Widespread occurrence of estrogenic UV-filters in aquatic ecosystems in Switzerland

Organic UV filters: Occurrence, risks and (anti-)progestogenic activities in samples from the Czech aquatic environment and their bioaccumulation in fish

The occurrence, environmental risks and contribution of organic UV filters to detected (anti-)progestogenic activities were examined in samples of wastewater treatment plant influents and effluents, various surface waters and fish from the Czech Republic. Of the 20 targeted UV filters, 15 were detected in the WWTP influent samples, 11 in the effluents, and 13 in the surface water samples. Benzophenone-3, benzophenone-4, and phenyl benzimidazole sulfonic acid (PBSA) were found in all water samples. Octocrylene, UV-327 and 4-methylbenzylidene camphor exceeded the risk quotient of 1 at some sites. In the anti-progestogenic CALUX assay, 10 out of the 20 targeted UV filters were active. Anti-progestogenic activities reaching up to 7.7 ng/L, 3.8 ng/L, and 4.5 ng/L mifepristone equivalents were detected in influents, effluents, and surface waters, respectively. UV filters were responsible for up to 37 % of anti-progestogenic activities in influents. Anti-progestogenic activities were also measured in fish tissues from the control pond and Podroužek (pond with the highest number of detected UV filters) and ranged from 2.2 to 9.5 and 1.9 to 8.6 ng/g dw mifepristone equivalents, respectively. However, only benzophenone was found in fish, but it does not display anti-progestogenic activity and thus could not explain the observed activities.

Contamination of ultraviolet absorbers in food: toxicity, analytical methods, occurrence and risk assessments

Ultraviolet (UV) absorbers are chemical substances that are widely used as defenses against the damaging effects of solar radiations. UV absorbers, despite their benefits, are categorized as emerging pollutants because they have been demonstrated to be mutagenic, toxic, pseudo-persistent, bio-accumulative, and to have strong estrogenic effects. Because of their common use in personal care products, they continue to enter the environment. Several food samples, particularly those derived from aquatic sources, have been found to be contaminated with these compounds. Toxic effects on aquatic life, such as metabolic imbalance and developmental toxicity, result from the continued presence of UV absorbers in aquatic bodies. In addition, the degree of exposure to these pollutants in foods should be examined because there are certain risks associated with their consumption by humans. Therefore, this review focuses on the toxicity, analytical techniques, occurrence, and risk assessments of UV absorbers found in food.

Ultraviolet Filters: Dissecting Current Facts and Myths

Skin cancer is a global and increasingly prevalent issue, causing significant individual and economic damage. UV filters in sunscreens play a major role in mitigating the risks that solar ultraviolet ra-diation poses to the human organism. While empirically effective, multiple adverse effects of these compounds are discussed in the media and in scientific research. UV filters are blamed for the dis-ruption of endocrine processes and vitamin D synthesis, damaging effects on the environment, induction of acne and neurotoxic and carcinogenic effects. Some of these allegations are based on scientific facts while others are simply arbitrary. This is especially dangerous considering the risks of exposing unprotected skin to the sun. In summary, UV filters approved by the respective governing bodies are safe for human use and their proven skin cancer-preventing properties make them in-dispensable for sensible sun protection habits. Nonetheless, compounds like octocrylene and ben-zophenone-3 that are linked to the harming of marine ecosystems could be omitted from skin care regimens in favor of the myriad of non-toxic UV filters.

From cradle to grave: Deciphering sex-specific disruptions of the nervous and reproductive systems through interactions of 4-methylbenzylidene camphor and nanoplastics in adult zebrafish

4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC) and micro/nanoplastics (MNPs) are common in personal care and cosmetic products (PCCPs) and consumer goods; however, they have become pervasive environmental contaminants. MNPs serve as carriers of 4-MBC in both PCCPs and the environment. Our previous study demonstrated that 4-MBC induces estrogenic effects in zebrafish larvae. However, knowledge gaps remain regarding the sex- and tissue-specific accumulation and potential toxicities of chronic coexposure to 4-MBC and MNPs. Herein, adult zebrafish were exposed to environmentally realistic concentrations of 4-MBC (0, 0.4832, and 4832 μg/L), with or without polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs; 50 nm, 1.0 mg/L) for 21 days. Sex-specific accumulation was observed, with higher concentrations in female brains, while males exhibited comparable accumulation in the liver, testes, and brain. Coexposure to PS-NPs intensified the 4-MBC burden in all tested tissues. Dual-omics analysis (transcriptomics and proteomics) revealed dysfunctions in neuronal differentiation, death, and reproduction. 4-MBC-co-PS-NP exposure disrupted the brain histopathology more severely than exposure to 4-MBC alone, inducing sex-specific neurotoxicity and reproductive disruptions. Female zebrafish exhibited autism spectrum disorder-like behavior and disruption of vitellogenesis and oocyte maturation, while male zebrafish showed Parkinson's-like behavior and spermatogenesis disruption. Our findings highlight that PS-NPs enhance tissue accumulation of 4-MBC, leading to sex-specific impairments in the nervous and reproductive systems of zebrafish.

Concentrations, compositional profiles, and health risks of benzophenones among the Taiwanese population based on analysis of 23 daily consumed foods

In this study, we analyzed the occurrence and distribution of 11 benzophenone-type ultraviolet filters (BPs) in 893 food samples spanning 7 food categories in Taiwan. We conducted a Monte Carlo simulation to determine the carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic risks of BPs. The results indicated that cornflakes had the highest mean level of BPs (103 ng/g), followed by bread (101 ng/g) and pastries (59 ng/g). BP was the most prevalent category, followed by 4-methylbenzophenone (4-MBP), 2-hydroxybenzophenone, and benzophenone-3. Estimation of the lifetime cancer risk (LTCR) of BP (average life expectancy of 80 years) placed them in the 50th and 97.5th percentiles [P50 (P97.5)] LTCR of 1.9 × 10-7 (5.7 × 10-6), indicating that BP in food poses a low renal hazard to the Taiwanese population. The noncarcinogenic risk of BPs was evaluated using a hazard quotient and combined margin of exposure (MOET), revealing a P50 (P97.5) hazard index of < 1 for BP, 4-MBP, and methyl-2-benzoylbenzoate. Although the P50 MOET values for all age groups were within the moderate range of concern, with a more conservative extreme (P2.5), the MOET values for the 0-3, 3-6, and 6-12 age groups fell below 100, indicating a high concern for renal degeneration and hyperplasia.

Behavioral and biochemical responses of the marine polychaete Perinereis aibuhitensis to 2-ethylhexyl-4-methoxycinnamate (EHMC) exposure

2-ethylhexyl-4-methoxycinnamate (EHMC) is a commonly used UV filter, and is receiving increasing concerns due to its ubiquitous occurrence in a variety of environmental media and potential adverse effects. This study was aimed to assess the ecotoxicological potentials of EHMC on the marine polychaete Perinereis aibuhitensis. To this end, ragworms were exposed to 2, 20, 200 μg/L EHMC for 14 days and multiple toxicological endpoints were investigated. The results showed that EHMC significantly reduced burrowing rate, but did not affect AChE activity. Exposure to EHMC significantly elevated the activities of SOD and CAT and decreased the levels of lipid peroxidation. Besides, the induction of AKP activity indicated a stimulated immune response in the ragworms when exposed to high concentration of EHMC. Furthermore, the upregulated expression of caspase-8 suggested that EHMC might induce apoptosis in ragworms via the death receptor-mediated extrinsic pathway. Our findings highlight the potential environmental risks of EHMC to marine ecosystems.

Removal of benzophenone-4 via chlorination and advanced oxidation processes in aqueous solution: kinetics, by-product identification, and mechanistic studies

Benzophenone-4 (BP-4) is one of the UV filters widely used in personal care products (PCPs). BP-4 has been identified as an emergent contaminant detected in influent and effluent of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) at high concentrations showing that conventional treatment is unable to remove it, subsequently, the presence of BP-4 in surface water is inevitable. In this study, we focus on the degradation of this compound by chlorine, and we report the efficiency of its removal from water by applying two advanced oxidation processes UV/TiO2 and UV/H2O2 aiming to achieve a superior mineralization result. The study was performed in purified water (pH = 6.5, temperature = 25 °C) with an initial concentration of BP-4 similar to that detected in WWTPs (10 mg/L). The results showed that 76% of BP-4 was degraded after 80 min of reaction with chlorine leading to the formation of one by-product persistent in the solution. The oxidation by UV/TiO2 and UV/H2O2 led to a total removal of BP-4 and their generated by-products after 50 and 10 min of reactions, respectively. The kinetic study showed that BP-4 degradation by UV/H2O2 and UV/TiO2 followed pseudo-first-order reaction kinetics and the apparent rate constants (kapp) were determined to be 0.48 min-1 and 0.08 min-1, respectively. The degradation of BP-4 by chlorine followed first-order reaction kinetics with kapp = 0.02 min-1. The identification of by-product structures was performed using liquid chromatography with electrospray ionization and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS. The fragmentation of BP-4 and by-product ions at different collision energies allowed to propose the pathways of degradation and to predict the toxicity using a silico toxicity program which confirmed a higher toxicity of all generated by-products.

Formation of nitrogen-containing disinfection by-products during the chloramination treatment of an emerging pollutant

Chloramination was commonly used as disinfectant for killing pathogens in water. However, in this process, nitrogen-containing disinfection by-products (N-DBPs) would accidently form and subsequently rise toxicity. Here, we investigated acute toxicity variation and by-products formation during chloramination treatment on UV filter 2-hydroxy-4-methoxy-5-sulfonic acid benzophenone (BP-4). Under alkaline conditions, the acute toxicity of this system had significant increase. A total of 17 transformation products were tentatively identified, and for them, plausible transformation pathways were proposed. Noticeably, numerous aniline and nitrosobenzene analogs were detected, and the dramatic increase of acute toxicity in this system might be primarily attributed to the formation of benzoquinone and aniline analogs. Besides, bromophenol, iodophenol and iodobenzoquinone analogs exhibiting high toxicity were generated in the presence of bromine and iodide ions. This study indicates that chloramination treatment may significantly increase potential health risk, further management on disinfection system is reasonable.

A review of sources, pathways, and toxic effects of human exposure to benzophenone ultraviolet light filters

Benzophenone ultraviolet light filters (BPs) are high-production-volume chemicals extensively used in personal care products, leading to widespread human exposure. Given their estrogenic properties, the potential health risks associated with exposure to BPs have become a public health concern. This review aims to summarize sources and pathways of exposure to BPs and associated health risks. Dermal exposure, primarily through the use of sunscreens, constitutes a major pathway for BP exposure. At a recommended application rate, dermal exposure of BP-3 via the application of sunscreens may reach or exceed the suggested reference dose. Other exposure pathways to BPs, such as drinking water, seafood, and packaged foods, contribute minimal to the overall dose. Inhalation is a minor pathway of exposure; however, its contribution cannot be ignored. Human exposure to BPs is an order of magnitude higher in North America than in Asia and Europe. Studies conducted on laboratory animals and cells have consistently demonstrated the toxic effects of BP exposure. BPs are estrogenic and elicit reproductive and developmental toxicities. Furthermore, neurotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and carcinogenicity have been reported from chronic BP exposure. In addition to animal and cell studies, epidemiological investigations have identified associations between BPs and couples' fecundity and other reproductive disorders, as well as adverse birth outcomes. Further studies are urgently needed to understand the risks posed by BPs on human health.

Effects associated with exposure to the emerging contaminant octyl-methoxycinnamate (a UV-B filter) in the aquatic environment: a review

Given the increasing concern surrounding ultraviolet (UV) radiation-induced skin damage, there has been a rise in demand for UV filters. Currently, UV-filters are considered emerging contaminants. The extensive production and use of UV filters have led to their widespread release into the aquatic environment. Thus, there is growing concern that UV filters may bioaccumulate and exhibit persistent properties within the environment, raising several safety health concerns. Octyl-methoxycinnamate (OMC) is extensively employed as a UV-B filter in the cosmetic industry. While initially designed to mitigate the adverse photobiological effects attributed to UV radiation, the safety of OMC has been questioned with some studies reporting toxic effects on environment. The aim of this review to provide an overview of the scientific information regarding the most widely used organic UV-filter (OMC), and its effects on biodiversity and aquatic environment.

Sunscreens and micro(nano)plastics: Are we aware of these threats to the Egyptian coral reefs?

During a snorkeling trip to Marsa Alam and Hamata (southern Red Sea Riviera, Egypt) I explored the coral reefs and the diverse marine habitats of fish and invertebrate species. The area invites recreational diving and snorkeling, but the beaches are littered with all sorts of solid waste (mainly fragmented plastics). Also, there are no local restrictions on sunscreen use. The development of tourism to the area raises questions about the environmental impact and how its further growth will have on coral reefs. Every year, 1.2 million tourists visit the Red Sea coast (about 3287 tourists per day) and release about 1.7 tons/month of sunscreen into the Red Sea. As an ecologist and editorial board member of Science of the Total Environment, I ask myself how we as scientists can increase public awareness and call for prompt actions to protect the coral reefs. The discussion underlines two major threats to the Egyptian coral reefs: sunscreen use and micro(nano)plastics waste. The discussion closes with possible solutions, future perspectives, and recommendations to protect the coral reefs ecosystem of the Egyptian Red Sea.

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals in Vietnamese marine fish: Occurrence, distribution, and risk assessment

The release of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) into the aquatic environment, specifically the oceans, is increasing, leading to adverse effects on the marine ecosystem. Using optimized QuEChERS extraction methods, the study created the first contamination profiles of 44 EDCs, including organic ultraviolet compounds, pharmaceutically active compounds, hormones, and phthalate esters, in 114 fish muscle samples from five species collected along the Vietnamese coast. The study found that largehead hairtail exhibited the highest total EDCs at 208.3 ng g-1 lipid weight (lw), while Indian catfish displayed the lowest concentration at 105.5 ng g-1 lw. Besides, the study observed notable variations in the total EDCs across distinct fish species. This study hypothesized that the marine economic characteristics of each research location have a significant role in shaping the pollution profile of EDCs found in fish specimens taken from the corresponding area. As a result, a notable disparity in the composition of organic ultraviolet compounds has been observed among the three regions of North, Central, and South Vietnam (Mann-Whitney U test, p < 0.05). Despite these findings, EDC-contaminated fish did not pose any health risks to Vietnam's coastal population.

A combined study of skin penetration by confocal Raman spectroscopy and human metabolism: A case of benzophenone-3 in sunscreen

Although numerous experiments on benzophenone-3 (BP3) have shown that it can permeate into the skin, the in vivo penetration situation and urinary metabolic trend have not yet been investigated. In this study, sunscreen containing 5.72% BP3 was selected for human-skin exposure. Confocal Raman was successfully used to investigate in vivo skin penetration of BP3 in sunscreen. During 2 h of skin exposure, the semi-quantitative mean values were 5.50, 13.48, 15.79, and 15.00 μg/cm2 after application of sunscreen for 15, 30, 60, and 120 min, respectively, indicating that BP3 penetrated the stratum corneum during 60-120 min. After a single exposure of human limbs, BP3 was quickly metabolized and excreted through urine and reached its peak concentration in the 6th hour, whereas its metabolite 2,4-dihydroxybenzophenone (BP1) reached its peak concentration in the 9th hour. Meanwhile, 6% BP3 and 1% BP1 were excreted through the urine within 48 h, but the concentration of 2,2'-dihydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone (BP8) was low, although it varied greatly within 48 h after exposure. During consecutive exposures, a significant correlation (p < 0.05) between BP3 concentration and exposure time was found, indicating that BP3 concentration increased at longer exposure times. Therefore, combining Raman spectroscopy and human sample analysis provided a new way to assess absorption and metabolism of personal care additives in the human body.

Dual Photo-Responsive Diphenylacetylene Enables PET In-Situ Upcycling with Reverse Enhanced UV-Resistance and Strength

A novel in situ chemical upcycling strategy for plastic waste is proposed by the customized diphenylacetylene monomer with dual photo-response. That is, diphenylacetylene reactive monomers are in situ inserted into the macromolecular chain of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastics/fibers through one-pot transesterification of slight-depolymerization and re-polymerization. On the one hand, the diphenylacetylene group absorbs short-wave high-energy UV rays and then releases long-wave low-energy harmless fluorescence. On the other hand, the UV-induced photo-crosslinking reaction among diphenylacetylene groups produces extended π-conjugated structure, resulting in a red-shift (due to decreased HOMO-LUMO separation) in the UV absorption band and locked crosslink points between PET chains. Therefore, with increasing UV exposure time, the upcycled PET plastics exhibit reverse enhanced UV resistance and mechanical strength (superior to original performance), instead of serious UV-photodegradation and damaged performance. This upcycling strategy at oligomer-scale not only provides a new idea for traditional plastic recycling, but also solves the common problem of gradual degradation of polymer performance during use.

Organic ultraviolet absorbents in soils and typical plants from an industrial metropolis in China: Concentrations, profiles and environmental implications

There is accumulating evidence of the toxicity of organic ultraviolet absorbers (OUVAs); however, limited information is available regarding the presence of OUVAs in terrestrial environments and organisms. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the occurrence of 11 OUVAs in soils and typical plant species from an industrial metropolis in China. Total OUVA concentrations in soils ranged from 1.30 to 80.3 ng g-1 DW. Based on comparison with previously reported data, OUVA contamination in soil was not severe. Benzophenone and octocrylene were the dominant OUVAs in soils, with median contributions to total concentrations of 25% and 15%, respectively. Source assessment revealed that the observed OUVA contamination primarily originated from industrial activities and the use of personal care products. The concentration of 11 OUVAs in plants ranged from 159 to 4470 ng g-1 DW, at high levels. Our findings imply that great attention should be given to the presence of these chemicals in plants because of the risk they could pose as well as the potential for biomagnification as plants are eaten by insects and birds. Our results also indicate the necessity to further study the geochemical behavior of these chemicals in urban ecosystems in order to better manage the harmfulness to terrestrial ecological health caused by their exposure through the food chains.

Exploring environmental obesogenous effects of organic ultraviolet filters on children from a case-control study

It has been globally recognized that obesity has become a major public health concern, especially childhood obesity. There is limited information, however, regarding the exposure risk of organic ultraviolet (UV) filters, a kind of emerging contaminant, on childhood obesity. This study would be made on 284 obese and 220 non-obese Chinese children with eight organic UV filters at urinary levels. The eight organic UV filters, including 2-Ethylhexyl 4-aminobenzoate (PABA-E), octisalate (EHS), homosalate (HMS), 2-Ethylhexyl-p-methoxycinnamate (EHMC), benzophenone-3 (BP-3), amiloxate (IAMC), octocrylene (OC) and 4-Methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC) were identified in urine samples with detection rates ranged from 35.32% to 100%, among which PABA-E, HMS, IAMC and OC were firstly detected in children' s urine. And the urinary UV filters concentration was associated with genders, living sites, guardian education levels, household income, and dietary factors. Urinary EHMC concentrations and childhood obesity were positively associated for girls [Adjusted OR = 2.642 (95% CI: 1.019, 6.853)], while OC concentrations and childhood obesity were negatively associated for girls [Adjusted OR = 0.022 (95% CI: 0.001, 0.817)]. The results suggest that EHMC exposure may be an environmental obesogen for girls. Moreover, two statistical models were used separately to evaluate the impact of UV filter mixtures on childhood obesity, including the Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) model and the quantile g-computation (qgcomp) model. The negative association between UV filter mixtures and childhood obesity was proposed from both BKMR and qgcomp models. Further experimental and epidemiological studies are called upon to discern the individual and mixture impacts of organic UV filters on childhood obesity.

Acute toxicity assessment of nine organic UV filters using a set of biotests

UV filters in environmental compartments are a source of concern related to their ecotoxicological effects. However, little is known about UV filters' toxicity, particularly those released into the environment as mixtures. Acute toxicity of nine organic UV filters benzophenone-1, benzophenone-2, benzophenone-3, 4-methoxy benzylidene camphor, octocrylene, ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate, 2-ethylhexyl salicylate, homosalate, and butyl methoxydibenzoylmethane was determined. UV filter solutions were tested as single, binary, and ternary mixtures of various compositions. Single solutions were tested using a set of bio tests, including tests on saline crustaceans (Artemia franciscana), freshwater crustaceans (Daphnia magna), marine bacteria (Aliivibrio fischeri), and freshwater plants (Lemna minor). The tests represent different stages of the trophic chain, and hence their overall results could be used to risk assessment concerning various water reservoirs. The toxicity of binary and ternary mixtures was analyzed using the standardized Microtox® method. Generally, organic UV filters were classified as acutely toxic. Octocrylene was the most toxic for Arthemia franciscana (LC50 = 0.55 mg L-1) and Daphnia magna (EC50 = 2.66-3.67 mg L-1). The most toxic against freshwater plants were homosalate (IC50 = 1.46 mg L-1) and octocrylene (IC50 = 1.95 mg L-1). Ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate (EC50 = 1.38-2.16 mg L-1) was the most toxic for marine bacteria. The least toxic for crustaceans and plants were benzophenone-1 (EC50 = 6.15-46.78 mg L-1) and benzophenone-2 (EC50 = 14.15-54.30 mg L-1), while 4-methoxy benzylidene camphor was the least toxic for marine bacteria (EC50 = 12.97-15.44 mg L-1). Individual species differ in their sensitivity to the tested organic UV filters. An assessment of the toxicity of mixtures indicates high and acute toxicity to marine bacteria after exposition to a binary mixture of benzophenone-2 with octocrylene, 2-ethylhexyl salicylate, or homosalate. The toxicity of mixtures was lower than single solutions predicting antagonistic interaction between chemicals.

Graphical abstract

Development and application of diffusive gradients in thin films for in situ sampling of the organic UV filter 4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC) in waters

4-Methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC), a typical organic UV filter (OUVF) in personal care products, is considered to be a potential endocrine disruptor due to its estrogenic activity and bioaccumulation. Although 4-MBC residues have been extensively identified in aquatic waters, little is known about their occurrence, levels, and potential risk in coastal waters. This study developed a reliable sampling approach, based on diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) with XAD-2 as the binding agent, for monitoring 4-MBC in coastal waters. The diffusion coefficients of 4-MBC in freshwater and artificial seawater were 3.65 × 10-6 cm2/s and 3.83 × 10-6 cm2/s, respectively. XAD-2 binding gel showed rapid adsorption to 4-MBC. The accumulated masses of 4-MBC in XAD-2 DGT increased linearly with deployed time for 7 days in freshwater and seawater, which agreed well with theoretical predictions. The sampling performance was independent of ionic strength (0.0001-0.5 M), pH (4.0-8.5), and dissolved organic matter (0-20 mg/L). Field deployment in the river estuary and bathing beach showed that DGT-measured 4-MBC concentrations were consistent in comparison with grab sampling. Environmental risk assessment showed that 4-MBC may pose a medium risk to aquatic organisms based on computed risk quotient (RQ) values. Sewage discharge is the main source of 4-MBC risk, while the residue in recreation beaches contributes more significantly in summer. The established DGT sampling is suitable for seasonal monitoring, source identification, and risk assessment of 4-MBC in coastal waters.

Trace analysis of benzophenone-type UV filters in water and their effects on human estrogen and androgen receptors

To carry out risk assessments of benzophenone-type UV filters (BPs), fast and accurate analytical methods are crucial to determine and monitor levels in the environment. This study presents an LC-MS/MS method that requires minimal sample preparation and yet can identify 10 different BPs in environmental samples such as surface or wastewater resulting in a LOQ range from 2 to 1060 ng/L. The method suitability was tested through environmental monitoring, which showed that, BP-4 is the most abundant derivative found in the surface waters of Germany, India, South Africa and Vietnam. BP-4 levels correlate with the WWTP effluent fraction of the respective river for selected samples in Germany. Peak values of 171 ng/L for 4-hydroxybenzophenone (4-OH-BP), as measured in Vietnamese surface water, already exceed the PNEC value of 80 ng/L, elevating 4-OH-BP to the status of a new pollutant that needs more frequent monitoring. Moreover, this study reveals that during biodegradation of benzophenone in river water, the transformation product 4-OH-BP is formed which contain structural alerts for estrogenic activity. By using yeast-based reporter gene assays, this study provides bio-equivalents of 9 BPs, 4-OH-BP, 2,3,4-tri-OH-BP, 4-cresol and benzoate and complements the existing structure-activities relationships of BPs and their degradation products.

Spatiotemporal trends of ultraviolet absorbents in oysters from the Pearl River Estuary, south China during 2015-2020

Ultraviolet absorbents (UVAs) are widely used in various industrial materials, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products, resulting in their frequent occurrences in sediment, water, and biota. However, our understanding of the spatiotemporal characteristics and long-term contamination status of UVAs is still limited. Here, a 6-year biomonitoring study with oysters during wet and dry seasons was conducted to examine the annual, seasonal, and spatial characteristics of UVAs in the Pearl River Estuary (PRE), China. The concentrations of Σ₆UVA ranged from 9.1 to 119 (geometric mean ± standard deviation: 31 ± 22) ng/g dry wt. and peaked in 2018. Significant spatiotemporal variations in UVA contamination were observed. The concentrations of UVAs in oysters during the wet season were higher than the dry season, and concentrations in the more industrialized eastern coast were higher than the western coast (p < 0.05). Environmental factors, including precipitation, temperature, and salinity in water significantly impacted the UVA bioaccumulation in the oysters. The present study highlights that long-term biomonitoring with oysters provided valuable insight in the magnitude and seasonal variation of UVAs in this highly dynamic estuary.

Comparative toxicogenomics of benzotriazole ultraviolet stabilizers at environmental concentrations in Asian clam (Corbicula fluminea): Insight into molecular networks and behavior

Benzotriazole ultraviolet stabilizers (BUVSs) are widespread emerging pollutants, which can pose exposure risks to benthic organisms. However, the toxicity and mechanisms of BUVSs congeners in benthic clams are far from elucidated. In this study, Asian clams (Corbicula fluminea) were exposed to one of UV-234, UV-326, UV-329, or UV-P at environmentally relevant levels (0.1, 1, and 10 μg/L) for 21 days. Filtration rate (FR) was increased in clams exposed to all BUVSs and there were notable histopathologic changes, including irregular digestive lumen, lipid droplet vacuolation, and degraded epithelial cells. To determine the molecular underpinnings following BUVSs exposure, the transcriptome responses in digestive glands were compared. Differentially expressed genes shared among BUVSs treatments were associated with focal adhesion, TNF-α/NF-κB proinflammatory pathways, and apoptosis. Following this, biochemical analysis of biomarkers related to apoptosis were conducted to further validate response. Exposure to BUVSs inhibited anti-oxidant enzyme activity and induced oxidative stress. Heat shock proteins were also triggered with exposure, and there was an induction of caspase-3 and caspase-9 activity. Molecular responses were not identical in the digestive gland of C. fluminea when comparing responses to BUVSs; nevertheless conserved mechanism (impairment of the oxidative defense system, immune system disruption, and induction of apoptosis) among BUVSs congeners was noted. This study provides novel insight into the toxicity and hazards of BUVSs in benthic organisms.

Occurrences of UV filters, endocrine disruptive chemicals, alkyl phenolic compounds, fragrances, and hormones in the wastewater and coastal waters of the Antarctica

We present a simplified status description of the prevalence and occurrences of organic micropollutants including endocrine disruptive chemicals (EDCs), therapeutic drugs, hormones, fragrances and ultraviolet (UV) filters in the wastewaters and the adjacent coastal oceans in the Northern and Southern Antarctica. Different treatment technologies adopted in the research stations and their efficacy in removing pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are reviewed. Till date, 56 PPCPs are reported in the wastewaters of Antarctic research stations, and 23 in the adjacent coastal waters and sea ice. The reported concentrations in the wastewaters are at the levels of μg L^-1 for UV filters, plasticizer Bisphenol A, metabolites, antibiotics, alkyl phenolic compounds, and stimulants. Concentrations in the coastal waters and sea ice are two orders of magnitude lower than the wastewaters because of dilution and degradation. It is apparent however, that the PPCP-laden effluents discharged from the research stations contaminate them. If left unchecked, pollution of the coastal waters and sea-ice can lead to toxic levels. Through this review, we have established widespread occurrence of PPCPs in the polar coastal oceans; this study will also provide the status quo for the researchers and policymakers to seriously consider the issue and initiate remedial action in the near future. The existing substantial gaps in understanding of the impact of PPCPs on the flora and fauna of Antarctica, and the ineffectiveness of the current treatment technologies adopted by the research stations are highly evident. Future-oriented polar research should focus on protecting the pristine ecosystem by utilizing climate-sensitive, cost-effective treatment technologies.

Microplastics enhance the toxicity and phototoxicity of UV filter avobenzone on Daphnia magna

Microplastics (MPs) and ultraviolet (UV) filters cause pollution in aquatic ecosystems. Moreover, regulations on the use and discharge of UV filters in personal care products are lacking. Therefore, the combined toxicity of MPs (virgin polystyrene (PS) spheres; size: 200 nm) and avobenzone (AVO; a UV filter) on Daphnia magna were assessed. The exposure groups were AVO, AVO + UV irradiation for 6 h [AVO (UV)], AVO with MPs (Mix), and AVO with MPs + UV irradiation for 6 h [Mix (UV)]. The daphnids were exposed to these treatments for 48 h and observed for an additional 6 h. Energy reserves of all treated groups increased compared to that of the control group. Growth in the Mix group was inhibited despite a high food uptake, and food uptake and growth inhibition were validated in the Mix (UV) group. Additionally, the food uptake of the AVO (UV) and Mix (UV) groups decreased during the recovery period, possibly owing to a decrease in the normal feeding ability resulting from an increase in abnormality. These results indicate that the combined toxicity of MPs+AVO can be exacerbated under natural conditions; the complex toxicity should be considered when assessing aquatic environment pollution.

Benzophenones in the Environment: Occurrence, Fate and Sample Preparation in the Analysis

The ubiquitous presence of emerging contaminants in the environment is an issue of great concern. Notably, for some of them, no established regulation exists. Benzophenones are listed as emerging contaminants, which have been identified in the environment as well as in human fluids, such as urine, placenta, and breast milk. Their accumulation and stability in the environment, combined with the revealed adverse effects on ecosystems including endocrine, reproductive, and other disorders, have triggered significant interest for research. Benzophenones should be extracted from environmental samples and determined for environmental-monitoring purposes to assess their presence and possible dangers. Numerous sample preparation methods for benzophenones in environmental matrices and industrial effluents have been proposed and their detection in more complex matrices, such as fish and sludges, has also been reported. These methods range from classical to more state-of-the-art methods, such as solid-phase extraction, dispersive SPE, LLE, SBSE, etc., and the analysis is mostly completed with liquid chromatography, using several detection modes. This review critically outlines sample preparation methods that have been proposed to date, for the extraction of benzophenones from simple and complex environmental matrices and for cleaning up sample extracts to eliminate potential interfering components that coexist therein. Moreover, it provides a brief overview of their occurrence, fate, and toxicity.

Octinoxate as a potential thyroid hormone disruptor - A combination of in vivo and in vitro data

Ultraviolet filters are commonly used in various cosmetic products. Due to their huge consumption ultraviolet filters become a part of the environment. Octinoxate is a commonly used ultraviolet filter that is widely detected in the aquatic environment. In our study, we investigated whether this ultraviolet filter is able to disrupt thyroid hormone regulation after six weeks of exposure in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Thyroid hormones play crucial role in development and regulation of the organism and its disruption could cause the whole-body imbalance. Our study includes a compilation of in vivo and in vitro tests. The results of the in vivo experiment revealed a significant increase in thyroxine hormone in plasma for the highest tested dose of octinoxate (i.e. 395.6 μg/kg). We examined selected tissues (liver and cranial kidney) to determine the mRNA expression of genes involved in thyroid hormones regulation. The analysis confirmed downregulation of deiodinase 2 mRNA expression for the highest tested dose (i.e. 395.6 μg/kg) and downregulation of paired box 8 mRNA for medium (96 μg/kg) and the highest octinoxate dose (395.6 μg/kg.) only in cranial kidney. In vitro analysis indicated that octinoxate does not elicit (anti-)thyroid activity via thrβ and does not behave as a transthyretin ligand. Based on our results, octinoxate has a potential to act as a thyroid hormone disruptor, but further research required to better understand the entire regulatory mechanism.

Environmental specimen banks and the European Green Deal

The study highlights the potential of Environmental Specimen Banks (ESBs) for implementing the Zero Pollution Ambition and the Biodiversity Strategy of the European Green Deal. By drawing on recent monitoring studies of European ESBs, we illustrate the role ESBs already play in assessing the state of ecosystems in Europe and how they help to make developments over time visible. The studies reveal the ubiquitous presence of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, halogenated flame retardants, chlorinated paraffins, plasticizers, cyclic volatile methyl siloxanes, UV-filters, pharmaceuticals, and microplastics in the European environment. Temporal trends demonstrate the effectiveness of European regulations on perfluorooctane sulfonic acid, pentabrominated diphenylethers and diethylhexyl phthalate, but also point to the rise of substitutes such as non-phthalate plasticizers and short-chain perfluoroalkyl substances. Other studies are wake-up calls indicating the emergence of currently unregulated compounds such as long-chain chlorinated paraffins. Ecological studies show temporal trends in biometric parameters and stable isotope signatures that suggest long-term changes in environmental conditions. Studies on biodiversity of ecosystems using environmental DNA are still in their beginnings, but here too there is evidence of shifts in community composition that can be linked to changing environmental conditions. This review demonstrates the value of ESBs (a) for describing the status of the environment, (b) for monitoring temporal changes in environmental pollution and the ecologic condition of ecosystems and thereby (c) for supporting regulators in prioritizing their actions towards the objectives of the Green Deal.

Assessing the eco-compatibility of new generation sunscreen products through a combined microscopic-molecular approach

There is now unequivocal evidence that sunscreen can severely affect marine ecosystems. However, so far, most studies have focused on the impact of single sunscreen ingredients rather than on the whole sunscreen products, which are released into the marine environment. In the present work, we investigated the ecological impact of six formulations, which represent the "new generation" organic UV filters such as diethylamino hydroxybenzoyl hexyl benzoate (DHHB), methylene bis-benzotriazolyl tetramethylbutylphenol (MBBT), ethylhexyl triazone (EHT), and bis-ethylhexyloxyphenol methoxyphenyl triazine (BEMT), which are progressively replacing the "old generation" organic UV filters (e.g., oxybenzone, octinoxate) banned in several countries of the world. The six formulations tested were characterized by a different combination of ingredients, on a model species particularly sensitive to environmental alterations: the sea urchin, Paracentrotus lividus. We investigated the sea urchin responses both in terms of gene expression and anomalies in embryonic development. We found that all sunscreen products containing only MBBT, DHHB, BEMT, and EHT as UV filters, are more eco-compatible than those also containing also ES, or other ingredients such as emollients and texturizing compounds, which may act synergistically causing molecular stress, morphological anomalies, and ultimately possible death. Overall, the results presented here provide new insights on the effects of sunscreen products based on "new generation" UV filters, and highlights the urgency of testing complete formulations, rather than just specific UV filters to ascertain the eco-compatibility of sunscreen products, to effectively minimize their impact on marine ecosystems.

Affinity of Compounds for Phosphatydylcholine-Based Immobilized Artificial Membrane-A Measure of Their Bioconcentration in Aquatic Organisms

The BCF (bioconcentration factor) of solutes in aquatic organisms is an important parameter because many undesired chemicals enter the ecosystem and affect the wildlife. Chromatographic retention factor log k_w^IAM obtained from immobilized artificial membrane (IAM) HPLC chromatography with buffered, aqueous mobile phases and calculated molecular descriptors obtained for a group of 120 structurally unrelated compounds were used to generate useful models of log BCF. It was established that log k_w^IAM obtained in the conditions described in this study is not sufficient as a sole predictor of bioconcentration. Simple, potentially useful models based on log k_w^IAM and a selection of readily available, calculated descriptors and accounting for over 88% of total variability were generated using multiple linear regression (MLR), partial least squares (PLS) regression and artificial neural networks (ANN). The models proposed in the study were tested on an external group of 120 compounds and on a group of 40 compounds with known experimental log BCF values. It was established that a relatively simple MLR model containing four independent variables leads to satisfying BCF predictions and is more intuitive than PLS or ANN models.

Environmental impacts due to the use of sunscreen products: a mini-review

Sunscreen use has increased in recent years, as sunscreen products minimize the damaging effects of solar radiation. Active ingredients called ultraviolet (UV) filters or UV agents, either organic or inorganic, responsible for defending skin tissue against harmful UV rays, are incorporated in sunscreen formulations. UV agents have a serious impact on many members of bio communities, and they are transferred to the environment either directly or indirectly. Many organic UV filters are found to be accumulated in marine environments because of high values of the octanol/water partition coefficient. However, due to the fact that UV agents are not stable in water, unwanted by-products may be formed. Experimental studies or field observations have shown that organic UV filters tend to bioaccumulate in various aquatic animals, such as corals, algae, arthropods, mollusks, echinoderms, marine vertebrates. This review was conducted in order to understand the effects of UV agents on both the environment and marine biota. In vivo and in vitro studies of UV filters show a wide range of adverse effects on the environment and exposed organisms. Coral bleaching receives considerable attention, but the scientific data identify potential toxicities of endocrine, neurologic, neoplastic and developmental pathways. However, more controlled environmental studies and long-term human use data are limited. Several jurisdictions have prohibited specific UV filters, but this does not adequately address the dichotomy of the benefits of photoprotection vs lack of eco-friendly, safe, and approved alternatives.

Acute toxicity characterization of organic UV-filters and chronic exposure revealing multigenerational effects in DAPHNIA MAGNA

Organic ultraviolet (UV) filters have often been detected in aquatic ecosystems in concentrations ranging from ng/L to μg/L. However, both their acute and chronic effects on aquatic organisms have been insufficiently explored. This study aimed to evaluate acute toxicity of some of the main UV filters used worldwide (2-ethylhexyl,4-methoxycinnamate/EHMC, avobenzone/AVO, benzophenone-3/BP-3, and octocrylene/OC), in three aquatic organisms (Artemia salina, Desmodesmus subspicatus, and Daphnia magna), and to further investigate multigenerational effects in D. magna. After acute toxicity was confirmed, daphnids were chronically exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of UV filters for two consecutive generations (F0 and F1), and reproductive endpoints, as well as catalase (CAT) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activities, were assessed. EHMC showed the most toxic potential, with the lowest EC₅₀ values for the three organisms. On the other hand, reproductive delays and a decrease in the reproduction rate were observed in the F1 generation exposed to AVO (4.4 µg/L), BP-3 (0.17 µg/L), EHMC (0.2 µg/L), and MIX. An increase of the CAT activity in organisms exposed to BP-3 and EHMC suggested induction of the antioxidant system. Although no reproductive effect was observed in the first generation, toxic effects obtained in the F1 revealed the importance of multigenerational studies and the potential harm of UV filters to the life cycle of D. magna, even at environmentally relevant concentrations. This emphasizes the need for further studies considering these levels of exposure and more realistic experimental designs to better understand their potential risks. Environmentally relevant concentrations of Organic UV filters are not lethal to aquatic organisms, however may affect reproductive parameters in Daphnia magna though multigenerational exposures.

Environmental contamination status with common ingredients of household and personal care products exhibiting endocrine-disrupting potential

The continuous use of household and personal care products (HPCPs) produces an immense amount of chemicals, such as parabens, bisphenols, benzophenones and alkylphenol ethoxylates, which are of great concern due to their well-known endocrine-disrupting properties. These chemicals easily enter the environment through man-made activities, thus contaminating the biota, including soil, water, plants and animals. Thus, on top of the direct exposure on account of their presence in HPCPs, humans are also susceptible to secondary indirect exposure attributed to the ubiquitous environmental contamination. The aim of this review was therefore to examine the sources and occurrence of these noteworthy contaminants (i.e. parabens, bisphenols, benzophenones, alkylphenol ethoxylates), to summarise the available research on their environmental presence and to highlight their bioaccumulation potential. The most notable environmental contaminants appear to be MeP and PrP among parabens, BPA and BPS among bisphenols, BP-3 among benzophenones and NP among alkylphenols. Their maximum detected concentrations in the environment are mostly in the range of ng/L, while in human tissues, their maximum concentrations achieved μg/L due to bioaccumulation, with BP-3 and nonylphenol showing the highest potential to bioaccumulate. Finally, of another great concern is the fact that even the unapproved parabens and benzophenones have been detected in the environment.

Associations between concentrations of typical ultraviolet filter benzophenones in indoor dust and human hair from China: A human exposure study

Benzophenone-3 (BP-3) has been widely used as a typical ultraviolet (UV) filter in various personal care products. While BP-3 and its derivatives (BPs) have been detected in various environmental matrices, very little is known about the concentration profile of BPs in human hair. The associations of BPs in human hair with those in indoor dust samples collected from the same locations remain largely unclear. In this study, a total of 258 indoor dust samples and 66 human hair samples were collected across China and analyzed to determine the presence of BP-3 and its derivatives. The BP-3 concentrations ranged from 0.386 to 1230 ng/g dw in indoor dust and from 0.149 to 696 ng/g dw in human hair. No difference was found between BPs in indoor dust samples from different geographic regions (p > 0.05), whereas relatively higher BP concentrations were observed for dust from urban regions than dust from rural ones (p < 0.05). A positive correlation was found between the BP-3 concentrations of indoor dust and human hair samples (p < 0.05). The estimated daily intake (EDI) of BPs for humans from indoor dust showed a gender difference (females > males; p < 0.05), with the highest EDI value being found in Southwest China (males: 35.5 pg/kg bw/day; females: 40.6 pg/kg bw/day). This study provides the concentration profiles of BPs in human hair and elucidates the associations between the BP concentrations in indoor dust samples and human hair samples collected across China.

Contaminants of emerging concern in marine areas: First evidence of UV filters and paraben preservatives in seawater and sediment on the eastern coast of Tunisia

UV filters (UVFs) and paraben preservatives (PBs) are widely used components in many personal care products. However, there has been a rising concern for their endocrine-disrupting effects on wildlife once they reach aquatic ecosystems via recreative activities and wastewater treatment plants effluents. This study addresses UVFs and PBs occurrence in seawater and sediment impacted by tourism and sewage discharges along the coast of Mahdia, center East Tunisia. Samples of water and sediment were collected for 6 months from 3 coastal areas. Among the 14 investigated UVFs, 8 were detected in seawater and 4 were found in sediment. All PBs were present in seawater and only methylparaben (MePB) was detected in sediment. Benzophenone-3 (oxybenzone, BP3), benzocaine (EtPABA), and MePB were present in all water samples with concentrations in the ranges 16.4-66.9, 7.3-37.7, and 17.6-222 ng/L, respectively. However, the highest value, 1420 ng/L, corresponded to octinoxate (EHMC). In sediments, avobenzone (AVO), 4-methyl benzylidene camphor (4MBC), EHMC, 5-methyl-1-H-benzotriazole (MeBZT), and MePB were detected at concentrations within the range 1.1-17.6 ng/g dw, being MePB the most frequently detected (89%). MePB and MBZT presented the highest sediment-water partition coefficients and MePB also showed a positive correlation with total suspended solids' water content. Overall, pollutants concentrations remained rather constant along the sampling period, showing little seasonal variation. This study constitutes the first monitoring of UVFs and PBs on the Tunisian coastline and provides occurrence data for reference in further surveys in the country.

An optimized processing method for polar organic chemical integrative samplers deployed in seawater: Toward a maximization of the analysis accuracy for trace emerging contaminants

Passive sampling of emerging contaminants (ECs) in seawater represents a challenge in environmental monitoring. A specific protocol for Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler (POCIS) processing may be necessary when dealing with marine applications, due to the peculiarity of the considered matrix. Herein, both the instrumental LC-MS/MS analysis and the sampler processing for the determination of 22 ECs in seawater were carefully optimized. The study entailed a test simulating POCIS sorbent exposure to seawater as well as the processing of replicated field POCIS with different elution solvents. The final method involved washing the sorbent with water, to eliminate most salts, and a two-step elution, by using methanol and a small volume of a dichloromethane-isopropanol mixture. With this protocol, recoveries between 58 and 137% (average 106%) were obtained for most analytes, including non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, UV-filters, perfluorinated substances and caffeine. Still, the protocol was not suitable for very hydrophilic compounds (recovery under 20% for artificial sweeteners and the pharmaceutical salbutamol), which also showed remarkable ion suppression (matrix effects in the range 4-46%). For all other chemicals, the matrix effects were in the range 67-103% (average 86%), indicating satisfactory accuracy. Also, the overall method showed high sensitivity (detection limits in the range 0.04-9 ng g^-1 of POCIS sorbent) and excellent specificity, thanks to the monitoring of two "precursor ion-product ion" MS transitions for identity confirmation. The method was applied to samplers deployed in the Ligurian coast (Italy), detecting caffeine, bisphenol A, ketoprofen and two UV-filters as the most concentrated in the POCIS sorbent.

Development of diffusive gradients in thin film technique for seasonal monitoring of benzophenone-type UV filters in coastal waters

Benzophenone(BP)-type UV filters are continuously released into various aquatic environments via the effluent discharge of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and recreational activities in coastal beaches. In this study, we developed a robust and reliable sampling approach, diffusive gradients in thin-films (DGT), for seasonal monitoring of six BP derivatives in coastal waters to investigate their occurrence and environmental risk. The binding capacities of both XAD-2 and HLB gels for test BPs were over 252 μg with no significant deterioration in marine environment, suggesting that theoretically, DGT is capable of sampling for at least 3 months effectively. The diffusion coefficients of BPs in freshwater and seawater were determined for the first time. The sampling performance showed no dependence on environmental conditions including pH (4.0-8.5), ionic strength (0.0001-0.5 M) and dissolved organic matter (0-20 mg L^-1). The developed DGT samplers were successfully applied in a river estuary linked to a WWTP and a bathing beach at different periods of one year. Results showed that the concentrations of BPs in the coastal waters were dependent on seasonal variation. The highest level in summer and the ecological risk should be considered based on the risk quotient values. These results demonstrated that the present DGT method is suitable for measuring, characterization, and risk assessment of BPs in freshwater and marine environment.

Waterborne exposure to avobenzone and octinoxate induces thyroid endocrine disruption in wild-type and thrαa-/- zebrafish larvae

Avobenzone and octinoxate are frequently used as organic ultraviolet filters, and these chemicals are widely detected in water. This study evaluated the potential of avobenzone and octinoxate to disrupt thyroid endocrine system in wild-type and thyroid hormone receptor alpha a knockout (thrαa^-/-) zebrafish embryo/larvae. Following a 120 h exposure to various concentrations of avobenzone and octinoxate, larvae mortality and developmental toxicity in wild-type and thrαa^-/- fish were assessed. Triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) levels as well as transcriptional levels of ten genes associated with the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis were measured in wild-type fish. Significantly lower larvae survival rate in thrαa^-/- fish exposed to ≥3 μM avobenzone and octinoxate suggests that the thyroid hormone receptor plays a crucial role in the toxic effects of avobenzone and octinoxate. A significant increase in the deio2 gene level in avobenzone-exposed zebrafish supports the result of an increased ratio of T3 to T4. Significant decrease of T4 level with upregulation of trh, tshβ, and tshr genes indicates feedback in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland to maintain hormonal homeostasis. Our observation indicates that exposure to avobenzone and octinoxate affects the thyroid hormone receptor and the feedback mechanisms of the HPT axis. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: Not applicable.

Biomonitoring bisphenols, parabens, and benzophenones in breast milk from a human milk bank in Southern Spain

BACKGROUND

Human breast milk is considered the optimal source of nutrition for infants. Milk from breast milk banks offers an alternative to infant formulas for vulnerable hospitalized neonates most likely to benefit from exclusive human milk feeding. However, breast milk can also be a source of exposure to environmental contaminants, including endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs).

AIM

To evaluate concentrations of phenolic EDCs, including bisphenols, parabens (PBs), and benzophenones (BPs), in samples from a human milk bank in Granada, Southern Spain and to explore sociodemographic, reproductive, and lifestyle factors related to their concentrations in the milk.

METHODS

Concentrations of three bisphenols [bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol F (BPF), and bisphenol S (BPS)], four PBs [methyl- (MeP), ethyl- (EtP), propyl- (n-PrP), and butyl-paraben (n-BuP)], and six BPs [BP-1, BP-2, BP-3, BP-6, BP-8, and 4-hydroxy-BP] were determined in milk samples from 83 donors. Information on potential explanatory variables was gathered using the milk bank donor form and an ad hoc questionnaire. Multiple linear and logistic regression models were fitted.

RESULTS

Detectable concentrations were found of at least one of the analyzed compounds in all donor breast milk samples and at least five compounds in one-fifth of them. The most frequently detected compounds were MeP (90.5%), BP-3 (75.0%), EtP (51.2%), n-PrP (46.4%), and BPA (41.7%). Median concentrations ranged between <0.10 ng/mL (n-PrP, n-BuP, BP-1) and 0.59 ng/mL (BP-3). No sample contained detectable concentrations of BPF, BPS, or most BPs (BP-2, BP-6, BP-8, and 4- hydroxy-BP). Breast milk phenol concentrations were associated with parity, the utilization of deodorants, mouthwash, skin care products, and cosmetics, and the intake of nutritional supplements.

CONCLUSIONS

Results reveal the widespread presence of BPA, PBs, and BP-3 in donor breast milk samples, highlighting the need for preventive measures to enhance the benefits of breast milk from milk banks and from breastfeeding women in general.

Occurrence, health risk assessment and water quality criteria derivation of six personal care products (PCPs) in Huangpu River, China

Personal care products (PCPs) have shown adverse health effects on humans. However, their health risk associated with fish consumption and relevant water quality criteria are still not well documented. This study investigated the occurrence and health risk of six PCPs (triclosan, bisphenol-A, and four commonly used organic ultraviolet (UV) filters, i.e., homosalate (HMS), 4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC), oxybenzone (BP-3), and octocrylene (OC)). River water and three trophic levels of fish species were collected from Huangpu River in Shanghai. The concentration range of the six PCPs were 1.48-89.76 ng/L in water and 0.40-10.75 ng/g dry weight in fish. Estimated daily intake (EDI) and target hazard quotient (THQ) of the PCPs indicated that consuming these fish would not pose non-carcinogenic risks. The maximum allowable fish consumption rates ranged from 85 to 1760 and 155 to 3230 meals per month for children and adults, respectively. As to the four organic UV filters, it is the first time to report the fish consumption advisories. Finally, the human health ambient water quality criteria (AWQC) values of HMS, 4-MBC, BP-3, OC, TCS, and BPA (i.e., 0.1218, 0.7311, 0.3494, 0.0477, 235.8, and 154.7 μg/L, respectively) were proposed, and they can serve as a valuable technical reference for global development and revision of aquatic environmental quality standards for these emerging contaminants.

Specific-accumulation and trophic transfer of UV filters and stabilizers in marine food web

The occurrence and distribution of benzotriazole UV stabilizers (BUVs) and UV filters in marine environments (sediment and seawater) and 20 biota species in the South Korea were investigated to assess their transfer through the marine food web. The total concentrations in the seawater samples were 4.73-8.60 ng/L for BUVs and 1.20-4.88 ng/L for UV filters; while, the total concentrations in the sediment samples were 0.581-6.62 ng/g dw for BUVs and 1.05-6.79 ng/g dw for UV filters, respectively. The total concentrations of BUVs and UV filters were a little higher in benthic invertebrates (BUVs: 131 ng/g lipid weight [lw], UV filters: 41.7 ng/g lw) than fish (BUVs: 99.2 ng/g lw, UV filters: 28.0 ng/g lw) but there were no statistical differences (Mann-Whitney U test, p > 0.05). UV-326 was dominant (fish: 37.9%, benthic invertebrate: 48.7%) of the total BUVs. While, benzophenone-3 (fish: 34.1%, benthic invertebrate: 40.8%) and ethylhexyl methoxy cinnamate (fish: 41.0%, benthic invertebrate: 37.8%) were the dominant UV filters. The bioaccumulation factor and trophic magnification factor indicated that UV-326 can both bioaccumulate and biomagnify (bioaccumulation factor >5000 and biota-sediment accumulation and trophic magnification factors >1). Several other BUVs were found to be able to either bioaccumulate (UV-320, UV-P, UV-329, and UV-234) or biomagnify (UV-327 and UV-928). Most of the analyzed UV filters were found not to be likely to bioaccumulate.

UV-filter octyl methoxycinnamate causes reproductive toxicity associated with germline apoptosis and vitellogenin decrease in Caenorhabditis elegans

Octyl methoxycinnamate (OMC) is a common UV filter found in personal care products such as sunscreen and cosmetics. However, OMC's presence in wastewater has raised concerns that it could potentially pollute aquatic ecosystems because of its limited biodegradability and its estrogenic disrupting properties. In this study, we investigated the environmental toxicity of OMC and its potential biomarkers using the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Our results showed that body length, eggs in utero, and total brood size decreased with increasing dose (experimental concentrations = 0, 1, 5, 10, 100, 500 μM for body length and eggs in utero, and 0, 5, 10 μM for total brood size) in C. elegans after L1 larval stage (the first larval stage for 0 - 12 hours post-hatching) larval stage exposure to OMC. The minimum effective concentrations were 1, 5, and 10 μM, respectively. Modeling results demonstrated that the threshold concentration of OMC inducing 10% inhibited eggs in utero was 0.33 μM (95.11 μg/L). Furthermore, germline apoptosis was induced in 10 μM OMC-treated worms (experimental concentrations = 0, 5, 10 μM). Decreased mRNA levels of vitellogenin-related genes (vit-2 and vit-6) and increased mRNA levels of apoptosis-related genes (egl-1 and ced-3) were observed in 10 μM OMC-treated C. elegans (experimental concentrations = 0, 10 μM), suggesting that reproductive toxicity was associated with decreased vitellogenin levels and germline apoptosis. In summary, our study shows that OMC is reproductively toxic and leads to reduced egg formation and decreased brood size in C. elegans by reducing vitellogenin levels and promoting germline apoptosis.

Fish consumption is an indicator of exposure to benzophenone derivatives: A probabilistic risk assessment in Taiwanese population

Benzophenone (BP) derivatives (BPs) ultraviolet filters are used in industrial and commercial products and have been reported to be toxic. Studies have investigated the ecological risks but not the human exposure risks of BPs. Residues of 10 BPs (BP, BP-1, BP-2, BP-3, BP-8, 2-OHBP, 4-OHBP, 4-MBP, M2BB, and PBZ) were measured in 110 commercial samples of saltwater fish (SF) and freshwater fish (FF) from Taiwan. The estimated daily intakes (EDIs) and noncarcinogenic risks (as hazard quotients [HQs] and hazard indices [HIs]) were predicted for eight age groups by using Monte Carlo simulation, and sensitivity analysis was conducted to determine the factors influencing risks. The carcinogenic risk of exposure to BP was estimated using lifetime cancer risk (LTCR). The results revealed that seven BPs (BP, BP-3, 2-OHBP, 4-OHBP, 4-MBP, PBZ, and M2BB) were ubiquitous in the fish samples. The mean sums of the content of these seven BPs in FF and SF were 46.4 ng/g and 25.0 ng/g, respectively. Infants (age 0-3 years) exhibited the highest HI of BPs (1.6E-2) and LTCR of BP (2.8E-7) among all age groups. The HQs and HIs of all BPs were less than 1 and the LTCR for BP was lower than the acceptable range (10^-4 to10^-6) in all age groups, suggesting that BPs intake through fish consumption is not a health concern for Taiwanese people. The results of the sensitivity analysis demonstrated that the amount of SF consumed and 2-OHBP levels exerted the greatest effect on risk. Considering the relatively higher risk of fish consumption and concerns that ultraviolet filters are endocrine disruptors, the potential health risks of BPs intake for infants deserves further attention.

A metabolomic study on the effect of prenatal exposure to Benzophenone-3 on spontaneous fetal loss in mice

Benzophenone-3 (BP-3) is widely used in a variety of cosmetics and is prevalent in drinking water or food, and women were under notable high exposure burden of BP-3. Reports show the associations between prenatal exposure to BP-3 and the risk of fetal loss, but its underlying mechanism remains largely unknown. Pregnant ICR mice were gavaged with BP-3 from gestational day (GD) 0 to GD 6 at doses of 0.1, 10 and 1000 mg/kg/day. The samples were collected on GD 12. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry-based metabolomics was used to detect metabolome changes in fetal mice, the uterus and the placenta to identify the underlying mechanism. The results showed that the body weight and relative organ weights of the liver, brain and uterus of pregnant mice were not significantly changed between the control group and the treatment group. BP-3 increased fetal loss, and induced placental thrombosis and tissue necrosis with enhancement of platelet aggregation. Metabolomic analysis revealed that fructose and mannose metabolism, the TCA cycle, arginine and proline metabolism in the fetus, arginine and proline metabolism and biotin metabolism in the uterus, and arginine biosynthesis and pyrimidine metabolism in the placenta were the key changed pathways involved in the above changes. Our study indicates that exposure to BP-3 can induce placental thrombosis and fetal loss via the disruption of maternal and fetal metabolism in mice, providing novel insights into the influence of BP-3 toxicity on the female reproductive system.

Stability and Removal of Benzophenone-Type UV Filters from Water Matrices by Advanced Oxidation Processes

Benzophenone (BP) type UV filters are common environmental contaminants that are posing a growing health concern due to their increasing presence in water. Different studies have evidenced the presence of benzophenones (BP, BP-1, BP-2, BP-3, BP-4, BP-9, HPB) in several environmental matrices, indicating that conventional technologies of water treatment are not able to remove them. It has also been reported that these compounds could be associated with endocrine-disrupting activities, genotoxicity, and reproductive toxicity. This review focuses on the degradation kinetics and mechanisms of benzophenone-type UV filters and their degradation products (DPs) under UV and solar irradiation and in UV-based advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) such as UV/H₂O₂, UV/persulfate, and the Fenton process. The effects of various operating parameters, such as UV irradiation including initial concentrations of H₂O₂, persulfate, and Fe²⁺, on the degradation of tested benzophenones from aqueous matrices, and conditions that allow higher degradation rates to be achieved are presented. Application of nanoparticles such as TiO₂, PbO/TiO₂, and Sb₂O₃/TiO₂ for the photocatalytic degradation of benzophenone-type UV filters was included in this review.

Passive Sampling of Organic Contaminants as a Novel Approach to Monitor Seawater Quality in Aquarium Ocean Tanks

The determination of trace pollutants in seawater is challenging, and sampling is a crucial step in the entire analytical process. Passive samplers combine in situ sampling and preconcentration, thus limiting the tedious treatment steps of the conventional sampling methods. Their use to monitor water quality in confined marine environment could bring several advantages. In this work, the presence of organic contaminants at trace and ultra-trace levels was assessed in the Genoa Aquarium supply-and-treated water using Polar Organic Integrative Samplers (POCIS). Both untargeted gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and targeted liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry were employed. The untargeted approach showed the presence of hydrocarbons, diphenyl sulfone and 2,4-di-tert-butyl-phenol. Only hydrocarbons were detected in all the samples. Nineteen emerging contaminants, belonging to different classes (pharmaceuticals, UV-filters, hormones and perfluorinated compounds), were selected for the target analysis. Thirteen analytes were detected, mainly in supply water, even though the majority of them were below the quantitation limit. It is worthy to note that two of the detected UV-filters had never been reported in seawater using the POCIS samplers. The comparison of the analytes detected in supply and treated water indicated a good performance of the Aquarium water treatment system in the abatement of seawater contaminants.

Concentrations, distribution and potential health risks of organic ultraviolet absorbents in street dust from Tianjin, a megacity in northern China

The distribution of organic ultraviolet absorbers (OUVAs) in outdoor dust remains poorly understood, especially in megacities. We measured the concentrations of 11 OUVAs in street dust from Tianjin, China, by a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and found total concentrations in the range of 10.3-129 ng/g. These OUVAs were prevalent in the study street dust, but their concentrations were much lower than those in indoor dust reported in other areas previously. Benzophenone and octocrylene were the dominant OUVAs, representing medians of 15.5% and 13.1% of total OUVA concentrations, respectively. Total concentrations of dust OUVAs in the industrial area were higher than the residential, cultural and new urban areas. Source assessment indicated that the OUVAs likely originated mainly from the manufacture and consumption of cosmetics and personal care products, and some may have been from the production and use of OUVA-containing consumer products. The calculated non-carcinogenic risks of OUVAs in street dust were low. Our results further confirmed that the OUVAs were prevalent in the environment, provide useful information for understanding potential risks of these chemicals and developing risk management strategies. Further studies are needed to investigate the occurrence, environmental behaviors and potential risks of these emerging contaminants in outdoor environment.

Chromatographic methods for the determination of a broad spectrum of UV filters in swimming pool water

This paper describes an analytical approach based on solid-phase extraction (SPE) followed by analysis using liquid and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry detectors for a determination of 18 organic UV filters from water samples. Extraction method parameters were optimized: 250 ml of water sample loaded on Chromabond C18 cartridges after adjustment to pH 4 and then eluted with acetonitrile. The mobile phase and the parameters of the mass spectrometer, as well as those of the ionization source, were tested to enhance detection sensitivity. During method validation, the extracted target compounds showed good recoveries (> 68%) with acceptable values in terms of repeatability (RSD_r) and reproducibility (RSD_R), where relative standard deviations values were lower than 20%. The validated method was applied to 10 water samples collected from different swimming pools located in Lebanon from which eight UV filters among the eighteen targets compounds were detected at concentrations ranged between 1 and 2526 µg L^-1. The most detected compounds were padimate-O (OD-PABA) and octocrylene (OCR). This study represents the first available data on the occurrence of UV filter residues in Lebanese swimming pool opening hence future perspectives and insights to evaluate their degradation by-products and their toxicity on human health and marine ecosystem.

Oxybenzone contamination from sunscreen pollution and its ecological threat to Hanauma Bay, Oahu, Hawaii, U.S.A

Hanauma Bay is a 101-acre bay created by the partial collapse of a volcanic cone and once supported a vibrant coral reef system. It is the most popular swimming area in the Hawaiian Islands and has been reported to have averaged between 2.8 and 3.5 million visitors a year between the 1980s and the 2010s, with visitors averaging between 3000-4000 a day and peaking around 10,000-13,000 per day. Concentrations of oxybenzone and other common UV filters were measured in subsurface water samples and in sands from the beach-shower areas in Hanauma Bay. Results demonstrate that beach showers also can be a source of sunscreen environmental contamination. Hydrodynamic modeling indicates that oxybenzone contamination within Hanauma Bay's waters could be retained between 14 and 50 h from a single release event period. Focusing on only oxybenzone, two different Hazard and Risk Assessment analyses were conducted to determine the danger of oxybenzone to Hanauma Bay's coral reef system. Results indicate that oxybenzone contamination poses a significant threat to the wildlife of Hanauma Bay. To recover Hanauma Bay's natural resources to a healthy condition and to satisfactorily conserve its coral reef and sea grass habitats, effective tourism management policies need to be implemented that mitigate the threat of sunscreen pollution.

Bioaccumulation and trophic transfer of organic ultraviolet absorbents in the food web of a freshwater lake: Implications for risk estimation

Organic ultraviolet absorbents (UVAs) are increasingly reported in environmental matrices and organisms. However, available information on the bioaccumulation of UVAs in freshwater species is insufficient and their trophodynamics in lake food webs remain unknown. We measured the concentrations of twelve UVAs in the wild species from Lake Chaohu. Except for UV-320 not detected, the other UVAs were prevalent in the study species and their total concentrations were in the range of 5.44-131 ng/g dry weight, which were comparable to the concentrations reported in other waters. Compound and species-specific accumulations of UVAs in the organisms were observed. In the lake, the log-transformed concentrations of 4-methyl benzylidene camphor, octyl p-dimethylaminobenzoate, UV-326, and UV-327 related significantly to the trophic levels of species separately. The calculated trophic magnification factors (TMFs) of the four UVAs were 3.79, implying trophic magnification, and 0.18, 0.40 and 0.58, suggesting trophic dilution, respectively. These suggested that the magnification potential and the associated risks of individual UVAs in freshwater lake differed. To our knowledge, this is the first report of these TMFs in lake food webs. However, more investigation is needed to characterize their trophodynamic behaviors in lakes because food web characteristics likely affect trophic transfer of these chemicals.