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Luben TJ, Shaffer RM, Kenyon E, Nembhard WN, Weber KA, Nuckols J, Wright JM. Comparison of Trihalomethane exposure assessment metrics in epidemiologic analyses of reproductive and developmental outcomes. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2024; 34:115-125. [PMID: 37316533 DOI: 10.1038/s41370-023-00559-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Researchers have developed exposure assessment metrics for disinfection by-products (DBPs) utilizing drinking water monitoring data and accounting for spatial and temporal variability, water consumption, and showering and bathing time with an expectation of decreasing exposure misclassification compared to the use of measured concentrations at public water supply (PWS) monitoring locations alone. OBJECTIVE We used exposure data collected for a previous study of DBPs to evaluate how different sources of information impact trihalomethane (THM) exposure estimates. METHODS We compared gestational exposure estimates to THMs based on water utility monitoring data alone, statistical imputation of daily concentrations to incorporate temporal variability, and personal water consumption and use (bathing and showering). We used Spearman correlation coefficients and ranked kappa statistics to compare exposure classifications. RESULTS Exposure estimates based on measured or imputed daily THM concentrations, self-reported consumption, or bathing and showering differed substantially from estimates based solely on concentrations from PWS quarterly monitoring reports. Ranked exposure classifications, high to low quartiles or deciles, were generally consistent across each exposure metric (i.e., a subject with "high" exposure based on measured or imputed THM concentrations generally remained in the "high" category across exposure metrics.) The measured concentrations and imputed daily (i.e., spline regression) concentrations were highly correlated (r = 0.98). The weighted kappa statistics comparing exposure estimates using different exposure metrics ranged from 0.27 to 0.89, with the highest values for the ingestion + bathing/showering metrics compared to metrics for bathing/showering only (0.76 and 0.89). Bathing and showering contributed the most to "total" THM exposure estimates. IMPACT STATEMENT We compare exposure metrics capturing temporal variability and multiple estimates of personal THM exposure with THM concentrations from PWS monitoring data. Our results show exposure estimates based on imputed daily concentrations accounting for temporal variability were very similar to the measured THM concentrations. We observed low agreement between imputed daily concentrations and ingestion-based estimates. Considering additional routes of exposure (e.g., inhalation and dermal) slightly increased agreement with the measured PWS exposure estimate in this population. Overall, the comparison of exposure assessment metrics allows researchers to understand the added value of additional data collection for future epidemiologic analyses of DBPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J Luben
- Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. RTP, NC, Washington, DC, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
| | - Rachel M Shaffer
- Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. RTP, NC, Washington, DC, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Elaina Kenyon
- Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, RTP, RTP, NC, USA
| | - Wendy N Nembhard
- Arkansas Center for Birth Defects Research and Prevention and the Department of Epidemiology, Fay. W. Boozman College of Public Health, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Kari A Weber
- Arkansas Center for Birth Defects Research and Prevention and the Department of Epidemiology, Fay. W. Boozman College of Public Health, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - John Nuckols
- Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA; JRN Environmental Health Sciences, LTD, North Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - J Michael Wright
- Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. RTP, NC, Washington, DC, Cincinnati, OH, USA
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Zhang M, Deng YL, Liu C, Lu WQ, Zeng Q. Impacts of disinfection byproduct exposures on male reproductive health: Current evidence, possible mechanisms and future needs. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 331:138808. [PMID: 37121289 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2023] [Revised: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection byproducts (DBPs) are a class of ubiquitous chemicals in drinking water and inevitably result in widespread human exposures. Potentially adverse health effects of DBP exposures, including reproductive and developmental outcomes, have been increasing public concerns. Several reviews have focused on the adverse pregnancy outcomes of DBPs. This review summarized current evidence on male reproduction health upon exposure to DBPs from toxicological and epidemiological literature. Based on existing experimental studies, there are sufficient evidence showing that haloacetic acids (HAAs) are male reproductive toxicants, including reduced epididymal weight, decreased semen parameters and sperm protein 22, and declined testosterone levels. However, epidemiological evidence remains insufficient to support a link of DBP exposures with adverse male reproductive outcomes, despite that blood and urinary DBP biomarkers are associated with decreased semen quality. Eight potential mechanisms, including germ/somatic cell dysfunction, oxidative stress, genotoxicity, inflammation, endocrine hormones, folate metabolism, epigenetic alterations, and gut microbiota, are likely involved in male reproductive toxicity of DBPs. We also identified knowledge gaps in toxicological and epidemiological studies to enhance future needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Zhang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, And State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Yan-Ling Deng
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, And State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Chong Liu
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, And State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Wen-Qing Lu
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, And State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Qiang Zeng
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, And State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China.
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Urinary trihalomethane concentrations and liver function indicators: a cross-sectional study in China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:39724-39732. [PMID: 36596971 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-25072-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
While it is known that exposure to disinfection by-products (DBPs), including trihalomethanes (THMs), impairs liver function, few epidemiological studies have explored this association. Here, we determined the concentrations of four urinary trihalomethanes (chloroform [TCM], and three Br-THMs, bromodichloromethane [BDCM], dibromochloromethane [DBCM], and bromoform [TBM]), and nine serum liver function indicators in 182 adults ≥ 18 years of age, examined at a medical examination center in Wuxi, China, in 2020 and 2021. Generalized linear model analysis revealed positive associations between urinary DBCM and alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total bilirubin (TBIL), total protein (TP), and albumin (ALB). Urinary Br-THMs and total THMs (TTHMs) were positively associated with ALT, AST, TBIL, indirect bilirubin (IBIL), TP, and ALB (all P < 0.05). Urinary THMs were not associated with alkaline phosphatase (ALP) or glutamine transaminase (GGT) (all P > 0.05). Generalized additive model-based penalized regression splines were used to confirm these associations. In conclusion, THM exposure was associated with altered serum biomarkers of liver function.
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Xue P, Wang H, Yang L, Jiang Z, Li H, Liu Q, Zhang Q, Andersen ME, Crabbe MJC, Hao L, Qu W. NRF2-ARE signaling is responsive to haloacetonitrile-induced oxidative stress in human keratinocytes. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2022; 450:116163. [PMID: 35842135 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2022.116163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Humans are exposed to disinfection by-products through oral, inhalation, and dermal routes, during bathing and swimming, potentially causing skin lesions, asthma, and bladder cancer. Nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (NRF2) is a master regulator of the adaptive antioxidant response via the antioxidant reaction elements (ARE) orchestrating the transcription of a large group of antioxidant and detoxification genes. Here we used an immortalized human keratinocyte model HaCaT cells to investigate NRF2-ARE as a responder and protector in the acute cytotoxicity of seven haloacetonitriles (HANs), including chloroacetonitrile (CAN), bromoacetonitrile (BAN), iodoacetonitrile (IAN), bromochloroacetonitrile (BCAN), dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN), dibromoacetonitrile (DBAN), and trichloroacetonitrile (TCAN) found in drinking water and swimming pools. The rank order of cytotoxicity among the HANs tested was IAN ≈ BAN ˃ DBAN ˃ BCAN ˃ CAN ˃ TCAN ˃ DCAN based on their LC50. The HANs induced intracellular reactive oxygen species accumulation and activated cellular antioxidant responses in concentration- and time-dependent fashions, showing elevated NRF2 protein levels and ARE activity, induction of antioxidant genes, and increased glutathione levels. Additionally, knockdown of NRF2 by lentiviral shRNAs sensitized the HaCaT cells to HANs-induced cytotoxicity, emphasizing a protective role of NRF2 against the cytotoxicity of HANs. These results indicate that HANs cause oxidative stress and activate NRF2-ARE-mediated antioxidant response, which in turn protects the cells from HANs-induced cytotoxicity, highlighting that NRF2-ARE activity could be a sensitive indicator to identify and characterize the oxidative stress induced by HANs and other environmental pollutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Xue
- Key Laboratory of the Public Health Safety, Ministry of Education, Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Huihui Wang
- Program of Environmental Toxicology, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang 110122, China
| | - Lili Yang
- Key Laboratory of the Public Health Safety, Ministry of Education, Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Zhiqiang Jiang
- Key Laboratory of the Public Health Safety, Ministry of Education, Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Hongliang Li
- Pudong New Area Center for Diseases Control & Prevention, Pudong New Area, Shanghai 200120, China
| | - Qinxin Liu
- Key Laboratory of the Public Health Safety, Ministry of Education, Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Qiang Zhang
- Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, GA 30322, USA
| | | | - M James C Crabbe
- Wolfson College, Oxford University, Oxford OX2 6UD, UK; Institute of Biomedical and Environmental Science & Technology, University of Bedfordshire, Luton LU1 3JU, UK
| | - Lipeng Hao
- Pudong New Area Center for Diseases Control & Prevention, Pudong New Area, Shanghai 200120, China
| | - Weidong Qu
- Key Laboratory of the Public Health Safety, Ministry of Education, Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.
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Granger CO, Richardson SD. Do DBPs swim in salt water pools? Comparison of 60 DBPs formed by electrochemically generated chlorine vs. conventional chlorine. J Environ Sci (China) 2022; 117:232-241. [PMID: 35725075 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2022.04.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Revised: 04/23/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Disinfectants are added to swimming pools to kill harmful pathogens. Although liquid chlorine (sodium hypochlorite) is the most commonly used disinfectant, alternative disinfection techniques like electrochemically generated mixed oxidants or electrochemically generated chlorine, often referred to as salt water pools, are growing in popularity. However, these disinfectants react with natural organic matter and anthropogenic contaminants introduced to the pool water by swimmers to form disinfection byproducts (DBPs). DBPs have been linked to several adverse health effects, such as bladder cancer, adverse birth outcomes, and asthma. In this study, we quantified 60 DBPs using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and assessed the calculated cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of an indoor community swimming pool before and after switching to a salt water pool with electrochemically generated chlorine. Interestingly, the total DBPs increased by 15% upon implementation of the salt water pool, but the calculated cytotoxicity and genotoxicity decreased by 45% and 15%, respectively. Predominant DBP classes formed were haloacetic acids, with trichloroacetic acid and dichloroacetic acid contributing 57% of the average total DBPs formed. Haloacetonitriles, haloacetic acids, and haloacetaldehydes were the primary drivers of calculated cytotoxicity, and haloacetic acids were the primary driver of calculated genotoxicity. Diiodoacetic acid, a highly toxic iodinated DBP, is reported for the first time in swimming pool water. Bromide impurities in sodium chloride used to electrochemically generate chlorine led to a 73% increase in brominated DBPs, primarily driven by bromochloroacetic acid. This study presents the most extensive DBP study to-date for salt water pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline O Granger
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, 631 Sumter St., Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Susan D Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, 631 Sumter St., Columbia, SC 29208, USA.
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Costa C, Assunção R, Sequeira D, Esteves F, Valdiglesias V, Laffon B, Teixeira JP, Madureira J. From trihalomethanes chronic daily intake through multiple exposure routes to cancer and non-cancer health risk assessment: Evidence from public Portuguese indoor swimming pools facilities using a probabilistic approach. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 818:151790. [PMID: 34808171 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to estimate chronic daily intake (CDI) and to predict the attributable lifetime cancer risk (LCR) and hazard index (HI) from concurrent exposure to four trihalomethanes (THMs; chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane and bromoform), via multiple exposure routes (oral ingestion, dermal contact and inhalation), among 238 non-competitive attendees of 10 Portuguese public indoor swimming pools (SPs), using a probabilistic approach based on Monte Carlo simulations. Exposure parameters of study participants were collected via questionnaires and THMs levels in SPs water were determined according the respective normative standards. The CDI for total THMs calculated for male and female participants considering all routes was 7.52 and 8.97 mg/kg/day, respectively. SP attendees presented higher CDI through inhalation than via the other two exposure routes, and chloroform was the compound contributing the most to total THMs CDI. The risk analysis indicated that the total LCR and HI from the targeted THMs were higher than the negligible risk levels (1 × 10-6 and 1, respectively) in the scenarios examined (central tendency exposure and reasonable maximum exposure), and the health risk for females was slightly higher than for males. This study suggests that there are possible adverse health risks, thus, to protect pool attendees, adequate mitigation measures, and comprehensive regulatory guidelines on individual THMs concentrations are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Costa
- Environmental Health Department, National Institute of Health, Rua Alexandre Herculano 321, 4000-055 Porto, Portugal; EPIUnit-Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Rua das Taipas 135, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal; Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), Rua das Taipas 135, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Assunção
- CESAM-Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; Food and Nutrition Department, National Institute of Health, Avenida Padre Cruz, 1649-016 Lisboa, Portugal; NOVA National School of Public Health, Public Health Research Centre, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Av. Padre Cruz, 1600-560 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Diana Sequeira
- EPIUnit-Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Rua das Taipas 135, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal
| | - Filipa Esteves
- Environmental Health Department, National Institute of Health, Rua Alexandre Herculano 321, 4000-055 Porto, Portugal; EPIUnit-Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Rua das Taipas 135, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal; Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), Rua das Taipas 135, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal
| | - Vanessa Valdiglesias
- Universidade da Coruña, Grupo DICOMOSA, Centro de Investigaciones Científicas Avanzadas (CICA), Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Campus A Zapateira s/n, 15071 A Coruña, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de A Coruña (INIBIC), AE CICA-INIBIC, Oza, 15071 A Coruña, Spain
| | - Blanca Laffon
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de A Coruña (INIBIC), AE CICA-INIBIC, Oza, 15071 A Coruña, Spain; Universidade da Coruña, Grupo DICOMOSA, Centro de Investigaciones Científicas Avanzadas (CICA), Departamento de Psicología, Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación, Campus Elviña s/n, 15071 A Coruña, Spain
| | - João Paulo Teixeira
- Environmental Health Department, National Institute of Health, Rua Alexandre Herculano 321, 4000-055 Porto, Portugal; EPIUnit-Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Rua das Taipas 135, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal; Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), Rua das Taipas 135, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Joana Madureira
- Environmental Health Department, National Institute of Health, Rua Alexandre Herculano 321, 4000-055 Porto, Portugal; EPIUnit-Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Rua das Taipas 135, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal; Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), Rua das Taipas 135, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal
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Ashley DL, Smith MM, Silva LK, Yoo YM, De Jesús VR, Blount BC. Factors Associated with Exposure to Trihalomethanes, NHANES 2001-2012. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:1066-1074. [PMID: 31865698 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b05745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection is critical for maintaining a safe water supply, but the use of chlorine or chloramine leads to exposure to disinfection byproducts (DBPs), including trihalomethanes (THMs), which have been associated with adverse reproductive outcomes and bladder cancer. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency revised the DBP regulations starting in 1998 to further limit levels of THMs in household water. We analyzed data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) collected between 2001 and 2012 (with 2 years per cycle) using models with and without water-related predictors to examine the utility of including these measures. Median blood chloroform levels (25th-75th percentiles) were 16.2 (9.13-31.2) ng/L in 2001-2002 and 5.97 (2.92-12.3) ng/L in 2011-2012. Median blood bromodichloromethane (BDCM) levels (25th-75th percentiles) were 2.22 (1.06-4.61) ng/L in 2001-2002 and 1.18 (<limit of detection-2.92) ng/L in 2011-2012. THM water concentrations and measures of the recency since time spent in water use activities were associated with blood THM levels. Being in a pool/hot tub/sauna within 24 h or taking a shower/bath within 6 h of blood collection was associated with elevated blood levels of chloroform and BDCM. When possible, it is important to include recency and external dose when assessing associations to internal dose levels for nonpersistent compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- David L Ashley
- School of Public Health , Georgia State University , Atlanta , Georgia 30303 , United States
| | - Mitchell M Smith
- Tobacco and Volatiles Branch, Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Atlanta , Georgia 30341 , United States
| | - Lalith K Silva
- Tobacco and Volatiles Branch, Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Atlanta , Georgia 30341 , United States
| | - Young M Yoo
- Tobacco and Volatiles Branch, Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Atlanta , Georgia 30341 , United States
| | - Víctor R De Jesús
- Tobacco and Volatiles Branch, Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Atlanta , Georgia 30341 , United States
| | - Benjamin C Blount
- Tobacco and Volatiles Branch, Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Atlanta , Georgia 30341 , United States
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Wang YX, Liu C, Chen YJ, Duan P, Wang Q, Chen C, Sun Y, Huang LL, Wang L, Chen C, Li J, Ai SH, Huang Z, Sun L, Wan ZZ, Pan A, Meng TQ, Lu WQ. Profiles, variability and predictors of concentrations of blood trihalomethanes and urinary haloacetic acids along pregnancy among 1760 Chinese women. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 172:665-674. [PMID: 30878738 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2019.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2018] [Revised: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/07/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Blood trihalomethanes (THMs) and urinary haloacetic acids (HAAs) are the leading candidate biomarkers for disinfection byproduct (DBP) exposure. However, no studies have assessed the exposure profiles, temporal variability, and potential predictors of these biomarkers during pregnancy. Here we collected blood (n = 4304) and urine samples (n = 4165) from 1760 Chinese pregnant women during early, mid-, and late pregnancy, which were separately analyzed for 4 THMs and 2 HAAs. We calculated the intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) to assess the variability of these biomarkers and estimated their correlations with sociodemographic, water-use behavioral, dietary and sample collection factors using mixed models. The median concentrations of TCM, BDCM, Br-THMs [sum of BDCM, dibromochloromethane (DBCM), bromoform (TBM)], total THMs (TTHMs, sum of TCM and Br-THMs), DCAA and TCAA in the water distribution system were 4.2 μg/L, 1.7 μg/L, 2.9 μg/L, 7.1 μg/L, 3.4 μg/L and 8.2 μg/L, respectively. Chloroform (TCM), bromodichloromethane (BDCM), dichloroacetic acid (DCAA) and trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) were detected in > 75% of the biospecimens. Repeated measurements of blood TCM, BDCM, Br-THMs and TTHMs and urinary DCAA and TCAA uniformly exhibited high variability (ICCs = 0.01-0.13); the use of a single measurement to classify gestational average exposure resulted in a high degree of exposure misclassification. The sampling season was a strong predictor of all analyzed DBPs. Additionally, we detected a positive association of blood TCM and BDCM with household income, urinary DCAA with age, and urinary TCAA with tap water usage, education level and amount of tap water consumed. Inverse associations were found between blood BDCM and vegetable consumption, and between blood Br-THM and TTHM and time interval since the last bathing/showering. Afternoon samples had lower DCAA concentrations than did early morning samples. Our results indicate that blood THM and urinary HAA concentrations vary greatly over the course of pregnancy and are affected by sampling season, time of day of blood/urine collection, sociodemographic factors, recent water-use activities and dietary intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Xin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China.
| | - Chong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Ying-Jun Chen
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Peng Duan
- Center for Reproductive Medicine, Xiangyang No. 1 People's Hospital, Hubei University of Medicine, Xiangyang, PR China; Reproductive Medicine Center, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei Province Human Sperm Bank, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Qi Wang
- Department of Pathology, Bengbu Medical College, Anhui, PR China
| | - Chao Chen
- State Joint Key-Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, PR China
| | - Yang Sun
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Li-Li Huang
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Liang Wang
- Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, College of Public Health, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, USA
| | - Chen Chen
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Jin Li
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Song-Hua Ai
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Zhen Huang
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Li Sun
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Zhen-Zhen Wan
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - An Pan
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Tian-Qing Meng
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei Province Human Sperm Bank, Wuhan, Hubei, China.
| | - Wen-Qing Lu
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China.
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Khan AA, Khan IA, Siyal MI, Lee CK, Kim JO. Optimization of membrane modification using SiO 2 for robust anti-fouling performance with calcium-humic acid feed in membrane distillation. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 170:374-382. [PMID: 30623884 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2018.12.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2018] [Revised: 12/13/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The goal of this study was to prepare a robust anti-wetting and anti-fouling polyethersulfone (PES) membrane for the rejection of a highly saline (NaCl and CaCl2·2H2O) feed solution containing humic acid (HA) in direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD). Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to determine the optimum formulation of the used materials. The variable factors selected were polydimethyl siloxane (PDMS) and silica (SiO2); liquid entry pressure (LEP) and contact angle (CA) were selected as responses. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis confirmed the SiO2 deposition and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) test evidenced the new functional groups i.e., Si-OH, siloxane, and C-F bond vibrations at 3446, 1099 cm-1, and 1150-1240 cm-1 respectively on the membrane surface. The average roughness (Ra) was increased four times for the coated membranes (0.202-0.242 µm) as compared to that for pristine PES membrane (0.053 µm). The optimum PES-13 membrane exhibited consistent flux of 12 LMH and salt rejection (> 99%) with anti-fouling characteristic in DCMD using the feed solution of 3.5 wt% NaCl + 10 mM CaCl2·2H2O + 10 mg L-1 HA. The PES-13 membrane may therefore be a key membrane for application in DCMD against CaCl2·2H2O-containing salty solutions with HA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aftab Ahmad Khan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - Imtiaz Afzal Khan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - Muhammad Irfan Siyal
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang-Kyu Lee
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea; Research Engineering Development Inc., 488 Maesohol-ro, Michuhol-gu, Incheon 22223, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Oh Kim
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea.
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Salas LA, Baker ER, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Marsit CJ, Christensen BC, Karagas MR. Maternal swimming pool exposure during pregnancy in relation to birth outcomes and cord blood DNA methylation among private well users. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2019; 123:459-466. [PMID: 30622071 PMCID: PMC6599635 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Revised: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Swimming in pools during pregnancy may expose the fetus to water disinfection by-products (DBP). As yet, our understanding of the impacts on DBPs on the fetus is uncertain. Individuals with public water systems are typically exposed to DBPs through drinking, showering and bathing, whereas among those on private water systems, swimming in pools may be the primary exposure source. We analyzed the effects of maternal swimming on birth outcomes and cord blood epigenetic changes in the New Hampshire Birth Cohort Study, a cohort of pregnant women with households on private water systems. Information about swimming in pools during pregnancy was obtained from 1033 women via questionnaires. Swimming pool use and duration were modeled using linear regression with newborn weight, length, and head circumference (z-scores) and genome wide cord blood DNA methylation as the outcomes and with adjustment for potential confounders. Overall 19.7% of women reported swimming in a pool during pregnancy. Among swimmers, duration of swimming was inversely related to head circumference (-0.02 z-score per 10% increase in duration, P = 0.004). No associations were observed with birth weight, length or DNA methylation modifications. Our findings suggest swimming pool exposure may impact the developing fetus although longer-term studies are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas A Salas
- Department of Epidemiology, The Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Dartmouth College, Lebanon 03756, NH, USA; The Children's Environmental Health and Disease Prevention Research Center at Dartmouth, Lebanon 03756, NH, USA.
| | - Emily R Baker
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Dartmouth College, Lebanon 03756, NH, USA.
| | - Mark J Nieuwenhuijsen
- ISGlobal, The Barcelona Institute for Global Health, Barcelona 08003, Catalonia, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona 08003, Catalonia, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Barcelona 08003, Catalonia, Spain.
| | - Carmen J Marsit
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health of Emory University, Atlanta 30322, GA, USA.
| | - Brock C Christensen
- Department of Epidemiology, The Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Dartmouth College, Lebanon 03756, NH, USA; Department of Molecular and Systems Biology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon 03756, NH, USA; Department of Community and Family Medicine, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon 03756, NH, USA.
| | - Margaret R Karagas
- Department of Epidemiology, The Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Dartmouth College, Lebanon 03756, NH, USA; The Children's Environmental Health and Disease Prevention Research Center at Dartmouth, Lebanon 03756, NH, USA.
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11
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Cotruvo JA, Amato H. National Trends of Bladder Cancer and Trihalomethanes in Drinking Water: A Review and Multicountry Ecological Study. Dose Response 2019; 17:1559325818807781. [PMID: 30718988 PMCID: PMC6348529 DOI: 10.1177/1559325818807781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2018] [Revised: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined trends in incidence of bladder cancer in 8 countries in the 45+ years since trihalomethanes (THMs) were detected in chlorinated drinking water. Total trihalomethanes (TTHMs) are the principal regulated disinfection by-products (DBPs) along with halogenated acetic acids (HAAs). Numerous epidemiological studies have examined exposure to TTHMs and associations with bladder cancer. Concentrations of TTHM have declined in most of the 8 countries that were studied as has smoking prevalence. Incidences of bladder cancer have usually stayed relatively flat, especially for females, with some variations. Since THMs are not carcinogens in whole animal tests, they may not be appropriate surrogates for studying potential cancer risks in drinking water. Etiology of bladder cancer is complex; incidence correlates with age. Previously identified risk factors include smoking, type 2 diabetes, sex, ethnicity, arsenic, aromatic amines, and occupations. As a predominant risk factor, smoking trends may dominate incidence rates, but additional time might be required to determine whether a DBP risk exists due to long latency periods. Causal drinking water-related bladder cancer risks remain questionable and likely small compared to other factors, although surrogate-based DBP management is an appropriate strategy for maintaining drinking water quality as long as it does not compromise microbial disinfection.
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12
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Ilyas H, Masih I, van der Hoek JP. An exploration of disinfection by-products formation and governing factors in chlorinated swimming pool water. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2018; 16:861-892. [PMID: 30540262 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2018.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
This paper investigates disinfection by-products (DBPs) formation and their relationship with governing factors in chlorinated swimming pools. The study compares concentrations of DBPs with WHO guidelines for drinking water quality recommended to screen swimming pool water quality. The statistical analysis is based on a global database of 188 swimming pools accumulated from 42 peer-reviewed journal publications from 16 countries. The mean and standard deviation of dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid were estimated as 282 ± 437 and 326 ± 517 μg L-1, respectively, which most often surpassed the WHO guidelines. Similarly, more than half of the examined pools had higher values of chloral hydrate (102 ± 128 μg L-1). The concentration of total chloramines (650 ± 490 μg L-1) was well above the WHO guidelines in all reported cases. Nevertheless, the reported values remained below the guidelines for most of the studied pools in the case of total trihalomethanes (134 ± 160 μg L-1), dichloroacetonitrile (12 ± 12 μg L-1) and dibromoacetonitrile (8 ± 11 μg L-1). Total organic carbon, free residual chlorine, temperature, pH, total nitrogen and bromide ions play a pivotal role in DBPs formation processes. Therefore, proper management of these governing factors could significantly reduce DBPs formation, thereby, contributing towards a healthy swimming pool environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huma Ilyas
- Water Treatment and Management Consultancy B.V., 2289 ED Rijswijk, The Netherlands E-mail:
| | - Ilyas Masih
- Water Treatment and Management Consultancy B.V., 2289 ED Rijswijk, The Netherlands E-mail: ; IHE Delft, Institute for Water Education, 2611 AX Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Peter van der Hoek
- Department of Water Management, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands and Strategic Centre, Waternet, 1096 AC Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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13
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Yang L, Chen X, She Q, Cao G, Liu Y, Chang VWC, Tang CY. Regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pool waters: A critical review. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 121:1039-1057. [PMID: 30392941 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Revised: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The microbial safety of swimming pool waters (SPWs) becomes increasingly important with the popularity of swimming activities. Disinfection aiming at killing microbes in SPWs produces disinfection by-products (DBPs), which has attracted considerable public attentions due to their high frequency of occurrence, considerable concentrations and potent toxicity. We reviewed the latest research progress within the last four decades on the regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of DBPs in the context of SPWs. This paper specifically discussed DBP regulations in different regions, formation mechanisms related with disinfectants, precursors and other various conditions, human exposure assessment reflected by biomarkers or epidemiological evidence, and the control and treatment of DBPs. Compared to drinking water with natural organic matter as the main organic precursor of DBPs, the additional human inputs (i.e., body fluids and personal care products) to SPWs make the water matrix more complicated and lead to the formation of more types and greater concentrations of DBPs. Dermal absorption and inhalation are two main exposure pathways for trihalomethanes while ingestion for haloacetic acids, reflected by DBP occurrence in human matrices including exhaled air, urine, blood, and plasma. Studies show that membrane filtration, advanced oxidation processes, biodegradation, thermal degradation, chemical reduction, and some hybrid processes are the potential DBP treatment technologies. The removal efficiency, possible mechanisms and future challenges of these DBP treatment methods are summarized in this review, which may facilitate their full-scale applications and provide potential directions for further research extension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linyan Yang
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Interdisciplinary Graduate School, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore; Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Xueming Chen
- Process and Systems Engineering Center (PROSYS), Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Qianhong She
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Guomin Cao
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Yongdi Liu
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Victor W-C Chang
- Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore; Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, VIC 3800, Australia.
| | - Chuyang Y Tang
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
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Alman BL, Coffman E, Siega-Riz AM, Luben TJ. Associations between Maternal Water Consumption and Birth Defects in the National Birth Defects Prevention Study (2000-2005). Birth Defects Res 2018; 109:193-202. [PMID: 27768247 DOI: 10.1002/bdra.23569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2016] [Revised: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 08/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Water and water-based beverages constitute a major part of daily fluid intake for pregnant women, yet few epidemiologic studies have investigated the role of water consumption on birth outcomes. METHODS We used data from the National Birth Defects Prevention Study to conduct a case-control study investigating associations between maternal water consumption during pregnancy and birth defects (BD). We used interview data on water consumption during the first trimester of pregnancy in 14,454 cases (major BDs n ≥ 50) and 5,063 controls. Total water consumption was analyzed as a continuous variable and in quartiles. We evaluated the role of dietary quality and sugar sweetened beverage consumption. Logistic regression models were used to assess effects of water consumption on risk of BDs with adjustment for relevant covariates. RESULTS Mean daily maternal water consumption among controls was 4.4 eight-ounce glasses. We observed decreases in estimated risk associated with increases in water consumption for several BDs, including neural tube defects (spina bifida), oral clefts (cleft lip), musculoskeletal defects (gastroschisis, limb deficiencies), and congenital heart defects (hypoplastic left heart syndrome, right-sided obstructions, pulmonary valve stenosis). Our results were generally unchanged when an indicator for overall dietary quality was included; however, there was evidence of effect measure modification by heavy consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages for some defects, but not all. CONCLUSION These analyses suggest the importance of sufficient water consumption during early pregnancy, above and beyond it being a marker of higher diet quality. Additional analyses are warranted to understand the biological mechanism for this association. Birth Defects Research 109:193-202, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Breanna L Alman
- Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Evan Coffman
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science Education (ORISE) at the National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Anna Maria Siega-Riz
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina Gillings School of Global Public Health, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Thomas J Luben
- National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
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15
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Plewa MJ, Wagner ED, Richardson SD. TIC-Tox: A preliminary discussion on identifying the forcing agents of DBP-mediated toxicity of disinfected water. J Environ Sci (China) 2017; 58:208-216. [PMID: 28774611 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2017.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2017] [Revised: 04/17/2017] [Accepted: 04/17/2017] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The disinfection of drinking water is a major public health achievement; however, an unintended consequence of disinfection is the generation of disinfection by-products (DBPs). Many of the identified DBPs exhibit in vitro and in vivo toxicity, generate a diversity of adverse biological effects, and may be hazards to the public health and the environment. Only a few DBPs are regulated by several national and international agencies and it is not clear if these regulated DBPs are the forcing agents that drive the observed toxicity and their associated health effects. In this study, we combine analytical chemical and biological data to resolve the forcing agents associated with mammalian cell cytotoxicity of drinking water samples from three cities. These data suggest that the trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids may be a small component of the overall cytotoxicity of the organic material isolated from disinfected drinking water. Chemical classes of nitrogen-containing DBPs, such as the haloacetonitriles and haloacetamides, appear to be the major forcing agents of toxicity in these samples. These findings may have important implications for the design of epidemiological studies that primarily rely on the levels of THMs to define DBP exposure among populations. The TIC-Tox approach constitutes a beginning step in the process of identifying the forcing agents of toxicity in disinfected water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Plewa
- Safe Global Water Institute, and the Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL 61801, United States.
| | - Elizabeth D Wagner
- Safe Global Water Institute, and the Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL 61801, United States
| | - Susan D Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, United States
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El-Attafia B, Soraya M. Presence and seasonal variation of trihalomethanes (THMs) levels in drinking tap water in Mostaganem Province in northwest Algeria. Electron Physician 2017; 9:4364-4369. [PMID: 28713508 PMCID: PMC5498701 DOI: 10.19082/4364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2016] [Accepted: 02/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The use of chlorine to disinfect water, produces various disinfection byproducts such as trihalomethanes (THMs). These compounds are formed when free available chlorine reacts with natural organic matter in raw water during water disinfection. Epidemiologic studies have shown an association between long-term exposure to THMs and an increased risk of cancer, all of them are suspected of having carcinogenic effects. Aim The aim of this study was to determine the presence of THMs in the drinking tap water of Mostaganem Province (Algeria) in order to assess the seasonal variation in trihalomethane levels in tap water and to identify the season of high risk to the consumer. Methods This analytical study was conducted in Mostaganem Province, Algeria in March, July, September and December 2015. Primarily, we proceeded to collect 30 samples from different areas of Mostaganem Province which were marked with a higher level of residual chlorine for the year 2015; secondly, we utilised the HS-SPME method for determination of trihalomethanes in drinking tap water over a period of four months. For comparison of trihalomethanes values, we used ANOVA. Results The results obtained show variability in total THM concentrations from one district to another, with a maximum of 198 μg/l recorded in the Achaacha district during July, but the lowest value 07.84 μg/l is noted at Salamandre city during the same period, noting that these values decrease progressively during the winter period. Conclusion Our drinking tap water samples include a large quantity of THMs with different concentrations, where the dibromochloromethane and the bromoform constitute the major portion of THMs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Moulessehoul Soraya
- Department of Biology, University of Djilali Liabes, Sidi Bel Abbes, Algeria
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Dallongeville A, Costet N, Zmirou-Navier D, Le Bot B, Chevrier C, Deguen S, Annesi-Maesano I, Blanchard O. Volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds of respiratory health relevance in French dwellings. INDOOR AIR 2016; 26:426-438. [PMID: 26010323 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2015] [Accepted: 05/16/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Over the last decades, the prevalence of childhood respiratory conditions has dramatically increased worldwide. Considering the time spent in enclosed spaces, indoor air pollutants are of major interest to explain part of this increase. This study aimed to measure the concentrations of pollutants known or suspected to affect respiratory health that are present in dwellings in order to assess children's exposure. Measurements were taken in 150 homes with at least one child, in Brittany (western France), to assess the concentrations of 18 volatile organic compounds (among which four aldehydes and four trihalomethanes) and nine semi-volatile organic compounds (seven phthalates and two synthetic musks). In addition to descriptive statistics, a principal component analysis (PCA) was used to investigate grouping of contaminants. Formaldehyde was highly present and above 30 μg/m(3) in 40% of the homes. Diethyl phthalate, diisobutyl phthalate, and dimethylphthalate were quantified in all dwellings, as well as Galaxolide and Tonalide. For each chemical family, the groups appearing in the PCA could be interpreted in term of sources. The high prevalence and the levels of these compounds, with known or suspected respiratory toxicity, should question regulatory agencies to trigger prevention and mitigation actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Dallongeville
- EHESP School of Public Health, Rennes, France
- Inserm UMR1085-IRSET, Rennes, France
- French Environment and Energy Management Agency, Angers, France
| | - N Costet
- Inserm UMR1085-IRSET, Rennes, France
- Université de Rennes 1, Rennes, France
| | - D Zmirou-Navier
- EHESP School of Public Health, Rennes, France
- Inserm UMR1085-IRSET, Rennes, France
- Lorraine University Medical School, Nancy, France
| | - B Le Bot
- EHESP School of Public Health, Rennes, France
- Inserm UMR1085-IRSET, Rennes, France
| | - C Chevrier
- Inserm UMR1085-IRSET, Rennes, France
- Université de Rennes 1, Rennes, France
| | - S Deguen
- EHESP School of Public Health, Rennes, France
- Inserm UMR1085-IRSET, Rennes, France
| | - I Annesi-Maesano
- EPAR, UMR S 1136, i-PLESP, Pierre et Marie Curie University Medical School, Paris, France
- EPAR, UMR S 1136, i-PLESP, INSERM, Paris, France
| | - O Blanchard
- EHESP School of Public Health, Rennes, France
- Inserm UMR1085-IRSET, Rennes, France
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Smith RB, Edwards SC, Best N, Wright J, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Toledano MB. Birth Weight, Ethnicity, and Exposure to Trihalomethanes and Haloacetic Acids in Drinking Water during Pregnancy in the Born in Bradford Cohort. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2016; 124:681-9. [PMID: 26340797 PMCID: PMC4858386 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1409480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2014] [Accepted: 08/31/2015] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Evidence for a relationship between trihalomethane (THM) or haloacetic acid (HAA) exposure and adverse fetal growth is inconsistent. Disinfection by-products exist as complex mixtures in water supplies, but THMs and HAAs have typically been examined separately. OBJECTIVES We investigated joint exposure at the individual level to THMs and HAAs in relation to birth weight in the multi-ethnic Born in Bradford birth cohort. METHODS Pregnant women reported their water consumption and activities via questionnaire. These data were combined with area-level THM and HAA concentrations to estimate integrated uptake of THMs into blood and HAA ingestion, accounting for boiling/filtering. We examined the relationship between THM and HAA exposures and birth weight of up to 7,438 singleton term babies using multiple linear regression, stratified by ethnicity. RESULTS Among Pakistani-origin infants, mean birth weight was significantly lower in association with the highest versus lowest tertiles of integrated THM uptake (e.g., -53.7 g; 95% CI: -89.9, -17.5 for ≥ 1.82 vs. < 1.05 μg/day of total THM) and there were significant trends (p < 0.01) across increasing tertiles, but there were no associations among white British infants. Neither ingestion of HAAs alone or jointly with THMs was associated with birth weight. Estimated THM uptake via showering, bathing, and swimming was significantly associated with lower birth weight in Pakistani-origin infants, when adjusting for THM and HAA ingestion via water consumption. CONCLUSIONS To our knowledge, this is the largest DBP and fetal growth study to date with individual water use data, and the first to examine individual-level estimates of joint THM-HAA exposure. Our findings demonstrate associations between THM, but not HAA, exposure during pregnancy and reduced birth weight, but suggest this differs by ethnicity. This study suggests that THMs are not acting as a proxy for HAAs, or vice-versa. CITATION Smith RB, Edwards SC, Best N, Wright J, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Toledano MB. 2016. Birth weight, ethnicity, and exposure to trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids in drinking water during pregnancy in the Born in Bradford cohort. Environ Health Perspect 124:681-689; http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1409480.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel B. Smith
- MRC-PHE (Medical Research Council–Public Health England) Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, St Mary’s Campus, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
| | - Susan C. Edwards
- MRC-PHE (Medical Research Council–Public Health England) Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, St Mary’s Campus, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nicky Best
- MRC-PHE (Medical Research Council–Public Health England) Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, St Mary’s Campus, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
| | - John Wright
- Bradford Institute for Health Research, Bradford Royal Infirmary, Bradford, United Kingdom
| | - Mark J. Nieuwenhuijsen
- MRC-PHE (Medical Research Council–Public Health England) Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, St Mary’s Campus, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
- Center for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), CIBERESP (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Epidemiología y Salud Pública), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mireille B. Toledano
- MRC-PHE (Medical Research Council–Public Health England) Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, St Mary’s Campus, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
- Address correspondence to M.B. Toledano, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Imperial College London, St Mary’s Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK. Telephone: 44 20 7594 3298. E-mail:
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Domínguez-Tello A, Arias-Borrego A, García-Barrera T, Gómez-Ariza JL. Seasonal and spatial evolution of trihalomethanes in a drinking water distribution system according to the treatment process. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2015; 187:662. [PMID: 26431706 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-015-4885-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2014] [Accepted: 09/22/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
This paper comparatively shows the influence of four water treatment processes on the formation of trihalomethanes (THMs) in a water distribution system. The study was performed from February 2005 to January 2012 with analytical data of 600 samples taken in Aljaraque water treatment plant (WTP) and 16 locations along the water distribution system (WDS) in the region of Andévalo and the coast of Huelva (southwest Spain), a region with significant seasonal and population changes. The comparison of results in the four different processes studied indicated a clear link of the treatment process with the formation of THM along the WDS. The most effective treatment process is preozonation and activated carbon filtration (P3), which is also the most stable under summer temperatures. Experiments also show low levels of THMs with the conventional process of preoxidation with potassium permanganate (P4), delaying the chlorination to the end of the WTP; however, this simple and economical treatment process is less effective and less stable than P3. In this study, strong seasonal variations were obtained (increase of THM from winter to summer of 1.17 to 1.85 times) and a strong spatial variation (1.1 to 1.7 times from WTP to end points of WDS) which largely depends on the treatment process applied. There was also a strong correlation between THM levels and water temperature, contact time and pH. On the other hand, it was found that THM formation is not proportional to the applied chlorine dose in the treatment process, but there is a direct relationship with the accumulated dose of chlorine. Finally, predictive models based on multiple linear regressions are proposed for each treatment process.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Domínguez-Tello
- Department of Chemistry and CC.MM, Faculty of Experimental Science, University of Huelva, Campus de El Carmen, 21007, Huelva, Spain
- International Agrofood Campus of Excellence International CeiA3, University of Huelva, Huelva, Spain
- Research Center of Health and Environment (CYSMA), University of Huelva, Campus de El Carmen, 21007, Huelva, Spain
| | - A Arias-Borrego
- Department of Chemistry and CC.MM, Faculty of Experimental Science, University of Huelva, Campus de El Carmen, 21007, Huelva, Spain
- International Agrofood Campus of Excellence International CeiA3, University of Huelva, Huelva, Spain
- Research Center of Health and Environment (CYSMA), University of Huelva, Campus de El Carmen, 21007, Huelva, Spain
| | - Tamara García-Barrera
- Department of Chemistry and CC.MM, Faculty of Experimental Science, University of Huelva, Campus de El Carmen, 21007, Huelva, Spain.
- International Agrofood Campus of Excellence International CeiA3, University of Huelva, Huelva, Spain.
- Research Center of Health and Environment (CYSMA), University of Huelva, Campus de El Carmen, 21007, Huelva, Spain.
| | - J L Gómez-Ariza
- Department of Chemistry and CC.MM, Faculty of Experimental Science, University of Huelva, Campus de El Carmen, 21007, Huelva, Spain
- International Agrofood Campus of Excellence International CeiA3, University of Huelva, Huelva, Spain
- Research Center of Health and Environment (CYSMA), University of Huelva, Campus de El Carmen, 21007, Huelva, Spain
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Zeng Q, Zhang SH, Liao J, Miao DY, Wang XY, Yang P, Yun LJ, Liu AL, Lu WQ. Evaluation of genotoxic effects caused by extracts of chlorinated drinking water using a combination of three different bioassays. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2015; 296:23-29. [PMID: 25910456 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.04.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2015] [Revised: 03/27/2015] [Accepted: 04/17/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Potential genotoxic effects of chlorinated drinking water now are of a great concern. In this study, raw water, finished water, and tap water from a water plant in Wuhan, China were collected in two different sampling times of the year (January and July). Genotoxic effects of water extracts were evaluated using a combination of three different bioassays: SOS/umu test, HGPRT gene mutation assay, and micronucleus assay, which were separately used to detect DNA damage, gene mutation, and chromosome aberration. The results of three different bioassays showed that all water samples in January and July induced at least one types of genotoxic effects, of which the DNA-damage effects were all detectable. The levels of DNA-damage effects and gene-mutation effects of finished water and tap water in January were higher than those in July. Chlorination could increase the DNA-damage effects of drinking water in January and the gene-mutation effects of drinking water in both January and July, but did not increase the chromosome-aberration effects of drinking water in both January and July. Our results highlighted the importance of using a combination of different bioassays to evaluate the genotoxicity of water samples in different seasons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Zeng
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Shao-Hui Zhang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Experiment Center, The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, PR China
| | - Jing Liao
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Dong-Yue Miao
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Xin-Yi Wang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Pan Yang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Luo-Jia Yun
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Ai-Lin Liu
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Wen-Qing Lu
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China.
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Scheili A, Rodriguez MJ, Sadiq R. Seasonal and spatial variations of source and drinking water quality in small municipal systems of two Canadian regions. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 508:514-524. [PMID: 25481717 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.11.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2014] [Revised: 11/21/2014] [Accepted: 11/21/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A one-year sampling program covering twenty-five small municipal systems was carried out in two Canadian regions to improve our understanding of the variability of water quality in small systems from water source to the end of the distribution system (DS). The database obtained was used to develop a global portrait of physical, chemical and microbiological water quality parameters. More precisely, the temporal and the spatial variability of these parameters were investigated. We observed that the levels of natural organic matter (NOM) were variable during different seasons, with maxima in the fall for both provinces. In the regions under study, the highest trihalomethane (THM) and haloacetic acid (HAA) levels were achieved in warmer seasons (summer, fall), as observed in previous studies involving large systems. Observed THM and HAA levels were three times higher in systems in the province of Newfoundland & Labrador than in the province of Quebec. Taste and odor indicators were detected during the summer and fall, and higher heterotrophic plate count (HPC) levels were associated with lower free chlorine levels. To determine spatial variations, stepwise statistical analysis was used to identify parameters and locations in the DS that act as indicators of drinking water quality. As observed for medium and large systems, free chlorine consumption, THM and HAA levels were dependent on their location in the DS. We also observed that the degradation of HAAs is more important in small systems than in medium or large DS reported in the literature, and this degradation can occur from the beginning of the DS. The results of this research may contribute to providing precious information on drinking water quality to small system operators and pave the way for several opportunities to improve water quality management.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Scheili
- ESAD, Laval University, Quebec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - M J Rodriguez
- ESAD, Laval University, Quebec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada.
| | - R Sadiq
- School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada
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Teo TLL, Coleman HM, Khan SJ. Chemical contaminants in swimming pools: Occurrence, implications and control. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2015; 76:16-31. [PMID: 25497109 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2014] [Revised: 11/13/2014] [Accepted: 11/17/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A range of trace chemical contaminants have been reported to occur in swimming pools. Current disinfection practices and monitoring of swimming pool water quality are aimed at preventing the spread of microbial infections and diseases. However, disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed when the disinfectants used react with organic and inorganic matter in the pool. Additional chemicals may be present in swimming pools originating from anthropogenic sources (bodily excretions, lotions, cosmetics, etc.) or from the source water used where trace chemicals may already be present. DBPs have been the most widely investigated trace chemical contaminants, including trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs), halobenzoquinones (HBQs), haloacetonitriles (HANs), halonitromethanes (HNMs), N-nitrosamines, nitrite, nitrates and chloramines. The presence and concentrations of these chemical contaminants are dependent upon several factors including the types of pools, types of disinfectants used, disinfectant dosages, bather loads, temperature and pH of swimming pool waters. Chemical constituents of personal care products (PCPs) such as parabens and ultraviolet (UV) filters from sunscreens have also been reported. By-products from reactions of these chemicals with disinfectants and UV irradiation have been reported and some may be more toxic than their parent compounds. There is evidence to suggest that exposure to some of these chemicals may lead to health risks. This paper provides a detailed review of various chemical contaminants reported in swimming pools. The concentrations of chemicals present in swimming pools may also provide an alternative indicator to swimming pool water quality, providing insights to contamination sources. Alternative treatment methods such as activated carbon filtration and advanced oxidation processes may be beneficial in improving swimming pool water quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany L L Teo
- UNSW Water Research Centre, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW 2052, Australia.
| | - Heather M Coleman
- Nanotechnology and Integrated BioEngineering Centre, School of Engineering, University of Ulster, Jordanstown, County Antrim BT37 0QB, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom.
| | - Stuart J Khan
- UNSW Water Research Centre, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW 2052, Australia.
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Charisiadis P, Andra SS, Makris KC, Christophi CA, Skarlatos D, Vamvakousis V, Kargaki S, Stephanou EG. Spatial and seasonal variability of tap water disinfection by-products within distribution pipe networks. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 506-507:26-35. [PMID: 25460936 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.10.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2014] [Revised: 10/20/2014] [Accepted: 10/21/2014] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
Gradually-changing shocks associated with potable water quality deficiencies are anticipated for urban drinking-water distribution systems (UDWDS). The impact of structural UDWDS features such as, the number of pipe leaking incidences on the formation of water trihalomethanes (THM) at the geocoded household level has never been studied before. The objectives were to: (i) characterize the distribution of water THM concentrations in households from two district-metered areas (DMAs) with contrasting UDWDS characteristics sampled in two seasons (summer and winter), and (ii) assess the within- and between-household, spatial variability of water THM accounting for UDWDS characteristics (household distance from chlorination tank and service pipe leaking incidences). A total of 383 tap water samples were collected from 193 households located in two DMAs within the UDWDS of Nicosia city, Cyprus, and analyzed for the four THM species. The higher intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) values for water tribromomethane (TBM) (0.75) followed by trichloromethane (0.42) suggested that the two DMAs differed with respect to these analytes. On the other hand, the low ICC values for total THM levels between the two DMAs suggested a large variance between households. The effect of households nested under each DMA remained significant (p<0.05) for TBM (not for the rest of the THM species) in the multivariate mixed-effect models, even after inclusion of pipe network characteristics. Our results could find use by water utilities in overcoming techno-economic difficulties associated with the large spatiotemporal variability of THM, while accounting for the influence of UDWDS features at points of water use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pantelis Charisiadis
- Cyprus International Institute for Environmental and Public Health in association with Harvard School of Public Health, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus
| | - Syam S Andra
- Cyprus International Institute for Environmental and Public Health in association with Harvard School of Public Health, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus; Harvard-Cyprus Program, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Konstantinos C Makris
- Cyprus International Institute for Environmental and Public Health in association with Harvard School of Public Health, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus.
| | - Costas A Christophi
- Cyprus International Institute for Environmental and Public Health in association with Harvard School of Public Health, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus
| | - Dimitrios Skarlatos
- Department of Civil Engineering and Geomatics, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus
| | - Vasilis Vamvakousis
- Department of Civil Engineering and Geomatics, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus
| | - Sophia Kargaki
- Environmental Chemical Processes Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Crete, Heraklion 71003, Greece
| | - Euripides G Stephanou
- Environmental Chemical Processes Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Crete, Heraklion 71003, Greece
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Brown AW, Simone PS, York J, Emmert GL. A device for fully automated on-site process monitoring and control of trihalomethane concentrations in drinking water. Anal Chim Acta 2015; 853:351-359. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2014.10.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2014] [Revised: 10/28/2014] [Accepted: 10/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Iszatt N, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Bennett JE, Toledano MB. Trihalomethanes in public drinking water and stillbirth and low birth weight rates: an intervention study. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2014; 73:434-439. [PMID: 25244706 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2014.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2013] [Revised: 08/06/2014] [Accepted: 08/07/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
During 2003-2004, United Utilities water company in North West England introduced enhanced coagulation (EC) to four treatment works to mitigate disinfection by-product (DBP) formation. This enabled examination of the relation between DBPs and birth outcomes whilst reducing socioeconomic confounding. We compared stillbirth, and low and very low birth weight rates three years before (2000-2002) with three years after (2005-2007) the intervention, and in relation to categories of THM change. We created exposure metrics for EC and trihalomethane (THM) concentration change (n=258 water zones). We linked 429,599 live births and 2279 stillbirths from national birth registers to the water zone at birth. We used Poisson regression to model the differences in birth outcome rates with an interaction between before/after the intervention and EC or THM change. EC treatment reduced chloroform concentrations more than non-treatment (mean -29.7 µg/l vs. -14.5 µg/l), but not brominated THM concentrations. Only 6% of EC water zones received 100% EC water, creating exposure misclassification concerns. EC intervention was not associated with a statistically significant reduction in birth outcome rates. Areas with the highest chloroform decrease (30 - 65 μg/l) had the greatest percentage decrease in low -9 % (-12, -5) and very low birth weight -16% (-24, -8) rates. The interaction between before/after intervention and chloroform change was statistically significant only for very low birth weight, p=0.02. There were no significant decreases in stillbirth rates. In a novel approach for studying DBPs and adverse reproductive outcomes, the EC intervention to reduce DBPs did not affect birth outcome rates. However, a measured large decrease in chloroform concentrations was associated with statistically significant reductions in very low birth weight rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Iszatt
- Small Area Health Statistics Unit, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK; Department of Genes and the Environment, Division of Epidemiology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Mark J Nieuwenhuijsen
- Small Area Health Statistics Unit, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK; Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Municipal Institute of Medical Research Foundation (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain; Centre for Biomedical Investigation Network of Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Barcelona, Spain
| | - James E Bennett
- Small Area Health Statistics Unit, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Mireille B Toledano
- Small Area Health Statistics Unit, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK.
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Andrianou XD, Charisiadis P, Andra SS, Makris KC. Spatial and seasonal variability of urinary trihalomethanes concentrations in urban settings. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2014; 135:289-295. [PMID: 25462678 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2014.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2014] [Revised: 09/19/2014] [Accepted: 09/22/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A complex network of sources and routes of exposure to disinfection by-products (DBP), such as trihalomethanes (THM) has been driving the wide variability of daily THM intake estimates in environmental epidemiological studies. We hypothesized that the spatiotemporal variability of THM exposures could be differentially expressed with their urinary levels among residents whose households are geographically clustered in district-metered areas (DMA) receiving the same tap water. Each DMA holds unique drinking-water pipe network characteristics, such as pipe length, number of pipe leaking incidences, number of water meters by district, average minimum night flow and average daily demand. The present study assessed the spatial and seasonal variability in urinary THM levels among residents (n=310) of geocoded households belonging to two urban DMA of Nicosia, Cyprus, with contrasting water network properties. First morning urine voids were collected once in summer and then in winter. Results showed that the mean sum of the four urinary THM analytes (TTHM) was significantly higher during summer for residents of both areas. Linear mixed effects models adjusted for age, season and gender, illustrated spatially-resolved differences in creatinine-adjusted urinary chloroform and TTHM levels between the two studied areas, corroborated by differences observed in their pipe network characteristics. Additional research is warranted to shed light on the contribution of spatially-resolved and geographically-clustered environmental exposures coupled with internal biomarker of exposure measurements towards better understanding of health disparities within urban centers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xanthi D Andrianou
- Water and Health Laboratory, Cyprus International Institute for Environmental and Public Health in association with the Harvard School of Public Health, Cyprus University of Technology, Irenes 95, Limassol 3041, Cyprus
| | - Pantelis Charisiadis
- Water and Health Laboratory, Cyprus International Institute for Environmental and Public Health in association with the Harvard School of Public Health, Cyprus University of Technology, Irenes 95, Limassol 3041, Cyprus
| | - Syam S Andra
- Water and Health Laboratory, Cyprus International Institute for Environmental and Public Health in association with the Harvard School of Public Health, Cyprus University of Technology, Irenes 95, Limassol 3041, Cyprus
| | - Konstantinos C Makris
- Water and Health Laboratory, Cyprus International Institute for Environmental and Public Health in association with the Harvard School of Public Health, Cyprus University of Technology, Irenes 95, Limassol 3041, Cyprus.
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Evaluation of exposure to trihalomethanes in tap water and semen quality: A prospective study in Wuhan, China. Reprod Toxicol 2014; 46:56-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2014.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2013] [Revised: 01/08/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Rahman MB, Cowie C, Driscoll T, Summerhayes RJ, Armstrong BK, Clements MS. Colon and rectal cancer incidence and water trihalomethane concentrations in New South Wales, Australia. BMC Cancer 2014; 14:445. [PMID: 24938491 PMCID: PMC4088985 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-14-445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2013] [Accepted: 06/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background There is evidence, although inconsistent, that long term exposure to disinfection by products (DBPs) increases the risk of bowel cancer. No study has been conducted in Australia to examine this association and due to difference in the methods of disinfection the risk can vary across geographical regions and. This study was conducted to analyse the association of trihalomethanes (THMs) in water with colon and rectal cancer in NSW Australia. Methods Average yearly concentrations of total and individual species of THMs were obtained for 50 local government areas (LGAs). Indirectly-standardized incidence rates of colon and rectal cancers in LGAs for the period 1995 to 2001 were regressed against mean THM concentrations lagged five years, adjusting for socioeconomic status, high risk drinking, smoking status, usual source of water and year of diagnosis, including local and global random effects within a Bayesian framework. The incidence rate ratios (IRRs) for an interquartile range (IQR) increase in THMs were estimated. Results Using five year lag of exposure there was a positive association between bromoform concentration and CRC in men (IRR = 1.025, 95% CI 1.010, 1.040) but not in women (IRR = 1.003, 95% CI 0.987, 1.018). The association in men was mainly found in colon cancer with bromoform (IRR = 1.035, 95% CI 1.017, 1.053). There was no appreciable association of colorectal cancer with other species of THMs. Sensitivity analyses did not materially change the associations observed. Conclusion A positive association was observed between colon cancer and water bromoform concentrations in men. Given the potential population impact of such an association, further research into the relationship between THMs, particularly brominated species, and colorectal cancer is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Bayzidur Rahman
- School of Public Health and Community Medicine, UNSW Australia, Room 215, Samuels building (F25), Botany Street, Randwick NSW 2052, Australia.
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Chowdhury S, Alhooshani K, Karanfil T. Disinfection byproducts in swimming pool: occurrences, implications and future needs. WATER RESEARCH 2014; 53:68-109. [PMID: 24509344 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2014.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2013] [Revised: 01/07/2014] [Accepted: 01/08/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection of swimming pool water is essential to deactivate pathogenic microorganisms. Many swimming pools apply chlorine or bromine based disinfectants to prevent microbial growth. The chlorinated swimming pool water contains higher chlorine residual and is maintained at a higher temperature than a typical drinking water distribution system. It constitutes environments with high levels of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in water and air as a consequence of continuous disinfection and constant organic loading from the bathers. Exposure to those DBPs is inevitable for any bather or trainer, while such exposures can have elevated risks to human health. To date, over 70 peer-reviewed publications have reported various aspects of swimming pool, including types and quantities of DBPs, organic loads from bathers, factors affecting DBPs formation in swimming pool, human exposure and their potential risks. This paper aims to review the state of research on swimming pool including with the focus of DBPs in swimming pools, understand their types and variability, possible health effects and analyze the factors responsible for the formation of various DBPs in a swimming pool. The study identifies the current challenges and future research needs to minimize DBPs formation in a swimming pool and their consequent negative effects to bathers and trainers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shakhawat Chowdhury
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Water Research Group, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Khalid Alhooshani
- Department of Chemistry, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
| | - Tanju Karanfil
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, SC, USA
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Evans AM, Wright JM, Meyer A, Rivera-Núñez Z. Spatial variation of disinfection by-product concentrations: exposure assessment implications. WATER RESEARCH 2013; 47:6130-6140. [PMID: 23993731 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2013.07.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2013] [Revised: 06/27/2013] [Accepted: 07/21/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The use of public water system (PWS) average trihalomethane (THM) and haloacetic acid (HAA) concentrations as surrogates of "personal" exposures in epidemiological studies of disinfection by-products (DBPs) may result in exposure misclassification bias from various sources of measurement error including intra-system variation of DBPs. Using 2000-2004 data from 107 PWSs in Massachusetts, we assessed two approaches for characterizing DBP spatial variability by identifying PWSs with low spatial variability (LSV) and examining differences in LSV across DBP groups and by type of source water and primary disinfectant. We also used spatial differences to examine the association between THM concentrations and indices of social disadvantage; however, we found no correlations or statistically significant differences based on the available data. We observed similar patterns for the percentage of quarterly sampling dates with LSV across different types of source water for all DBPs but not across disinfectants. We found there was little overlap between sites classified as having LSV across different DBP groups. In the main analysis, we found moderate correlations between both approaches (φ(THM4) = 0.55; φ(BrTHM) = 0.64; φ(HAA5) = 0.67); although Method 1 (based on concentration differences between samples) may be better suited for identifying PWSs for inclusion in epidemiological studies because it is more easily adapted to study-specific exposure gradients than Method 2 (based on categorical exposure percentiles). These data reinforce the need to consider different exposure assessment approaches when examining the spatial variation of multiple DBP surrogates as they can represent different DBP mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda M Evans
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, 26 West Martin Luther King Blvd (MS-A110), Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA.
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Righi E, Bechtold P, Tortorici D, Lauriola P, Calzolari E, Astolfi G, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Fantuzzi G, Aggazzotti G. Trihalomethanes, chlorite, chlorate in drinking water and risk of congenital anomalies: a population-based case-control study in Northern Italy. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2012; 116:66-73. [PMID: 22578809 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2012.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2012] [Revised: 04/19/2012] [Accepted: 04/24/2012] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Epidemiological evidence of an association between disinfection by-products (DBPs) exposure via drinking water and reproductive outcomes is still inconclusive. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to investigate the association between trihalomethanes (THMs), chlorite and chlorate exposure and congenital anomalies. METHODS A case-control study was carried out in Emilia-Romagna Region (Italy). Data on 1917 different congenital anomalies (neural tube, cardiac, diaphragm and abdominal wall, oesophagus, cleft lip and palate, respiratory, urinary tract and chromosomal anomalies) observed in the period 2002-2005 were extracted from the Regional Malformation Registry. Four controls (newborns without anomalies) were randomly selected form the Regional Birth Register and frequency matched to cases according to pregnancy period. The network supplying water during the first trimester of pregnancy was identified on the basis of mother's address: DBPs data, technical and structural information were linked to each subject. RESULTS Overall, THMs exposure was very low (mean: 3.8±3.6 μg/l), and no risk excess was observed. Chlorite and chlorate values were fairly high (mean: 427±184 μg/l and 283±79 μg/l, respectively). Women exposed to chlorite level >700 μg/l were at higher risk of newborns with renal defects (OR: 3.30; 95% IC: 1.35-8.09), abdominal wall defects (OR: 6.88; 95% IC: 1.67-28.33) and cleft palate (OR: 4.1; 95% IC: 0.98-16.8); women exposed to chlorate level >200 μg/l were at higher risk of newborns with obstructive urinary defects (OR: 2.88; 95% IC: 1.09-7.63), cleft palate (OR: 9.60; 95% IC:1.04-88.9) and spina bifida (OR: 4.94; 95% IC:1.10-22). CONCLUSIONS This was the first study showing an excess risk of different congenital anomalies related to chlorite and chlorate exposure via drinking water: further research is needed to confirm the observed relationships in large datasets, specifically for chlorate, an unregulated DBP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Righi
- Departiment of Public Health Sciences, University of Modena e Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy.
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Costet N, Garlantézec R, Monfort C, Rouget F, Gagnière B, Chevrier C, Cordier S. Environmental and urinary markers of prenatal exposure to drinking water disinfection by-products, fetal growth, and duration of gestation in the PELAGIE birth cohort (Brittany, France, 2002-2006). Am J Epidemiol 2012; 175:263-75. [PMID: 22156019 DOI: 10.1093/aje/kwr419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although prenatal exposure to water disinfection by-products does not appear to affect the duration of gestation, its impact on fetal growth remains an open question. The authors studied the associations between prenatal exposure to disinfection by-products and fetal growth restriction (FGR) and preterm birth in the PELAGIE cohort, a French birth cohort comprising 3,421 pregnant women recruited between 2002 and 2006. Exposure was assessed by estimating levels of trihalomethanes (THMs) in tap water during pregnancy and maternal water use and by measuring maternal urinary levels of trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) during early pregnancy in a nested case-control design that compared 174 FGR cases, 114 preterm births, and 399 controls. Higher uptake of THMs (especially brominated THMs) was associated with a higher risk of FGR. Women with TCAA detected in their urine (>0.01 mg/L) had a higher risk of FGR than those with TCAA levels below the detection limit (adjusted odds ratio = 1.8, 95% confidence interval: 0.9, 3.7) and had an odds ratio for preterm birth below 1 (adjusted odds ratio = 0.8, 95% confidence interval: 0.3, 2.6). Results from this prospective study, the first to use a biomarker of disinfection by-product exposure, suggest that prenatal exposure affects fetal growth, but the causal agent or agents remain to be identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Costet
- INSERM U, Institut de Recherches sur la Santé, l’Environnement et le Travail, University of Rennes, Institut Fédératif de Recherches, France.
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Silva ZI, Rebelo MH, Silva MM, Alves AM, Cabral MDC, Almeida AC, Aguiar FR, de Oliveira AL, Nogueira AC, Pinhal HR, Aguiar PM, Cardoso AS. Trihalomethanes in Lisbon indoor swimming pools: occurrence, determining factors, and health risk classification. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2012; 75:878-892. [PMID: 22788374 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2012.690706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Characterization of water quality from indoor swimming pools, using chorine-based disinfection techniques, was performed during a 6-mo period to study the occurrence, distribution, and concentration factors of trihalomethanes (THM). Several parameters such as levels of water THM, water and air chloroform, water bromodichloromethane (BDCM), water dibromochloromethane (DBCM), water bromoform (BF), free residual chlorine (FrCl), pH, water and air temperature, and permanganate water oxidizability (PWO) were determined in each pool during that period. Chloroform (CF(W)) was the THM detected at higher concentrations in all pools, followed by BDCM, DBCM, and BF detected at 99, 34, and 6% of the samples, respectively. Water THM concentrations ranged from 10.1 to 155 μg/L, with 6.5% of the samples presenting values above 100 μg/L (parametric value established in Portuguese law DL 306/2007). In this study, air chloroform (CF(Air)) concentrations ranged from 45 to 373 μg/m³ with 24% of the samples presenting values above 136 μg/m³ (considered high exposure value). Several significant correlations were observed between total THM and other parameters, namely, CF(W), CF(Air), FrCl, water temperature (T(W)), and PWO. These correlations indicate that FrCl, T(W) and PWO are parameters that influence THM formation. The exposure criterion established for water THM enabled the inclusion of 67% of Lisbon pools in the high exposure group, which reinforces the need for an improvement in pool water quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zelinda Isabel Silva
- Water and Soil Unit, Environmental Health Department, Portuguese National Health Institute Doutor Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
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Villanueva CM, Gracia-Lavedán E, Ibarluzea J, Santa Marina L, Ballester F, Llop S, Tardón A, Fernández MF, Freire C, Goñi F, Basagaña X, Kogevinas M, Grimalt JO, Sunyer J. Exposure to trihalomethanes through different water uses and birth weight, small for gestational age, and preterm delivery in Spain. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2011; 119:1824-30. [PMID: 21810554 PMCID: PMC3261969 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1002425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2010] [Accepted: 08/02/2011] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Evidence associating exposure to water disinfection by-products with reduced birth weight and altered duration of gestation remains inconclusive. OBJECTIVE We assessed exposure to trihalomethanes (THMs) during pregnancy through different water uses and evaluated the association with birth weight, small for gestational age (SGA), low birth weight (LBW), and preterm delivery. METHODS Mother-child cohorts set up in five Spanish areas during the years 2000-2008 contributed data on water ingestion, showering, bathing, and swimming in pools. We ascertained residential THM levels during pregnancy periods through ad hoc sampling campaigns (828 measurements) and regulatory data (264 measurements), which were modeled and combined with personal water use and uptake factors to estimate personal uptake. We defined outcomes following standard definitions and included 2,158 newborns in the analysis. RESULTS Median residential THM ranged from 5.9 μg/L (Valencia) to 114.7 μg/L (Sabadell), and speciation differed across areas. We estimated that 89% of residential chloroform and 96% of brominated THM uptakes were from showering/bathing. The estimated change of birth weight for a 10% increase in residential uptake was -0.45 g (95% confidence interval: -1.36, 0.45 g) for chloroform and 0.16 g (-1.38, 1.70 g) for brominated THMs. Overall, THMs were not associated with SGA, LBW, or preterm delivery. CONCLUSIONS Despite the high THM levels in some areas and the extensive exposure assessment, results suggest that residential THM exposure during pregnancy driven by inhalation and dermal contact routes is not associated with birth weight, SGA, LBW, or preterm delivery in Spain.
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Grazuleviciene R, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Vencloviene J, Kostopoulou-Karadanelli M, Krasner SW, Danileviciute A, Balcius G, Kapustinskiene V. Individual exposures to drinking water trihalomethanes, low birth weight and small for gestational age risk: a prospective Kaunas cohort study. Environ Health 2011; 10:32. [PMID: 21501533 PMCID: PMC3100244 DOI: 10.1186/1476-069x-10-32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2010] [Accepted: 04/19/2011] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Evidence for an association between exposure during pregnancy to trihalomethanes (THMs) in drinking water and impaired fetal growth is still inconsistent and inconclusive, in particular, for various exposure routes. We examined the relationship of individual exposures to THMs in drinking water on low birth weight (LBW), small for gestational age (SGA), and birth weight (BW) in singleton births. METHODS We conducted a cohort study of 4,161 pregnant women in Kaunas (Lithuania), using individual information on drinking water, ingestion, showering and bathing, and uptake factors of THMs in blood, to estimate an internal dose of THM. We used regression analysis to evaluate the relationship between internal THM dose and birth outcomes, adjusting for family status, education, smoking, alcohol consumption, body mass index, blood pressure, ethnic group, previous preterm, infant gender, and birth year. RESULTS The estimated internal dose of THMs ranged from 0.0025 to 2.40 mg/d. We found dose-response relationships for the entire pregnancy and trimester-specific THM and chloroform internal dose and risk for LBW and a reduction in BW. The adjusted odds ratio for third tertile vs. first tertile chloroform internal dose of entire pregnancy was 2.17, 95% CI 1.19-3.98 for LBW; the OR per every 0.1 μg/d increase in chloroform internal dose was 1.10, 95% CI 1.01-1.19. Chloroform internal dose was associated with a slightly increased risk of SGA (OR 1.19, 95% CI 0.87-1.63 and OR 1.22, 95% CI 0.89-1.68, respectively, for second and third tertile of third trimester); the risk increased by 4% per every 0.1 μg/d increase in chloroform internal dose (OR 1.04, 95% CI 1.00-1.09). CONCLUSIONS THM internal dose in pregnancy varies substantially across individuals, and depends on both water THM levels and water use habits. Increased internal dose may affect fetal growth.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jone Vencloviene
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas, Lithuania
| | | | - Stuart W Krasner
- The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, La Verne, CA, USA
| | - Asta Danileviciute
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Gediminas Balcius
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas, Lithuania
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Iszatt N, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Nelson P, Elliott P, Toledano MB. Water consumption and use, trihalomethane exposure, and the risk of hypospadias. Pediatrics 2011; 127:e389-97. [PMID: 21220402 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2009-3356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Hypospadias is a congenital anomaly that affects up to 70 in 10 000 males. Ingestion of drinking-water-disinfection byproducts such as trihalomethanes (THMs) has been associated with hypospadias in a small sample. We examined risk of hypospadias and exposure to THMs through water consumption and use. METHODS Between September 2000 and March 2003, we interviewed mothers of 471 boys with hypospadias and 490 controls in southeast England about maternal water consumption, dishwashing, showering, bathing and swimming. We obtained residential THM concentrations from the water companies and linked them by using Geographical Information Systems, which provided data on 468 case-subjects and 485 controls. RESULTS THM exposures, except for ingestion of ≥ 6 μg/day of bromodichloromethane (odds ratio [OR]: 1.65 [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.02-2.69]), were not associated with risk of hypospadias. Elevated risk of hypospadias was associated with estimates of consumption of cold tap water at home (OR: 1.71 [95% CI: 1.07-2.76]), total water (OR: 1.70 [95% CI: 1.09-2.67]), bottled water (OR: 1.64 [95% CI: 1.09-2.48]), and total fluid (OR: 1.55 [95% CI: 1.01-2.39]) for the highest versus the lowest categories; the first 2 showed dose-response trends. CONCLUSIONS Evidence for an association between maternal water consumption and risk of hypospadias did not seem to be explained by THM exposure. Factors that influence maternal water consumption or other contaminants in tap or bottled water might explain this finding. It is important that women maintain an adequate fluid intake during pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Iszatt
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics and MRC-HPA Centre for Environment and Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
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Production of various disinfection byproducts in indoor swimming pool waters treated with different disinfection methods. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2010; 213:465-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2010.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2010] [Revised: 08/27/2010] [Accepted: 09/09/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Font-Ribera L, Esplugues A, Ballester F, Martínez-Argüelles B, Tardón A, Freire C, Fernández MF, Carrasco G, Cases A, Sunyer J, Villanueva CM. Trihalometanos en el agua de piscinas en cuatro zonas de España participantes en el proyecto INMA. GACETA SANITARIA 2010; 24:483-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gaceta.2010.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2010] [Revised: 06/10/2010] [Accepted: 07/12/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Font-Ribera L, Kogevinas M, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Grimalt JO, Villanueva CM. Patterns of water use and exposure to trihalomethanes among children in Spain. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2010; 110:571-579. [PMID: 20554274 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2010.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2009] [Revised: 05/13/2010] [Accepted: 05/18/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Few studies characterizing trihalomethane (THM) exposure or examining potential health effects were conducted in children. The present study describes patterns of water use in children as a source of THM exposure, and estimates the daily THM uptake and the relative contribution of each pathway of exposure. A cross-sectional population-based study was conducted in children 9-12 years of age in Sabadell, Catalonia, Spain (N=2037). We collected individual information on ingestion, frequency and duration of showering, bathing and swimming, source of drinking water, age, sex and parental education. Chloroform, dibromochloroform, bromodichloroform and bromoform in tap, bottled and swimming pool water were measured. The daily chloroform and brominated THM uptakes were estimated combining environmental levels with individual water activities using algorithms reported in the literature. Among the studied group, 80% of children drank bottled water and 20% regularly attended swimming pools. Mean THM concentration in bottled, tap and chlorinated pool water were, respectively, 0.3, 117 and 92 microg/L. Brominated THM predominated in the tap water (84% of total THM) and chloroform predominated in the swimming pool (84% of total THM). Children attending swimming pools had four times higher THM uptake compared to non-swimmers (p-value<0.05). Showering was the main pathway of exposure for non-swimmers. Girls and children with low parental education had a higher THM uptake (p-value<0.05) as they reported taking longer showers and more frequent baths. In conclusion, total and specific THM uptake varied considerably with the personal water uses among children. As drinking water was mainly bottled and bathing was infrequent, showering and swimming in pools were the main pathways of THM exposure. Specific water uses among children slightly differed by sociodemographic characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laia Font-Ribera
- Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Doctor Aiguader 88, 08003-Barcelona, Spain
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Santa Marina L, Ayerdi M, Lertxundi A, Basterretxea M, Goñi F, Iñaki Alvare J, Arranz L, Blarduni E, María Ibarluzea J. Concentración de trihalometanos y de ácidos haloacéticos en el agua de consumo y estimación de su ingesta durante el embarazo en la cohorte INMA-Guipúzcoa (España). GACETA SANITARIA 2010; 24:321-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gaceta.2010.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2009] [Revised: 02/25/2010] [Accepted: 03/01/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Rahman MB, Driscoll T, Cowie C, Armstrong BK. Disinfection by-products in drinking water and colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis. Int J Epidemiol 2010; 39:733-45. [PMID: 20139236 DOI: 10.1093/ije/dyp371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is inconclusive evidence from observational studies that disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water are associated with colorectal cancer. METHODS A literature search, without language or time limits, was performed to identify relevant case-control and cohort studies. Separate risk estimates for colon and rectal cancer were extracted from studies meeting the inclusion criteria. Relative risks (RRs) or odds ratios (ORs) comparing the highest exposure category with the lowest were pooled using random effects methods. RESULTS A total of 13 studies (3 cohort and 10 case-control) were analysed. For colon cancer, the pooled RR estimates were 1.11 [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.73-1.70] for cohort studies, 1.33 (95% CI: 1.12-1.57) for case-control studies and 1.27 (95% CI: 1.08-1.50) combining both study types. For rectal cancer, the corresponding RR estimates were 0.88 (0.57-1.35), 1.40 (1.15-1.70) and 1.30 (1.06-1.59). Sensitivity analysis showed these results were not importantly influenced by any single study. Publication bias was not evident for the colon cancer analysis but may have been a minor issue for the rectal cancer analysis. The results for rectal cancer may have been influenced by the quality of the studies. CONCLUSIONS The study findings provide limited evidence of a positive association between colorectal cancer and exposure to DBPs in drinking water. The small number of studies and limitations in study quality prevent causal inference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Bayzidur Rahman
- School of Public Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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Dobrzyńska E, Pośniak M, Szewczyńska M, Buszewski B. Chlorinated Volatile Organic Compounds—Old, However, Actual Analytical and Toxicological Problem. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2010. [DOI: 10.1080/10408340903547054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Thiriat N, Paulus H, Le Bot B, Glorennec P. Exposure to inhaled THM: comparison of continuous and event-specific exposure assessment for epidemiologic purposes. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2009; 35:1086-1089. [PMID: 19576633 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2009.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2009] [Revised: 05/19/2009] [Accepted: 06/08/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Trihalomethanes (THMs) (chloroform, bromoform, dibromochloromethane, and bromodichloromethane) are the most abundant by-products of chlorination. People are exposed to THMs through ingestion, dermal contact and inhalation. The objective of this study was to compare two methods for assessing THM inhalation: a direct method with personal monitors assessing continuous exposure and an indirect one with microenvironmental sampling and collection of time-activity data during the main event exposures: bathing, showering and swimming. This comparison was conducted to help plan a future epidemiologic study of the effects of THMs on the upper airways of children. 30 children aged from 4 to 10 years were included. They wore a 3M 3520 organic vapor monitor for 7 days. We sampled air in their bathrooms (during baths or showers) and in the indoor swimming pools they visited and recorded their time-activity patterns. We used stainless steel tubes full of Tenax to collect air samples. All analyses were performed with Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). Chloroform was the THM with the highest concentrations in the air of both bathrooms and indoor swimming pools. Its continuous and event exposure measurements were significantly correlated (r(s)=0.69 p<0.001). Continuous exposures were higher than event exposures, suggesting that the event exposure method does not take into account some influential microenvironments. In an epidemiologic study, this might lead to random exposure misclassification, thus underestimation of the risk, and reduced statistical power. The continuous exposure method was difficult to implement because of its poor acceptability and the fragility of the personal monitors. These two points may also reduce the statistical power of an epidemiologic study. It would be useful to test the advantages and disadvantages of a second sample in the home or of modeling the baseline concentration of THM in the home to improve the event exposure method.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Thiriat
- EHESP, School of Public Health, Rennes, France
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Elliott P, Savitz DA. Design issues in small-area studies of environment and health. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2008; 116:1098-104. [PMID: 18709174 PMCID: PMC2516594 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.10817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 08/28/2007] [Accepted: 04/25/2008] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Small-area studies are part of the tradition of spatial epidemiology, which is concerned with the analysis of geographic patterns of disease with respect to environmental, demographic, socioeconomic, and other factors. We focus on etiologic research, where the aim is to make inferences about spatially varying environmental factors influencing the risk of disease. METHODS AND RESULTS We illustrate the approach through three exemplars: a) magnetic fields from overhead electric power lines and the occurrence of childhood leukemia, which illustrates the use of geographic information systems to focus on areas with high exposure prevalence; b) drinking-water disinfection by-products and reproductive outcomes, taking advantage of large between- to within-area variability in exposures from the water supply; and c) chronic exposure to air pollutants and cardiorespiratory health, where issues of socioeconomic confounding are particularly important. DISCUSSION The small-area epidemiologic approach assigns exposure estimates to individuals based on location of residence or other geographic variables such as workplace or school. In this way, large populations can be studied, increasing the ability to investigate rare exposures or rare diseases. The approach is most effective when there is well-defined exposure variation across geographic units, limited within-area variation, and good control for potential confounding across areas. CONCLUSIONS In conjunction with traditional individual-based approaches, small-area studies offer a valuable addition to the armamentarium of the environmental epidemiologist. Modeling of exposure patterns coupled with collection of individual-level data on subsamples of the population should lead to improved risk estimates (i.e., less potential for bias) and help strengthen etiologic inference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Elliott
- Small Area Health Statistics Unit, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK.
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Aylward LL, LaKind JS, Hays SM. Biomonitoring Equivalents (BE) dossier for trihalomethanes. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2008; 51:S68-77. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2008.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2008] [Revised: 05/09/2008] [Accepted: 05/15/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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