%), PAR (>40%), and DIC (>30%), while only AMP and KET were never detected. Heterogeneous tissue concentrations ranged from a few units up to hundreds of ng/g (d.w.), while seasonal and interannual variability, investigated over 4 years, did not highlight any clear temporal trend. Limited differences obtained between the Adriatic and Tyrrhenian Sea, as well as coastal versus off-shore sampling sites, suggest that analysed levels of pharmaceuticals in mussels tissues should be considered as baseline concentrations for organisms collected in unpolluted areas of the Mediterranean. This study provided the first unambiguous evidence of the widespread occurrence of pharmaceuticals in marine mussels from Italian coasts, giving novel insights on the potential ecotoxicological hazard from such compounds in marine species.

High-throughput multi-residue quantification of contaminants of emerging concern in wastewaters enabled using direct injection liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

A rapid quantitative method for 135 contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in untreated wastewater enabled with direct injection liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry is presented. All compounds were analysed within 5 min on a short biphenyl cartridge using only 10 μL of filtered sample per injection. Up to 76 compounds were monitored simultaneously during the gradient (including mostly two transitions per compound and stable isotope-labelled analogues) while yielding >10 data points per peak. Evaluation of seven solid phase extraction sorbents showed no advantage for wastewater matrix removal. Excellent linearity, range, accuracy and precision was achieved for most compounds. Matrix effects were <11 % and detection limits were <30 ng L^-1 on average. Application to untreated wastewater samples from three wastewater treatment works in the UK, USA and Mexico, enabled quantification of 56 compounds. Banned and EU 'watch-list' substances are critically discussed, including pesticides, macrolide antibiotics, diclofenac, illicit drugs as well as multiple pharmaceuticals and biocides. This high-throughput method sets a new standard for the speedy and confident determination of over a hundred CECs in wastewater at the part-per-trillion level, as demonstrated by performing over 260 injections per day.

Heavy rainfall provokes anticoagulant rodenticides' release from baited sewer systems and outdoor surfaces into receiving streams

Prevalent findings of anticoagulant rodenticide (AR) residues in liver tissue of freshwater fish recently emphasized the existence of aquatic exposure pathways. Thus, a comprehensive wastewater treatment plant and surface water monitoring campaign was conducted at two urban catchments in Germany in 2018 and 2019 to investigate potential emission sources of ARs into the aquatic environment. Over several months, the occurrence and fate of all eight ARs authorized in the European Union as well as two pharmaceutical anticoagulants was monitored in a variety of aqueous, solid, and biological environmental matrices during and after widespread sewer baiting with AR-containing bait. As a result, sewer baiting in combined sewer systems, besides outdoor rodent control at the surface, was identified as a substantial contributor of these biocidal active ingredients in the aquatic environment. In conjunction with heavy or prolonged precipitation during bait application in combined sewer systems, a direct link between sewer baiting and AR residues in wastewater treatment plant influent, effluent, and the liver of freshwater fish was established. Moreover, study results confirmed insufficient removal of anticoagulants during conventional wastewater treatment and thus indirect exposure of aquatic organisms in receiving streams via tertiary treated effluents and combined sewer overflows. Nevertheless, further research is required to determine the ecological implications and risks for aquatic organisms as well as fish-eating predators from chronic AR exposure at environmentally relevant concentrations.

Assessment of River Water Quality in an Agricultural Region of Brazil Using Biomarkers in a Native Neotropical Fish, Astyanax spp. (Characidae)

Intensive agricultural and livestock activities demand high pesticide use and, consequently, contaminants reach aquatic ecosystems. In the lower Jacuí River, southern Brazil, there is a lack of knowledge about pesticide residues in water samples and the biochemical responses in native fish species. Thus, this study aimed to estimate the influence of pesticide residues and water parameters to biomarker responses in the native fish Astyanax spp. We performed seasonal biomonitoring in 2017 with water samples and fish collections. Biomarkers of oxidative stress, antioxidants, biotransformation, and neurotoxicity were analyzed in fish tissues. Fourteen pesticide residues were detected; they presented correlations with detoxification enzyme and oxidative stress biomarkers. These data indicate that most of variations can be related to the pesticide presence in water indicating high aquatic pollution in this place.