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Crudo F, Partsch V, Braga D, Blažević R, Rollinger JM, Varga E, Marko D. Discovery of the Alternaria mycotoxins alterperylenol and altertoxin I as novel immunosuppressive and antiestrogenic compounds in vitro. Arch Toxicol 2024:10.1007/s00204-024-03877-1. [PMID: 39358629 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-024-03877-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2024] [Accepted: 09/19/2024] [Indexed: 10/04/2024]
Abstract
Alternaria mycotoxins may pose significant challenges to food safety and public health due to the wide spectrum of reported adverse effects. Despite this, critical information on the immunomodulatory and antiestrogenic properties of most of these contaminants is still lacking. The present study aimed to identify the mycotoxins responsible for the immunosuppressive and antiestrogenic effects of a complex extract of Alternaria mycotoxins (CE) obtained by growing an Alternaria alternata strain on rice. Through a toxicity-guided fractionation procedure involving the production of CE-fractions by supercritical fluid chromatography and mycotoxin quantification by LC-MS/MS, the mycotoxins alternariol (AOH), tenuazonic acid (TeA), altertoxin I (ATX-I), and alterperylenol (ALTP) were identified as potential toxicologically relevant constituents contributing to the in vitro effects exerted by the extract. The assessment of the immunomodulatory effects, performed by applying the NF-κB reporter gene assay in THP1-Lucia™ monocytes, revealed the scarce contribution of AOH to the effects exerted by the CE. TeA showed no effect on the NF-κB pathway up to 250 µM, whereas ATX-I and ALTP suppressed the LPS-mediated pathway activation at concentrations ≥ 1 µM. The evaluation of antiestrogenic effects, performed in Ishikawa cells by applying the alkaline phosphatase assay, revealed the ability of ALTP (≥ 0.4 µM) and ATX-I (≥ 2 µM) to suppress the estrogen-dependent expression of enzyme activity. Given the risk of detrimental impacts stemming from alterations in endocrine and systemic immune responses by the investigated mycotoxins, further studies are needed to elucidate their underlying mechanisms of action and comprehensively evaluate the health risks posed by these toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Crudo
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Vanessa Partsch
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
- Doctoral School in Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Dennis Braga
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ruzica Blažević
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Judith M Rollinger
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Elisabeth Varga
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
- Unit Food Hygiene and Technology, Centre for Food Science and Veterinary Public Health, Clinical Department for Farm Animals and Food System Science, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
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2
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Podlech J. Natural resorcylic lactones derived from alternariol. Beilstein J Org Chem 2024; 20:2171-2207. [PMID: 39224229 PMCID: PMC11368053 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.20.187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 08/06/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
In this overview, naturally occurring resorcylic lactones biosynthetically derived from alternariol and almost exclusively produced by fungi, are discussed with view on their isolation, structure, biological activities, biosynthesis, and total syntheses. This class of compounds consists until now of 127 naturally occurring compounds, with very divers structural motifs. Although only a handful of these toxins (i.e., alternariol and its 9-O-methyl ether, altenusin, dehydroaltenusin, altertenuol, and altenuene) were frequently found and isolated as fungal contaminants in food and feed and have been investigated in significant detail, further metabolites, which were much more rarely found as natural products, similarly show interesting biological activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Podlech
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute of Organic Chemistry, Kaiserstraße 12, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
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3
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Louro H, Vettorazzi A, López de Cerain A, Spyropoulou A, Solhaug A, Straumfors A, Behr AC, Mertens B, Žegura B, Fæste CK, Ndiaye D, Spilioti E, Varga E, Dubreil E, Borsos E, Crudo F, Eriksen GS, Snapkow I, Henri J, Sanders J, Machera K, Gaté L, Le Hegarat L, Novak M, Smith NM, Krapf S, Hager S, Fessard V, Kohl Y, Silva MJ, Dirven H, Dietrich J, Marko D. Hazard characterization of Alternaria toxins to identify data gaps and improve risk assessment for human health. Arch Toxicol 2024; 98:425-469. [PMID: 38147116 PMCID: PMC10794282 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-023-03636-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 12/27/2023]
Abstract
Fungi of the genus Alternaria are ubiquitous plant pathogens and saprophytes which are able to grow under varying temperature and moisture conditions as well as on a large range of substrates. A spectrum of structurally diverse secondary metabolites with toxic potential has been identified, but occurrence and relative proportion of the different metabolites in complex mixtures depend on strain, substrate, and growth conditions. This review compiles the available knowledge on hazard identification and characterization of Alternaria toxins. Alternariol (AOH), its monomethylether AME and the perylene quinones altertoxin I (ATX-I), ATX-II, ATX-III, alterperylenol (ALP), and stemphyltoxin III (STTX-III) showed in vitro genotoxic and mutagenic properties. Of all identified Alternaria toxins, the epoxide-bearing analogs ATX-II, ATX-III, and STTX-III show the highest cytotoxic, genotoxic, and mutagenic potential in vitro. Under hormone-sensitive conditions, AOH and AME act as moderate xenoestrogens, but in silico modeling predicts further Alternaria toxins as potential estrogenic factors. Recent studies indicate also an immunosuppressive role of AOH and ATX-II; however, no data are available for the majority of Alternaria toxins. Overall, hazard characterization of Alternaria toxins focused, so far, primarily on the commercially available dibenzo-α-pyrones AOH and AME and tenuazonic acid (TeA). Limited data sets are available for altersetin (ALS), altenuene (ALT), and tentoxin (TEN). The occurrence and toxicological relevance of perylene quinone-based Alternaria toxins still remain to be fully elucidated. We identified data gaps on hazard identification and characterization crucial to improve risk assessment of Alternaria mycotoxins for consumers and occupationally exposed workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henriqueta Louro
- Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge (INSA) and Centre for Toxicogenomics and Human Health (ToxOmics), NOVA Medical School, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. Padre Cruz, 1649-016, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ariane Vettorazzi
- MITOX Research Group, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy and Nutrition, UNAV-University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Adela López de Cerain
- MITOX Research Group, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy and Nutrition, UNAV-University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Anastasia Spyropoulou
- Laboratory of Toxicological Control of Pesticides, Scientific Directorate of Pesticides' Control and Phytopharmacy, Benaki Phytopathological Institute, 145 61, Attica, Greece
| | - Anita Solhaug
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, PO Box 64, 1431, Ås, Norway
| | - Anne Straumfors
- National Institute of Occupational Health, Gydas Vei 8, 0363, Oslo, Norway
| | - Anne-Cathrin Behr
- Department Food Safety, BfR, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrnstraße 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Birgit Mertens
- Department of Chemical and Physical Health Risks, Sciensano, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Bojana Žegura
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Večna Pot 111, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | | | - Dieynaba Ndiaye
- INRS, Institut National de Recherche et de Sécurité pour la Prévention des accidents du travail et des maladies professionnelles, Rue du Morvan, CS 60027, 54519, Vandœuvre Lès Nancy Cedex, France
| | - Eliana Spilioti
- Laboratory of Toxicological Control of Pesticides, Scientific Directorate of Pesticides' Control and Phytopharmacy, Benaki Phytopathological Institute, 145 61, Attica, Greece
| | - Elisabeth Varga
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Food Hygiene and Technology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Estelle Dubreil
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, Fougères Laboratory, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, 10 B rue Claude Bourgelat, 35306, Fougères, France
| | - Eszter Borsos
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Francesco Crudo
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Igor Snapkow
- Department of Chemical Toxicology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Lovisenberggate 8, 0456, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jérôme Henri
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, Fougères Laboratory, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, 10 B rue Claude Bourgelat, 35306, Fougères, France
| | - Julie Sanders
- Department of Chemical and Physical Health Risks, Sciensano, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Kyriaki Machera
- Laboratory of Toxicological Control of Pesticides, Scientific Directorate of Pesticides' Control and Phytopharmacy, Benaki Phytopathological Institute, 145 61, Attica, Greece
| | - Laurent Gaté
- INRS, Institut National de Recherche et de Sécurité pour la Prévention des accidents du travail et des maladies professionnelles, Rue du Morvan, CS 60027, 54519, Vandœuvre Lès Nancy Cedex, France
| | - Ludovic Le Hegarat
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, Fougères Laboratory, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, 10 B rue Claude Bourgelat, 35306, Fougères, France
| | - Matjaž Novak
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Večna Pot 111, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Nicola M Smith
- Department of Chemical Toxicology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Lovisenberggate 8, 0456, Oslo, Norway
| | - Solveig Krapf
- National Institute of Occupational Health, Gydas Vei 8, 0363, Oslo, Norway
| | - Sonja Hager
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Valérie Fessard
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, Fougères Laboratory, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, 10 B rue Claude Bourgelat, 35306, Fougères, France
| | - Yvonne Kohl
- Fraunhofer Institute for Biomedical Engineering IBMT, Joseph-Von-Fraunhofer-Weg 1, 66280, Sulzbach, Germany
| | - Maria João Silva
- Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge (INSA) and Centre for Toxicogenomics and Human Health (ToxOmics), NOVA Medical School, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. Padre Cruz, 1649-016, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Hubert Dirven
- Department of Chemical Toxicology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Lovisenberggate 8, 0456, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jessica Dietrich
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, BfR, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Straße 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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4
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Zhang S, Li X, Li X, Wang X, Ru S, Tian H. 17β-Trenbolone activates androgen receptor, upregulates transforming growth factor beta/bone morphogenetic protein and Wnt signaling pathways, and induces masculinization of caudal and anal fins in female guppies (Poecilia reticulata). AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2023; 263:106677. [PMID: 37677862 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2023.106677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023]
Abstract
Sexually mature female guppies (Poecilia reticulata) were exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations (20, 200, and 2000 ng/L) of 17β-trenbolone for four weeks. As evidenced by the increased caudal fin index and anal fins developing into gonopodium-like structures, exposed females displayed masculinized secondary sexual characteristics. Differential gene expression and subsequent pathway analysis of mRNA sequencing data revealed that the transcription of transforming growth factor beta/bone morphogenetic protein signaling pathway and Wnt signaling pathway were upregulated following 17β-trenbolone exposure. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays showed that the bone morphogenetic protein 7 protein content was elevated after 17β-trenbolone exposure. Finally, real-time PCR revealed that 17β-trenbolone treatment significantly increased androgen receptor mRNA levels, and molecular docking showed potent interaction between 17β-trenbolone and guppy androgen receptor. Furthermore, 17β-trenbolone-induced masculinization of caudal and anal fins in female guppies, concomitant to the upregulated expression of differentially expressed genes involved in the above-mentioned two signaling pathways, was significantly inhibited by flutamide (androgen receptor antagonist). These findings demonstrated that 17β-trenbolone masculinized fins of female guppies by activating the androgen receptor. This study revealed that 17β-trenbolone could upregulate signaling pathways related to fin growth and differentiation, and eventually cause caudal and anal fin masculinization in female guppies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suqiu Zhang
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, Shandong province, China
| | - Xinyu Li
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, Shandong province, China
| | - Xuefu Li
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, Shandong province, China; College of Life Science, Langfang Normal University, Langfang 065000, Hebei province, China
| | - Xue Wang
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, Shandong province, China
| | - Shaoguo Ru
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, Shandong province, China
| | - Hua Tian
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, Shandong province, China.
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5
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Urbanek KA, Kowalska K, Habrowska-Górczyńska DE, Kozieł MJ, Domińska K, Piastowska-Ciesielska AW. Revealing the Role of Alternariol in the Local Steroidogenesis in Human Prostate Normal and Cancer Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24119513. [PMID: 37298472 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24119513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The mycotoxin alternariol (AOH) can be found in food products infected by Alternaria spp. and is considered an endocrine-disruptive mycotoxin. The main mechanism of AOH toxicity is associated with DNA damage and modulation of the inflammation process. Still, AOH is considered as one of the emerging mycotoxins. In this study, we have evaluated how AOH might affect the local steroidogenesis process in the prostate, in both normal and cancer cells. We have found that AOH itself modulates the cell cycle, inflammation, and apoptosis, rather than the steroidogenesis process in prostate cancer cells; however, in the presence of another steroidogenic agent, the influence on steroidogenesis is significant. Therefore, this is the first study to report the effect of AOH on local steroidogenesis in normal and prostate cancer cells. We postulate that AOH might modulate the release of the steroid hormones and expression of the key components by interfering with the steroidogenic pathway and might be considered a steroidogenesis-altering agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kinga Anna Urbanek
- Medical University of Lodz, Department of Cell Cultures and Genomic Analysis, 90-752 Lodz, Poland
| | - Karolina Kowalska
- Medical University of Lodz, Department of Cell Cultures and Genomic Analysis, 90-752 Lodz, Poland
| | | | - Marta Justyna Kozieł
- Medical University of Lodz, Department of Cell Cultures and Genomic Analysis, 90-752 Lodz, Poland
- Medical University of Lodz, BRaIn Laboratories, 92-216 Lodz, Poland
| | - Kamila Domińska
- Medical University of Lodz, Department of Comparative Endocrinology, Zeligowskiego 7/9, 90-752 Lodz, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Wanda Piastowska-Ciesielska
- Medical University of Lodz, Department of Cell Cultures and Genomic Analysis, 90-752 Lodz, Poland
- Medical University of Lodz, BRaIn Laboratories, 92-216 Lodz, Poland
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6
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Islam MT, Martorell M, González-Contreras C, Villagran M, Mardones L, Tynybekov B, Docea AO, Abdull Razis AF, Modu B, Calina D, Sharifi-Rad J. An updated overview of anticancer effects of alternariol and its derivatives: underlying molecular mechanisms. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1099380. [PMID: 37033617 PMCID: PMC10076758 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1099380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Alternariol is a toxic metabolite of Alternaria fungi and studies have shown multiple potential pharmacological effects. To outline the anticancer effects and mechanisms of alternariol and its derivatives based on database reports, an updated search of PubMed/MedLine, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and Scopus databases was performed with relevant keywords for published articles. The studies found to suggest that this mycotoxin and/or its derivatives have potential anticancer effects in many pharmacological preclinical test systems. Scientific reports indicate that alternariol and/or its derivatives exhibit anticancer through several pathways, including cytotoxic, reactive oxygen species leading to oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction-linked cytotoxic effect, anti-inflammatory, cell cycle arrest, apoptotic cell death, genotoxic and mutagenic, anti-proliferative, autophagy, and estrogenic and clastogenic mechanisms. In light of these results, alternariol may be one of the hopeful chemotherapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Torequl Islam
- Department of Pharmacy, Life Science Faculty, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Science and Technology University, Gopalganj, Bangladesh
| | - Miquel Martorell
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile
- Centre for Healthy Living, University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile
- Universidad de Concepción, Unidad de Desarrollo Tecnológico, UDT, Concepción, Chile
| | - Carlos González-Contreras
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Marcelo Villagran
- Biomedical Sciences Research Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Lorena Mardones
- Biomedical Sciences Research Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Bekzat Tynybekov
- Department of Biodiversity of Bioresources, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | - Anca Oana Docea
- Department of Toxicology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, Craiova, Romania
| | - Ahmad Faizal Abdull Razis
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
- Natural Medicines and Products Research Laboratory, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Babagana Modu
- Natural Medicines and Products Research Laboratory, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria
| | - Daniela Calina
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, Craiova, Romania
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Pushparaj K, Meyyazhagan A, Pappuswamy M, Mousavi Khaneghah A, Liu W, Balasubramanian B. Occurrence, identification, and decontamination of potential mycotoxins in fruits and fruit by‐products. FOOD FRONTIERS 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/fft2.198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Karthika Pushparaj
- Department of Zoology, School of Biosciences Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women Coimbatore Tamil Nadu India
| | - Arun Meyyazhagan
- Department of Life Science CHRIST (Deemed to be University) Bengaluru Karnataka India
| | - Manikantan Pappuswamy
- Department of Life Science CHRIST (Deemed to be University) Bengaluru Karnataka India
| | - Amin Mousavi Khaneghah
- Department of Fruit and Vegetable Product Technology Prof. Wacław Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology – State Research Institute Warsaw Poland
| | - Wen‐Chao Liu
- Department of Animal Science, College of Coastal Agricultural Sciences Guangdong Ocean University Zhanjiang China
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8
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Xin J, Shang Y. Alternariol alleviates breast carcinoma by inhibiting cellular proliferation correlated with increased apoptotic events in rats. EUR J INFLAMM 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/1721727x221139485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The breast cancer is most frequently diagnosed cancer in the women worldwide. Our study investigated the anticancer effect of alternariol, a secondary metabolite originated from endophytic fungi, against DMBA induced breast carcinoma on Wistar rats. The toxicity study investigated the LD50 and the subsequent doses of alternariol for the carcinogenic study. The breast cancer was developed in rats via induction of DMBA (5 mg/kg, i.v.) and the carcinogenic study was continued for 24 weeks. The induction of breast cancer and the chemotherapeutic effect of alternariol were assessed through histopathological analysis of rat mammary tissue, followed by immunohistochemical analysis, cell proliferation assay and apoptosis assay by TUNEL method. The result showed that alternariol therapy decreased the hyperplastic lesions of mammary tissue and restored the normal histopathological characteristics of breast tissue. Furthermore, alternariol treatment downregulated the expression of carcinogenic markers such as PI3K and Akt increased the expression of apoptotic markers including p53, caspase-3 and Bax. Alternariol therapy also decreased the cellular proliferation and enhanced the apoptotic events. In conclusion, the breast cancer progression was significantly reduced via induction of apoptotic events and inhibition of cell propagation which allowed constructing of suitable mechanism for alternariol mediated chemotherapeutic approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Xin
- The Third Department of General Surgery, Taizhou First People’s Hospital, Taizhou, China
| | - Yitai Shang
- The Third Department of General Surgery, Taizhou First People’s Hospital, Taizhou, China
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9
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Persistence of the antagonistic effects of a natural mixture of Alternaria mycotoxins on the estrogen-like activity of human feces after anaerobic incubation. Toxicol Lett 2022; 358:88-99. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2022.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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10
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Aichinger G. Natural Dibenzo-α-Pyrones: Friends or Foes? Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:13063. [PMID: 34884865 PMCID: PMC8657677 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222313063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural dibenzo-α-pyrones (DAPs) can be viewed from two opposite angles. From one angle, the gastrointestinal metabolites urolithins are regarded as beneficial, while from the other, the emerging mycotoxin alternariol and related fungal metabolites are evaluated critically with regards to potential hazardous effects. Thus, the important question is: can the structural characteristics of DAP subgroups be held responsible for distinct bioactivity patterns? If not, certain toxicological and/or pharmacological aspects of natural DAPs might yet await elucidation. Thus, this review focuses on comparing published data on the two groups of natural DAPs regarding both adverse and beneficial effects on human health. Literature on genotoxic, estrogenic, endocrine-disruptive effects, as well as on the induction of the cellular anti-oxidative defense system, anti-inflammatory properties, the inhibition of kinases, the activation of mitophagy and the induction of autophagy, is gathered and critically reviewed. Indeed, comparing published data suggests similar bioactivity profiles of alternariol and urolithin A. Thus, the current stratification into hazardous Alternaria toxins and healthy urolithins seems debatable. An extrapolation of bioactivities to the other DAP sub-class could serve as a promising base for further research. Conclusively, urolithins should be further evaluated toward high-dose toxicity, while alternariol derivatives could be promising chemicals for the development of therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Aichinger
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland
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11
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Estrogen Receptor β Participates in Alternariol-Induced Oxidative Stress in Normal Prostate Epithelial Cells. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13110766. [PMID: 34822550 PMCID: PMC8621730 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13110766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Alternaria toxins are considered as emerging mycotoxins, however their toxicity has not been fully evaluated in humans. Alternariol (AOH), the most prevalent Alternaria mycotoxin, was previously reported to be genotoxic and to affect hormonal balance in cells; however, its direct molecular mechanism is not known. The imbalance in androgen/estrogen ratio as well as chronic inflammation are postulated as factors in prostate diseases. The environmental agents affecting the hormonal balance might participate in prostate carcinogenesis. Thus, this study evaluated the effect of two doses of AOH on prostate epithelial cells. We observed that AOH in a dose of 10 µM induces oxidative stress, DNA damage and cell cycle arrest and that this effect is partially mediated by estrogen receptor β (ERβ) whereas the lower tested dose of AOH (0.1 µM) induces only oxidative stress in cells. The modulation of nuclear erythroid-related factor 2 (Nrf2) was observed in response to the higher dose of AOH. The use of selective estrogen receptor β (ERβ) inhibitor PHTPP revealed that AOH-induced oxidative stress in both tested doses is partially dependent on activation of ERβ, but lack of its activation did not protect cells against AOH-induced ROS production or DNA-damaging effect in case of higher dose of AOH (10 µM). Taken together, this is the first study reporting that AOH might affect basic processes in normal prostate epithelial cells associated with benign and malignant changes in prostate tissue.
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12
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Sá SVMD, Monteiro C, Fernandes JO, Pinto E, Faria MA, Cunha SC. Emerging mycotoxins in infant and children foods: A review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 63:1707-1721. [PMID: 34486889 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1967282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
A proper nutrition is crucial for children's healthy development. Regardless of the usual recommendations to follow a varied diet, some foods can be a source of toxic natural contaminants such as mycotoxins, potent secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi. In addition to the most well-known mycotoxins, many of which are subject to tight regulation regarding the maximum levels allowed in different types of food, there is a large group of mycotoxins, the so-called emerging mycotoxins, about which less knowledge has already been acquired, which have gradually been the target of interest from the scientific community due to their prevalence in most foodstuffs, particularly in cereals and cereal-based products. Alternariol and his metabolite alternariol mono-methyl ether, beauvericin, citrinin, culmorin, enniatins, ergot alkaloids, fusaproliferin, kojic acid, moniliformin, sterigmatocystin, tentoxin and tenuazonic acid are the most representative of them. The current review gathered the information of the last ten years that have been published on the levels of emerging mycotoxins in food products dedicated for infants and children. European Union countries are responsible for most of the reported studies, which showed levels that can reach hundreds of mg/kg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soraia V M de Sá
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Carolina Monteiro
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - José O Fernandes
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Eugénia Pinto
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR/CIMAR), University of Porto, Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Miguel A Faria
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Sara C Cunha
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
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13
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Zhang S, Tian H, Sun Y, Li X, Wang W, Ru S. Brightened body coloration in female guppies (Poecilia reticulata) serves as an in vivo biomarker for environmental androgens: The example of 17β-trenbolone. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2021; 224:112698. [PMID: 34450427 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
In vivo testing systems for environmental androgens are scarce. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of male-specific brightened body coloration in female guppies (Poecilia reticulata) to serve as an in vivo biomarker of environmental androgens using 17β-trenbolone as an example. The high bioaccumulation of 17β-trenbolone in the skin of female guppies suggests that it is a potential target tissue of environmental androgens. The coloration index, pigment cell ultrastructure, pigment levels, sexual attractiveness, and reproductive capability of female guppies were analyzed following 28 days of exposure to 20 ng/L, 200 ng/L, and 2000 ng/L 17β-trenbolone. Increases in the coloration index caused by 17β-trenbolone exposure were attributable to increased pteridine and melanin levels. Decreases in the sexual attractiveness, number of offspring, and survival rate of offspring suggested that the changes in body coloration translated into adverse outcomes. Finally, mRNA sequencing indicated that 17β-trenbolone increased pteridine levels by activating genomic effects of androgen receptor on xanthine dehydrogenase and increased melanin levels by exerting non-genomic effects targeting microphthalmia-associated transcription factor, tyrosinase, and tyrosinase-related protein 1 that were mediated by mitogen-activated protein kinase and calcium signaling pathways. We have derived a robust adverse outcome pathway of environmental androgens, and our findings suggest that indicators at different biological levels related to brightened body coloration in female guppies can serve as less-invasive or noninvasive in vivo biomarkers of short-term exposure to environmental androgens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suqiu Zhang
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, 5 Yushan Road, Qingdao 266003, Shandong, China
| | - Hua Tian
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, 5 Yushan Road, Qingdao 266003, Shandong, China.
| | - Yang Sun
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, 5 Yushan Road, Qingdao 266003, Shandong, China
| | - Xuefu Li
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, 5 Yushan Road, Qingdao 266003, Shandong, China
| | - Wei Wang
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, 5 Yushan Road, Qingdao 266003, Shandong, China
| | - Shaoguo Ru
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, 5 Yushan Road, Qingdao 266003, Shandong, China
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14
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Aichinger G, Del Favero G, Warth B, Marko D. Alternaria toxins-Still emerging? Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2021; 20:4390-4406. [PMID: 34323368 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Alternaria molds are known to cause the contamination of food with their secondary metabolites, a chemically very heterogeneous group of compounds. Yet, after decades of research on the occurrence and the toxicity of Alternaria toxins in academia, no regulation has been implemented yet, thus leaving these potential food contaminants in the status of so-called "emerging mycotoxins". However, research on this topic has been far from static, leading to the European Food Safety Authority repeatedly calling for more data on the occurrence and toxicity of genotoxic metabolites such as alternariol (AOH) and its monomethyl ether (AME). To give an overview on recent developments in the field, this comprehensive review summarizes published data and addresses current challenges arising from the chemical complexity of Alternaria's metabolome, mixture effects and the emergence of novel biological targets like cell membranes or the interaction with different receptors. Besides toxicodynamics, we review recent research on toxicokinetics, including the first in vivo studies which incorporated the rarely investigated-but highly genotoxic-perylene quinones. Furthermore, a particular focus lies on the advances of liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)-based analytical tools for determining a broader spectrum of Alternaria toxins including modified/masked forms and assessing exposure via human biomonitoring (HBM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Aichinger
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria
| | - Giorgia Del Favero
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria
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15
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Balázs A, Faisal Z, Csepregi R, Kőszegi T, Kriszt B, Szabó I, Poór M. In Vitro Evaluation of the Individual and Combined Cytotoxic and Estrogenic Effects of Zearalenone, Its Reduced Metabolites, Alternariol, and Genistein. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:6281. [PMID: 34208060 PMCID: PMC8230625 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22126281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites of filamentous fungi. Previous studies demonstrated the co-occurrence of Fusarium and Alternaria toxins, including zearalenone (ZEN), ZEN metabolites, and alternariol (AOH). These xenoestrogenic mycotoxins appear in soy-based meals and dietary supplements, resulting in the co-exposure to ZEN and AOH with the phytoestrogen genistein (GEN). In this study, the cytotoxic and estrogenic effects of ZEN, reduced ZEN metabolites, AOH, and GEN are examined to evaluate their individual and combined impacts. Our results demonstrate that reduced ZEN metabolites, AOH, and GEN can aggravate ZEN-induced toxicity; in addition, the compounds tested exerted mostly synergism or additive combined effects regarding cytotoxicity and/or estrogenicity. Therefore, these observations underline the importance and the considerable risk of mycotoxin co-exposure and the combined effects of mycoestrogens with phytoestrogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrienn Balázs
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Institute of Aquaculture and Environmental Safety, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Páter Károly u. 1, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary; (A.B.); (I.S.)
| | - Zelma Faisal
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Rókus u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary;
- Food Biotechnology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary;
| | - Rita Csepregi
- Lab-on-a-Chip Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary;
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 13, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Tamás Kőszegi
- Food Biotechnology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary;
- Lab-on-a-Chip Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary;
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 13, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Balázs Kriszt
- Department of Environmental Safety, Institute of Aquaculture and Environmental Safety, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Páter Károly u. 1, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary;
| | - István Szabó
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Institute of Aquaculture and Environmental Safety, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Páter Károly u. 1, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary; (A.B.); (I.S.)
| | - Miklós Poór
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Rókus u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary;
- Food Biotechnology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary;
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16
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Hall JM, Korach KS. Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and sex steroid receptors. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2021; 92:191-235. [PMID: 34452687 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apha.2021.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Sex-steroid receptors (SSRs) are essential mediators of estrogen, progestin, and androgen signaling that are critical in vast aspects of human development and multi-organ homeostasis. Dysregulation of SSR function has been implicated in numerous pathologies including cancers, obesity, Type II diabetes mellitus, neuroendocrine disorders, cardiovascular disease, hyperlipidemia, male and female infertility, and other reproductive disorders. Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) modulate SSR function in a wide variety of cell and tissues. There exists strong experimental, clinical, and epidemiological evidence that engagement of EDCs with SSRs may disrupt endogenous hormone signaling leading to physiological abnormalities that may manifest in disease. In this chapter, we discuss the molecular mechanisms by which EDCs interact with estrogen, progestin, and androgen receptors and alter SSR functions in target cells. In addition, the pathological consequences of disruption of SSR action in reproductive and other organs by EDCs is described with an emphasis on underlying mechanisms of receptors dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julianne M Hall
- Quinnipiac University Frank H. Netter MD School of Medicine, Hamden, CT, United States.
| | - Kenneth S Korach
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Durham, NC, United States
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17
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Abdul-Ridha NA, Salmaan AD, Sabah R, Saeed B, Al-Masoudi NA. Synthesis, cytotoxicity and in silico study of some novel benzocoumarin-chalcone-bearing aryl ester derivatives and benzocoumarin-derived arylamide analogs. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR NATURFORSCHUNG SECTION B-A JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL SCIENCES 2021. [DOI: 10.1515/znb-2020-0204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The development of new prostate cancer protein receptor cytochrome P450 17A1 inhibitors offers the possibility of generating structures of increased potency. To this end, the chalcone analogs 7 and 8 were prepared from treatment of methyl 3-oxo-3H-benzocoumarin-2-carboxylate (4) with aryl aldehydes. Treatment of 7 and 8 with three anti-inflammatory drugs, flurbiprofen, ketoprofen and ibuprofen, in the presence of POCl3/DMAP gave the ester analogs 9–12. Analogously, treatment of ethyl 3-oxo-3H-benzocoumarin-2-carboxylate (15), prepared previously from 2-hydroxy-1-naphthaldehyde (13) and dimethylmalonate (14), with various arylamines: 4-bromoaniline, 2-amino-6-methylpyridine, amino-antipyrine and 2-amino-5-nitrothiazole, in the presence of potassium tert-butoxide gave the benzocoumarine-3-arylamide analogs. The in vitro cytotoxic activities of 9–12 and 16–19 were evaluated against human prostate cancer cell lines (PC-3) and normal human liver epithelia (WRL-68) by MTT assay. Compounds 10 and 17 were the most active cytotoxic agents among the series against PC-3 cells with IC50 values of 71.35 and 78.25 μg mL–1 with SI values of 3.0 and 4.2, respectively (calculated from the cytotoxicity effects of 10 and 17 on the normal human liver epithelia [WRL-68]). Furthermore, compounds 11 and 12 were tested against breast cancer (HER2 cell lines), prostate cancer (DU-135 cell lines) and MCF-7 but were inactive. Molecular docking studies between the protein receptor CYPP450 17A1 and compounds 10 and 17 revealed that these compounds primarily form hydrophobic interactions with the receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nabeel A. Abdul-Ridha
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science , University of Qadisiya , Diwaniyaa , Iraq
| | - Afraah D. Salmaan
- Department of Chemistry, College of Education , University of Qadisiya , Diwaniyaa , Iraq
| | - Rita Sabah
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy , University of Basrah , Basrah , Iraq
| | - Bahjat Saeed
- Department of Chemistry, College of Education for Pure Science , University of Basrah , Basrah , Iraq
| | - Najim A. Al-Masoudi
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science , University of Basrah , Basrah , Iraq
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18
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Crudo F, Barilli A, Mena P, Rotoli BM, Rio DD, Dall'Asta C, Dellafiora L. An in vitro study on the transport and phase II metabolism of the mycotoxin alternariol in combination with the structurally related gut microbial metabolite urolithin C. Toxicol Lett 2021; 340:15-22. [PMID: 33421552 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2021.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Alternariol is a mycotoxin produced by Alternaria spp. relevant to the food safety area due to its abundance in certain foods. The shortage of data on its toxicology, also as a part of chemical mixtures, prevents setting regulation to limit its abundance in food. To extend knowledge on the possible mechanisms underpinning alternariol toxicology in chemical mixtures, this work assessed the effects of urolithin C, a structurally related gut ellagitannin-derived metabolite, on its absorption and phase II metabolism in a monolayer of Caco-2 cells. A computational study was also used to provide a mechanistic explanation for the results obtained. Urolithin C influenced transport and phase II metabolism of alternariol with a late reduction of transport to the basolateral compartment. Moreover, it caused an early effect in terms of accumulation of alternariol glucuronides in the basolateral compartment, followed by a late reduction of glucuronides in both compartments. Concerning alternariol sulfates, the data collected pointed to a possible competition of urolithin C for the sulfotransferases resulting in a reduced production of alternariol sulfates. Our results provide a compelling line-of-evidence pointing to the need to systematically tackle the evaluation of mycotoxin toxicity in the context of chemical mixture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Crudo
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco Delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Amelia Barilli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery (DiMeC), University of Parma, Via Volturno 39, 43125, Parma, Italy
| | - Pedro Mena
- Human Nutrition Unit, Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Via Volturno 39, 43125, Parma, Italy
| | - Bianca Maria Rotoli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery (DiMeC), University of Parma, Via Volturno 39, 43125, Parma, Italy
| | - Daniele Del Rio
- Human Nutrition Unit, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Parma, Via Volturno 39, 43125, Parma, Italy
| | - Chiara Dall'Asta
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco Delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Luca Dellafiora
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco Delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy.
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19
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Aichinger G, Živná N, Varga E, Crudo F, Warth B, Marko D. Microfiltration results in the loss of analytes and affects the in vitro genotoxicity of a complex mixture of Alternaria toxins. Mycotoxin Res 2020; 36:399-408. [PMID: 32794137 PMCID: PMC7536153 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-020-00405-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Alternaria molds produce a variety of chemically diverse secondary metabolites with potentially adverse effects on human health. However, data on occurrence in food and human exposure is inconsistent for some of these mycotoxins. Membrane filtration is a frequent step in many sample preparation procedures for LC-MS-based methods analyzing food contaminants. Yet, little is known about the possibility of adsorptive phenomena that might result in analyte losses. Thus, we treated a complex extract of Alternaria toxins with several types of syringe filters and unraveled the impact on its chemical composition by LC-MS/MS. We observed significant, and in some cases complete, losses of compounds due to filtration. Particularly, two key Alternaria toxins, alternariol (AOH) and its monomethyl ether (AME), were heavily affected. As a comparison with published food surveys indicating a correlation of the type of filtration used with lower incidence reports in food, our results point at a possible underestimation of AME in past exposure assessment. Also, perylene quinones were greatly affected by filtration, underlining the importance to take this into consideration during analytical method development. Furthermore, we applied the comet assay in HT-29 cells to elucidate the impact of filtration on the genotoxicity of the extract. We observed strong coincidences with the loss of epoxide-carrying metabolites and also an intriguing induction of oxidative DNA damage by yet toxicologically uncharacterized Alternaria toxins. In conclusion, we highlight potential issues with sample filtration and call for a critical re-evaluation of previous food occurrence data in the light of the results at hand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Aichinger
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Natálie Živná
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Elisabeth Varga
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Francesco Crudo
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy.
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20
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Crudo F, Aichinger G, Mihajlovic J, Dellafiora L, Varga E, Puntscher H, Warth B, Dall'Asta C, Berry D, Marko D. Gut microbiota and undigested food constituents modify toxin composition and suppress the genotoxicity of a naturally occurring mixture of Alternaria toxins in vitro. Arch Toxicol 2020; 94:3541-3552. [PMID: 32623606 PMCID: PMC7502057 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02831-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Molds of the genus Alternaria produce several mycotoxins, some of which may pose a threat for health due to their genotoxicity. Due to the lack of adequate toxicological and occurrence data, they are currently not regulated. Interactions between mycotoxins, gut microbiota and food constituents might occur after food ingestion, modifying the bioavailability and, therefore, overall toxicity of mycotoxins. The present work aimed to investigate the impact of in vitro short-term fecal incubation on the in vitro DNA-damaging effects exerted by 5 µg/mL of an Alternaria alternata extract, containing, among others, 15 nM alternariol, 12 nM alternariol monomethyl ether, 241 nM altertoxin II and 301 nM stemphyltoxin III, all of which are known as genotoxic. The involvement of microorganisms, undigested food constituents and soluble substances of human fecal samples in modifying the composition and the genotoxicity of the extract was investigated through the application of LC-MS/MS analysis and comet assays in HT-29 cells. Results showed that the potential of the mycotoxins to induce DNA strand breaks was almost completely quenched, even before anaerobic incubation, by contact with the different fractions of the fecal samples, while the potency to induce formamidopyrimidine DNA glycosylase (FPG)-sensitive sites was only slightly reduced. These effects were in line with a reduction of mycotoxin concentrations found in samples analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Although a direct correlation between the metabolic activity of the gut microbiota and modifications in mycotoxin contents was not clearly observed, adsorptive phenomena to bacterial cells and to undigested food constituents might explain the observed modifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Crudo
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 42, 1090, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy
| | - Georg Aichinger
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 42, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jovana Mihajlovic
- Department of Microbiology and Ecosystem Science, Centre for Microbiology and Environmental Systems Science, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Luca Dellafiora
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy
| | - Elisabeth Varga
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 42, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Hannes Puntscher
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 42, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 42, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Chiara Dall'Asta
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy
| | - David Berry
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 42, 1090, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Microbiology and Ecosystem Science, Centre for Microbiology and Environmental Systems Science, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
- Joint Microbiome Facility of the Medical University of Vienna and the University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 42, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy.
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21
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Alternaria toxins as casein kinase 2 inhibitors and possible consequences for estrogenicity: a hybrid in silico/in vitro study. Arch Toxicol 2020; 94:2225-2237. [PMID: 32328700 PMCID: PMC7303061 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02746-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Emerging mycotoxins produced by Alternaria spp. were previously reported to exert cytotoxic, genotoxic, but also estrogenic effects in human cells. The involved mechanisms are very complex and not fully elucidated yet. Thus, we followed an in silico target fishing approach to extend knowledge on the possible biological targets underlying the activity of alternariol, taken as the signature compound of Alternaria toxins. Combining ligand-based screening and structure-based modeling, the ubiquitous casein kinase 2 (CK2) was identified as a potential target for the compound. This result was validated in a cell-free in vitro CK2 activity assay, where alternariol inhibited CK2 with an IC50 of 707 nM. As CK2 was recently discussed to influence estrogen receptor (ER) transcription and DNA-binding affinity, we assessed a potential impact on the mRNA levels of ERα or ERβ by qRT-PCR and on nuclear localization of the receptors by confocal microscopy, using estrogen-sensitive Ishikawa cells as a model. While AOH did not affect the transcription of ERα or ERβ, an increase in nuclear localization of ERα after incubation with 10 µM AOH was observed. However, this effect might be due to ER binding affinity and therefore estrogenicity of AOH. Furthermore, in silico docking simulation revealed not only AOH, but also a number of other Alternaria toxins as potential inhibitors of CK2, including alternariol monomethyl ether and the perylene quinone derivative altertoxin II (ATX-II). These findings were representatively confirmed in vitro for the perylene quinone derivative altertoxin II, which was found to inhibit the kinase with an IC50 of 5.1 µM. Taken together, we propose CK2 inhibition as an additional mechanism to consider in future studies for alternariol and several other Alternaria toxins.
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22
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Crudo F, Varga E, Aichinger G, Galaverna G, Marko D, Dall'Asta C, Dellafiora L. Co-Occurrence and Combinatory Effects of Alternaria Mycotoxins and other Xenobiotics of Food Origin: Current Scenario and Future Perspectives. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E640. [PMID: 31684145 PMCID: PMC6891783 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11110640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Revised: 10/24/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are low-molecular weight compounds produced by diverse genera of molds that may contaminate food and feed threatening the health of humans and animals. Recent findings underline the importance of studying the combined occurrence of multiple mycotoxins and the relevance of assessing the toxicity their simultaneous exposure may cause in living organisms. In this context, for the first time, this work has critically reviewed the most relevant data concerning the occurrence and toxicity of mycotoxins produced by Alternaria spp., which are among the most important emerging risks to be assessed in food safety, alone or in combination with other mycotoxins and bioactive food constituents. According to the literature covered, multiple Alternaria mycotoxins may often occur simultaneously in contaminated food, along with several other mycotoxins and food bioactives inherently present in the studied matrices. Although the toxicity of combinations naturally found in food has been rarely assessed experimentally, the data collected so far, clearly point out that chemical mixtures may differ in their toxicity compared to the effect of toxins tested individually. The data presented here may provide a solid foothold to better support the risk assessment of Alternaria mycotoxins highlighting the actual role of chemical mixtures on influencing their toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Crudo
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy.
| | - Elisabeth Varga
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Georg Aichinger
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Gianni Galaverna
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy.
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy.
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Chiara Dall'Asta
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy.
| | - Luca Dellafiora
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy.
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Dellafiora L, Galaverna G, Cruciani G, Dall'Asta C. A computational study toward the "personalized" activity of alternariol - Does it matter for safe food at individual level? Food Chem Toxicol 2019; 130:199-206. [PMID: 31128219 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2019.05.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Revised: 05/18/2019] [Accepted: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins in food may threat public health at a global scale. However, for most of them, the current body of knowledge does not support a proper risk assessment and more data are needed to clarify their toxicity. In particular, the assessment of "personalized" action may succeed in understanding and counteracting the effects of many toxicants. Therefore, the assessment of "personalized" toxicology of mycotoxins might deserve attention to foster the understanding of their mechanisms of toxicity and to eventually improve the assessment of risk. This work dealt with the early warning analysis of possible differences in eliciting androgenic stimuli by alternariol, a widespread mycotoxin produce by Alternaria species, when mutations on the androgen receptor occur. It was applied a computational study based on docking simulations, pharmacophore modeling and molecular dynamics to assess the capability of alternariol to interact with the androgen receptor bearing the M749I substitution - which confers insensitivity to androgens stimulation. The results collected pointed to possible "protective" effects against alternariol suggesting: i) the likely existence of inter-individual responses to alternariol stimulation; ii) the meaningfulness of collecting data on "personalized" response to mycotoxins toward a more precise paradigm addressing the risk assessment at the individual level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Dellafiora
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy.
| | - Gianni Galaverna
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy
| | - Gabriele Cruciani
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of Perugia, via Elce di Sotto, 8, 06123, Perugia, Italy
| | - Chiara Dall'Asta
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy
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Fliszár-Nyúl E, Lemli B, Kunsági-Máté S, Dellafiora L, Dall'Asta C, Cruciani G, Pethő G, Poór M. Interaction of Mycotoxin Alternariol with Serum Albumin. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20092352. [PMID: 31083629 PMCID: PMC6539399 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20092352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2019] [Revised: 05/08/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Alternariol (AOH) is a mycotoxin produced by Alternaria species. In vitro studies suggest the genotoxic, mutagenic, and endocrine disruptor effects of AOH, and an increased incidence of esophageal cancer has been reported related to higher AOH exposure. Human serum albumin (HSA) is the most abundant plasma protein in the circulation, it is able to affect toxicokinetic properties of numerous xenobiotics. HSA forms stable complexes with several mycotoxins, however, the interaction of AOH with albumin has not been examined. In this study, the complex formation of AOH with HSA was tested, employing fluorescence spectroscopy, ultrafiltration, and molecular modeling. Each spectroscopic measurement shows the formation of stable AOH-HSA complexes (K = 4 × 105 L/mol). Investigations with site markers (in spectroscopic and ultrafiltration models) as well as modeling studies suggest that AOH occupies Sudlow’s site I as a high-affinity binding site in HSA. The binding affinity of AOH towards bovine, porcine, and rat albumins was also tested, suggesting that AOH binds to rat albumin with considerably higher affinity than other albumins tested. Our results demonstrate the strong interaction of AOH with serum albumins, suggesting the potential in vivo importance of these interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eszter Fliszár-Nyúl
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Szigeti út 12, H-7642 Pécs; Hungary.
- János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7642 Pécs; Hungary.
| | - Beáta Lemli
- János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7642 Pécs; Hungary.
- Institute of Organic and Medicinal Chemistry, Medical School, University of Pécs, Szigeti út 12, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary.
| | - Sándor Kunsági-Máté
- János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7642 Pécs; Hungary.
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Rókus utca 2, H-7642 Pécs, Hungary.
| | - Luca Dellafiora
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Via G.P. 7 Usberti 17/A, 43124 Parma, Italy.
| | - Chiara Dall'Asta
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Via G.P. 7 Usberti 17/A, 43124 Parma, Italy.
| | - Gabriele Cruciani
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of Perugia, Via Elce di Sotto 8, 06123 Perugia, Italy.
| | - Gábor Pethő
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Szigeti út 12, H-7642 Pécs; Hungary.
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Medical School, University of Pécs, Szigeti út 12, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary.
| | - Miklós Poór
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Szigeti út 12, H-7642 Pécs; Hungary.
- János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7642 Pécs; Hungary.
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Dellafiora L, Galaverna G, Dall’Asta C. Mechanisms of Fumonisin B1 Toxicity: A Computational Perspective beyond the Ceramide Synthases Inhibition. Chem Res Toxicol 2018; 31:1203-1212. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.8b00188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Luca Dellafiora
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Gianni Galaverna
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Chiara Dall’Asta
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy
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Dellafiora L, Dall'Asta C, Galaverna G. Toxicodynamics of Mycotoxins in the Framework of Food Risk Assessment-An In Silico Perspective. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E52. [PMID: 29360783 PMCID: PMC5848153 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10020052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2017] [Revised: 01/16/2018] [Accepted: 01/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins severely threaten the health of humans and animals. For this reason, many countries have enforced regulations and recommendations to reduce the dietary exposure. However, even though regulatory actions must be based on solid scientific knowledge, many aspects of their toxicological activity are still poorly understood. In particular, deepening knowledge on the primal molecular events triggering the toxic stimulus may be relevant to better understand the mechanisms of action of mycotoxins. The present work presents the use of in silico approaches in studying the mycotoxins toxicodynamics, and discusses how they may contribute in widening the background of knowledge. A particular emphasis has been posed on the methods accounting the molecular initiating events of toxic action. In more details, the key concepts and challenges of mycotoxins toxicology have been introduced. Then, topical case studies have been presented and some possible practical implementations of studying mycotoxins toxicodynamics have been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Dellafiora
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy.
| | - Chiara Dall'Asta
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy.
| | - Gianni Galaverna
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy.
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