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Ciryam P, Gerzanich V, Simard JM. Interleukin-6 in Traumatic Brain Injury: A Janus-Faced Player in Damage and Repair. J Neurotrauma 2023; 40:2249-2269. [PMID: 37166354 PMCID: PMC10649197 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2023.0135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a common and often devastating illness, with wide-ranging public health implications. In addition to the primary injury, victims of TBI are at risk for secondary neurological injury by numerous mechanisms. Current treatments are limited and do not target the profound immune response associated with injury. This immune response reflects a convergence of peripheral and central nervous system-resident immune cells whose interaction is mediated in part by a disruption in the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The diverse family of cytokines helps to govern this communication and among these, Interleukin (IL)-6 is a notable player in the immune response to acute neurological injury. It is also a well-established pharmacological target in a variety of other disease contexts. In TBI, elevated IL-6 levels are associated with worse outcomes, but the role of IL-6 in response to injury is double-edged. IL-6 promotes neurogenesis and wound healing in animal models of TBI, but it may also contribute to disruptions in the BBB and the progression of cerebral edema. Here, we review IL-6 biology in the context of TBI, with an eye to clarifying its controversial role and understanding its potential as a target for modulating the immune response in this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prajwal Ciryam
- Shock Trauma Neurocritical Care, Program in Trauma, R Adams Cowley Shock Trauma Center, University of Maryland Medical System, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Volodymyr Gerzanich
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - J. Marc Simard
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Physiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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2
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Wu YR, Hashiguchi T, Sho J, Chiou SH, Takahashi M, Mandai M. Transplanted Mouse Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Retinal Ganglion Cells Integrate and Form Synapses in a Retinal Ganglion Cell-Depleted Mouse Model. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2021; 62:26. [PMID: 34705025 PMCID: PMC8556558 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.62.13.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Retinal ganglion cell (RGC) transplantation is a therapeutic approach to replace irreversibly degenerated RGCs in diseases such as glaucoma. However, the application of primary RGCs is limited by the availability of tissues. The goal of this study was to evaluate whether transplanted mouse embryonic stem cell (mESC)-derived RGCs can integrate into the host retina and form cell connectivity with host cells. Methods In this study, we prepared small retinal fragments containing RGC as THY1-enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP)+ cells from mESCs and placed them near the retinal surface in the air-injected mouse eyes with or without N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA)-induced RGC depletion. After transplantation, THY1-EGFP+ cell integration was observed in whole-mounts and with immunostaining for synaptic markers. Results Transplanted THY1-EGFP+ cells survived for 12 weeks and extended neurites into the inner plexiform layer (IPL) of the host retina. Presumptive synapse formation was identified between grafted RGCs and host bipolar cells. The ratio of transplanted eyes with integration of THY1-EGFP+ neurites in the host IPL was higher in RGC-injured mice compared with healthy controls. Conclusions This report shows the potential for therapeutic use of pluripotent cell–derived RGCs by grafting the cells in healthy conditions and with an appropriate technical approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- You-Ren Wu
- Laboratory for Retinal Regeneration, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, Kobe, Japan.,Institute of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Tomoyo Hashiguchi
- Laboratory for Retinal Regeneration, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, Kobe, Japan
| | - Junki Sho
- Laboratory for Retinal Regeneration, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, Kobe, Japan
| | - Shih-Hwa Chiou
- Institute of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Masayo Takahashi
- Laboratory for Retinal Regeneration, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, Kobe, Japan.,Vision Care Cell Therapy, Inc., Kobe, Japan
| | - Michiko Mandai
- Laboratory for Retinal Regeneration, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, Kobe, Japan
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3
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Bobbo VC, Engel DF, Jara CP, Mendes NF, Haddad-Tovolli R, Prado TP, Sidarta-Oliveira D, Morari J, Velloso LA, Araujo EP. Interleukin-6 actions in the hypothalamus protects against obesity and is involved in the regulation of neurogenesis. J Neuroinflammation 2021; 18:192. [PMID: 34465367 PMCID: PMC8408946 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-021-02242-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Interleukin-6 (IL6) produced in the context of exercise acts in the hypothalamus reducing obesity-associated inflammation and restoring the control of food intake and energy expenditure. In the hippocampus, some of the beneficial actions of IL6 are attributed to its neurogenesis-inducing properties. However, in the hypothalamus, the putative neurogenic actions of IL6 have never been explored, and its potential to balance energy intake can be an approach to prevent or attenuate obesity. Methods Wild-type (WT) and IL6 knockout (KO) mice were employed to study the capacity of IL6 to induce neurogenesis. We used cell labeling with Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU), immunofluorescence, and real-time PCR to determine the expression of markers of neurogenesis and neurotransmitters. We prepared hypothalamic neuroprogenitor cells from KO that were treated with IL6 in order to provide an ex vivo model to further characterizing the neurogenic actions of IL6 through differentiation assays. In addition, we analyzed single-cell RNA sequencing data and determined the expression of IL6 and IL6 receptor in specific cell types of the murine hypothalamus. Results IL6 expression in the hypothalamus is low and restricted to microglia and tanycytes, whereas IL6 receptor is expressed in microglia, ependymocytes, endothelial cells, and astrocytes. Exogenous IL6 reduces diet-induced obesity. In outbred mice, obesity-resistance is accompanied by increased expression of IL6 in the hypothalamus. IL6 induces neurogenesis-related gene expression in the hypothalamus and in neuroprogenitor cells, both from WT as well as from KO mice. Conclusion IL6 induces neurogenesis-related gene expression in the hypothalamus of WT mice. In KO mice, the neurogenic actions of IL6 are preserved; however, the appearance of new fully differentiated proopiomelanocortin (POMC) and neuropeptide Y (NPY) neurons is either delayed or disturbed. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-021-02242-8.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa C Bobbo
- Nursing School, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil.,Laboratory of Cell Signaling, University of Campinas, Rua Cinco de Junho, 350, Cidade Universitária, Campinas, SP, 13083-877, Brazil
| | - Daiane F Engel
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, University of Campinas, Rua Cinco de Junho, 350, Cidade Universitária, Campinas, SP, 13083-877, Brazil
| | - Carlos Poblete Jara
- Nursing School, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil.,Laboratory of Cell Signaling, University of Campinas, Rua Cinco de Junho, 350, Cidade Universitária, Campinas, SP, 13083-877, Brazil
| | - Natalia F Mendes
- Nursing School, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil.,Laboratory of Cell Signaling, University of Campinas, Rua Cinco de Junho, 350, Cidade Universitária, Campinas, SP, 13083-877, Brazil
| | - Roberta Haddad-Tovolli
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, University of Campinas, Rua Cinco de Junho, 350, Cidade Universitária, Campinas, SP, 13083-877, Brazil
| | - Thais P Prado
- Nursing School, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil.,Laboratory of Cell Signaling, University of Campinas, Rua Cinco de Junho, 350, Cidade Universitária, Campinas, SP, 13083-877, Brazil
| | - Davi Sidarta-Oliveira
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, University of Campinas, Rua Cinco de Junho, 350, Cidade Universitária, Campinas, SP, 13083-877, Brazil
| | - Joseane Morari
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, University of Campinas, Rua Cinco de Junho, 350, Cidade Universitária, Campinas, SP, 13083-877, Brazil
| | - Licio A Velloso
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, University of Campinas, Rua Cinco de Junho, 350, Cidade Universitária, Campinas, SP, 13083-877, Brazil
| | - Eliana P Araujo
- Nursing School, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil. .,Laboratory of Cell Signaling, University of Campinas, Rua Cinco de Junho, 350, Cidade Universitária, Campinas, SP, 13083-877, Brazil.
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4
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Podbielska M, O’Keeffe J, Pokryszko-Dragan A. New Insights into Multiple Sclerosis Mechanisms: Lipids on the Track to Control Inflammation and Neurodegeneration. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22147319. [PMID: 34298940 PMCID: PMC8303889 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22147319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a central nervous system disease with complex pathogenesis, including two main processes: immune-mediated inflammatory demyelination and progressive degeneration with axonal loss. Despite recent progress in our understanding and management of MS, availability of sensitive and specific biomarkers for these both processes, as well as neuroprotective therapeutic options targeted at progressive phase of disease, are still being sought. Given their abundance in the myelin sheath, lipids are believed to play a central role in underlying immunopathogenesis in MS and seem to be a promising subject of investigation in this field. On the basis of our previous research and a review of the literature, we discuss the current understanding of lipid-related mechanisms involved in active relapse, remission, and progression of MS. These insights highlight potential usefulness of lipid markers in prediction or monitoring the course of MS, particularly in its progressive stage, still insufficiently addressed. Furthermore, they raise hope for new, effective, and stage-specific treatment options, involving lipids as targets or carriers of therapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Podbielska
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Laboratory of Microbiome Immunobiology, Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology & Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, 53-114 Wroclaw, Poland
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-71-370-9912
| | - Joan O’Keeffe
- Department of Analytical, Biopharmaceutical and Medical Sciences, School of Science & Computing, Galway-Mayo Institute of Technology, Galway, Ireland;
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Dixon MA, Greferath U, Fletcher EL, Jobling AI. The Contribution of Microglia to the Development and Maturation of the Visual System. Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 15:659843. [PMID: 33967697 PMCID: PMC8102829 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.659843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia, the resident immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS), were once considered quiescent cells that sat in readiness for reacting to disease and injury. Over the last decade, however, it has become clear that microglia play essential roles in maintaining the normal nervous system. The retina is an easily accessible part of the central nervous system and therefore much has been learned about the function of microglia from studies in the retina and visual system. Anatomically, microglia have processes that contact all synapses within the retina, as well as blood vessels in the major vascular plexuses. Microglia contribute to development of the visual system by contributing to neurogenesis, maturation of cone photoreceptors, as well as refining synaptic contacts. They can respond to neural signals and in turn release a range of cytokines and neurotrophic factors that have downstream consequences on neural function. Moreover, in light of their extensive contact with blood vessels, they are also essential for regulation of vascular development and integrity. This review article summarizes what we have learned about the role of microglia in maintaining the normal visual system and how this has helped in understanding their role in the central nervous system more broadly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A Dixon
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Ursula Greferath
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Erica L Fletcher
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Andrew I Jobling
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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6
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Fernandez-Bueno I, Usategui-Martin R. Ex Vivo Model of Spontaneous Neuroretinal Degeneration for Evaluating Stem Cells' Paracrine Properties. Methods Mol Biol 2021; 2269:125-137. [PMID: 33687676 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1225-5_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Ex vivo neuroretina cultures closely resemble in vivo conditions, retaining the complex neuroretina cells dynamics, connections, and functionality, under controlled conditions. Therefore, these models have allowed advancing in the knowledge of retinal physiology and pathobiology over the years. Furthermore, the ex vivo neuroretina models represent an adequate tool for evaluating stem cell therapies over neuroretinal degeneration processes.Here, we describe a physically separated co-culture of neuroretina explants with stem cells to evaluate the effect of stem cells paracrine properties on spontaneous neuroretinal degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Fernandez-Bueno
- Instituto Universitario de Oftalmobiología Aplicada (IOBA), Universidad de Valladolid, Campus Miguel Delibes, Paseo de Belén 17, Valladolid, Spain.
- Centro en Red de Medicina Regenerativa y Terapia Celular de Castilla y León, Valladolid, Spain.
- Red Temática de Investigación Cooperativa en Salud (RETICS), Oftared, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Valladolid, Spain.
| | - Ricardo Usategui-Martin
- Instituto Universitario de Oftalmobiología Aplicada (IOBA), Universidad de Valladolid, Campus Miguel Delibes, Paseo de Belén 17, Valladolid, Spain
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7
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Liu XB, Liu F, Liang YY, Yin G, Zhang HJ, Mi XS, Zhang ZJ, So KF, Li A, Xu Y. Luteolin delays photoreceptor degeneration in a mouse model of retinitis pigmentosa. Neural Regen Res 2021; 16:2109-2120. [PMID: 33642401 PMCID: PMC8343326 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.303537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Luteolin is neuroprotective for retinal ganglion cells and retinal pigment epithelial cells after oxidative injury, whereby it can inhibit microglial neurotoxicity. Therefore, luteolin holds the potential to be useful for treatment of retinal diseases. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether luteolin exhibits neuroprotective effects on rod cells in rd10 mice, a slow photoreceptor-degenerative model of retinitis pigmentosa. Luteolin (100 mg/kg) intraperitoneally injected daily from postnatal day 14 (P14) to P25 significantly enhanced the visual performance and retinal light responses of rd10 mice at P25. Moreover, it increased the survival of photoreceptors and improved retinal structure. Mechanistically, luteolin treatment attenuated increases in reactive oxygen species, photoreceptor apoptosis, and reactive gliosis; increased mRNA levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines while lowering that of pro-inflammatory and chemoattractant cytokines; and lowered the ratio of phospho-JNK/JNK. Application of the JNK inhibitor SP600125 exerted a similar protective effect to luteolin, suggesting that luteolin delays photoreceptor degeneration and functional deterioration in rd10 mice through regulation of retinal oxidation and inflammation by inhibiting the JNK pathway. Therefore, luteolin may be useful as a supplementary treatment for retinitis pigmentosa. This study was approved by the Qualified Ethics Committee of Jinan University, China (approval No. IACUC-20181217-02) on December 17, 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Bin Liu
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Feng Liu
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Yi-Yao Liang
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Gang Yin
- Institute of New Drug Research and Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Innovative Chemical Drug Research in Cardio-cerebrovascular Diseases, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Hui-Jun Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Xue-Song Mi
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Zai-Jun Zhang
- Institute of New Drug Research and Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Innovative Chemical Drug Research in Cardio-cerebrovascular Diseases, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Kwok-Fai So
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory, Jinan University; Bioland Laboratory (Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory), Guangzhou, Guangdong Province; Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Ang Li
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory, Jinan University; Bioland Laboratory (Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory), Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Ying Xu
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province; Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu Province, China
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8
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He Q, Sawada M, Yamasaki N, Akazawa S, Furuta H, Uenishi H, Meng X, Nakahashi T, Ishigaki Y, Moriya J. Neuroinflammation, Oxidative Stress, and Neurogenesis in a Mouse Model of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, and the Treatment with Kampo Medicine. Biol Pharm Bull 2020; 43:110-115. [PMID: 31902915 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b19-00616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The diagnosis of chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is mainly symptom-based, and the etiology is still unclear. Here, we evaluated the pathological changes in the brain of a mouse model of CFS and studied the effects of Kampo medicine. A mouse model of CFS was established through six repeated injections of Brucella abortus (BA) every two weeks for a period of 12 weeks. Neuroinflammation was measured by estimating interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), and oxidative stress by nitrotyrosine (3-NT) and 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) 6 weeks after the last injection. Hippocampal neurogenesis was evaluated through Ki-67, doublecortin (DCX), and 5-bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) assays. The effects of Kampo medicines (Hochuekkito (TJ-41) and Hachimijiogan (TJ-7)) on neuroinflammation during CFS were studied. The wheel-running activity of mice was decreased by about 50% compared to baseline at 6 weeks after the last BA injection. The levels of IL-1β, IL-6, 3-NT, and 4-HNE were increased in both the cortex and the hippocampus of CFS mice at 6 weeks after the last BA injection. Hippocampal neurogenesis was unchanged in CFS mice. Treatment with TJ-41 and TJ-7 reduced the expressions of IL-1β, IL-6, and IFN-γ in the hippocampus but not in the cortex. The results of the present study indicate that neuroinflammation and oxidative stress play important roles in the pathogenesis of CFS. The data further suggest that treatment with TJ-41 and TJ-7 could help reduce the inflammation associated with CFS in the hippocampus, but failed to improve the symptoms in CFS mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang He
- Department of General Internal Medicine, Kanazawa Medical University
| | - Mio Sawada
- Department of General Internal Medicine, Kanazawa Medical University
| | - Naruhiro Yamasaki
- Department of General Internal Medicine, Kanazawa Medical University
| | - Sumiyo Akazawa
- Department of General Internal Medicine, Kanazawa Medical University
| | - Hisakazu Furuta
- Department of General Internal Medicine, Kanazawa Medical University
| | - Hiroaki Uenishi
- Department of General Internal Medicine, Kanazawa Medical University
| | - Xiangjin Meng
- Department of General Internal Medicine, Kanazawa Medical University
| | - Takeshi Nakahashi
- Department of General Internal Medicine, Kanazawa Medical University
| | | | - Junji Moriya
- Department of General Internal Medicine, Kanazawa Medical University
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Lim RR, Hainsworth DP, Mohan RR, Chaurasia SS. Characterization of a functionally active primary microglial cell culture from the pig retina. Exp Eye Res 2019; 185:107670. [PMID: 31103710 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2018] [Revised: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Retinal inflammation is an integral component of many retinal diseases including diabetic retinopathy (DR), age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). Inflammation is commonly initiated and perpetuated by myeloid-derived immune cells. In the retina, microglial cells are resident macrophages with myeloid origins, which acts as the first responders involved in the innate immune system. To understand the disease pathogenesis, the use of isolated retinal cell culture model is vital for the examination of multiple cellular responses to injury or trauma. The pig retina resembles human retina in terms of tissue architecture, vasculature, and topography. Additionally, it is a better model than the rodent retina because of the presence of the pseudomacula. In the present study, we sought to establish and characterize pig retinal primary microglial cell (pMicroglia) culture. We used pig eyes from the local abattoir and optimized pMicroglia cultures using multiple cell culture conditions and methods. The best results were obtained by seeding cells in DMEM-high glucose media for 18 days followed by shaking of the culture plate. The resulting pMicroglia were characterized by cellular morphology, phenotype, and immunostaining with Iba-1, CD68, P2Y12, CD163, CD14, and Isolectin GS-IB4. Generated pMicroglia were found functionally active in phagocytosis assay and responsive to lipopolysaccharides (LPS) in dose-dependent production of IL-1β. Furthermore, they showed increased secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines with LPS treatment. Thus, we report a novel and reproducible method for the isolation of primary microglial cells from pig eyes, which may be useful for studying retinal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rayne R Lim
- Ocular Immunology and Angiogenesis Lab, Department of Veterinary Medicine & Surgery, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA; Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA; Harry S. Truman Memorial Veteran Hospital, Columbia, MO, 65201, USA
| | - Dean P Hainsworth
- Mason Eye Institute, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA
| | - Rajiv R Mohan
- Ocular Immunology and Angiogenesis Lab, Department of Veterinary Medicine & Surgery, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA; Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA; Harry S. Truman Memorial Veteran Hospital, Columbia, MO, 65201, USA; Mason Eye Institute, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA
| | - Shyam S Chaurasia
- Ocular Immunology and Angiogenesis Lab, Department of Veterinary Medicine & Surgery, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA; Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA; Harry S. Truman Memorial Veteran Hospital, Columbia, MO, 65201, USA.
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10
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Anderson SR, Vetter ML. Developmental roles of microglia: A window into mechanisms of disease. Dev Dyn 2019; 248:98-117. [PMID: 30444278 PMCID: PMC6328295 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Revised: 10/21/2018] [Accepted: 10/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are engineers of the central nervous system (CNS) both in health and disease. In addition to the canonical immunological roles of clearing damaging entities and limiting the spread of toxicity and death, microglia remodel the CNS throughout life. While they have been extensively studied in disease and injury, due to their highly variable functions, their precise role in these contexts still remains uncertain. Over the past decade, we have greatly expanded our understanding of microglial function, including their essential homeostatic roles during development. Here, we review these developmental roles, identify parallels in disease, and speculate whether developmental mechanisms re-emerge in disease and injury. Developmental Dynamics 248:98-117, 2019. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah R Anderson
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
- Interdepartmental Program in Neuroscience, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
| | - Monica L Vetter
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
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11
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Chen SX, Wang SK, Yao PW, Liao GJ, Na XD, Li YY, Zeng WA, Liu XG, Zang Y. Early CALP2 expression and microglial activation are potential inducers of spinal IL-6 up-regulation and bilateral pain following motor nerve injury. J Neurochem 2018; 145:154-169. [DOI: 10.1111/jnc.14317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Revised: 01/28/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shao-Xia Chen
- Pain Research Center and Department of Physiology; Zhongshan Medical School of Sun Yat-Sen University; Guangzhou China
- Department of Anesthesiology; Cancer Center, Sun Yat-Sen University; State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China; Collaborative, Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine; Guangzhou China
| | - Shao-Kun Wang
- Pain Research Center and Department of Physiology; Zhongshan Medical School of Sun Yat-Sen University; Guangzhou China
| | - Pei-Wen Yao
- Pain Research Center and Department of Physiology; Zhongshan Medical School of Sun Yat-Sen University; Guangzhou China
| | - Guang-Jie Liao
- Pain Research Center and Department of Physiology; Zhongshan Medical School of Sun Yat-Sen University; Guangzhou China
| | - Xiao-Dong Na
- Pain Research Center and Department of Physiology; Zhongshan Medical School of Sun Yat-Sen University; Guangzhou China
- Department of Pathophysiology; Zhongshan Medical School of Sun Yat-Sen University; Guangzhou China
| | - Yong-Yong Li
- Pain Research Center and Department of Physiology; Zhongshan Medical School of Sun Yat-Sen University; Guangzhou China
| | - Wei-an Zeng
- Department of Anesthesiology; Cancer Center, Sun Yat-Sen University; State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China; Collaborative, Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine; Guangzhou China
| | - Xian-Guo Liu
- Pain Research Center and Department of Physiology; Zhongshan Medical School of Sun Yat-Sen University; Guangzhou China
| | - Ying Zang
- Pain Research Center and Department of Physiology; Zhongshan Medical School of Sun Yat-Sen University; Guangzhou China
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12
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Nam SM, Kim JW, Yoo DY, Jung HY, Chung JY, Kim DW, Hwang IK, Yoon YS. Hypothyroidism increases cyclooxygenase-2 levels and pro-inflammatory response and decreases cell proliferation and neuroblast differentiation in the hippocampus. Mol Med Rep 2018; 17:5782-5788. [PMID: 29436670 PMCID: PMC5866021 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2018.8605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Accepted: 02/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study investigated the effects of hypothyroidism on cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and pro‑inflammatory cytokines in the dentate gyrus to elucidate the roles of COX‑2 in the hypothyroid hippocampus. Hypothyroidism was induced in rats by treating with 0.03% 2‑mercapto‑1‑methyl‑imidazole dissolved in drinking water for 5 weeks. The animals were sacrificed at 12 weeks of age. Hypothyroidism rats exhibited decreased triiodothyronine and thyroxine levels in the serum, while the levels of thyroid‑stimulating hormone and the weight of thyroid glands were significantly higher in the hypothyroid rats compared with those in the vehicle‑treated group. COX‑2 immunoreactivity was significantly increased in the hippocampal CA2/3 region and the dentate gyrus compared with the vehicle‑treated group. Levels of pro‑inflammatory cytokines including interleukin (IL)‑1β, IL‑6 and tumor necrosis factor‑α were significantly higher in the hippocampal homogenates of hypothyroid rats. Cell proliferation and neuroblast differentiation based on Ki67 and doublecortin immunohistochemistry were decreased in the dentate gyrus of hypothyroid rats compared with those in the vehicle‑treated group. These results suggested that hypothyroidism‑mediated COX‑2 expression affected hippocampal plasticity by upregulating the levels of pro‑inflammatory cytokines in the hippocampus. Therefore, COX‑2 may be suggested as a candidate molecule for preventing hypothyroidism‑induced neurological side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Min Nam
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Whi Kim
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Dae Young Yoo
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyo Young Jung
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Young Chung
- Department of Veterinary Internal Medicine and Geriatrics, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Dae Won Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Research Institute of Oral Sciences, College of Dentistry, Gangneung‑Wonju National University, Gangneung, Gangwon 25457, Republic of Korea
| | - In Koo Hwang
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeo Sung Yoon
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
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13
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Podbielska M, O'Keeffe J, Hogan EL. Autoimmunity in multiple sclerosis: role of sphingolipids, invariant NKT cells and other immune elements in control of inflammation and neurodegeneration. J Neurol Sci 2017; 385:198-214. [PMID: 29406905 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2017.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2017] [Revised: 12/16/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most common demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. It is classified as being an autoimmune response in the genetically susceptible individual to a persistent but unidentified antigen(s). Both the adaptive and the innate immune systems are likely to contribute significantly to MS pathogenesis. This review summarizes current understanding of the characteristics of MS autoimmunity in the initiation and progression of the disease. In particular we find it timely to classify the autoimmune responses by focusing on the immunogenic features of myelin-derived lipids in MS including molecular mimicry; on alterations of bioactive sphingolipids mediators in MS; and on functional roles for regulatory effector cells, including innate lymphocyte populations, like the invariant NKT (iNKT) cells which bridge adaptive and innate immune systems. Recent progress in identifying the nature of sphingolipids recognition for iNKT cells in immunity and the functional consequences of the lipid-CD1d interaction opens new avenues of access to the pathogenesis of demyelination in MS as well as design of lipid antigen-specific therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Podbielska
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Medical University of South Carolina Charleston, SC, USA; Laboratory of Signal Transduction Molecules, Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology & Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wrocław, Poland.
| | - Joan O'Keeffe
- Department of Biopharmaceutical & Medical Science, School of Science & Computing, Galway-Mayo Institute of Technology, Galway, Ireland
| | - Edward L Hogan
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Medical University of South Carolina Charleston, SC, USA
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Su LN, Song XQ, Wei HP, Yin HF. Identification of neuron-related genes for cell therapy of neurological disorders by network analysis. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 2017; 18:172-182. [PMID: 28124845 DOI: 10.1631/jzus.b1600109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Bone mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) differentiated into neurons have been widely proposed for use in cell therapy of many neurological disorders. It is therefore important to understand the molecular mechanisms underlying this differentiation. We screened differentially expressed genes between immature neural tissues and untreated BMSCs to identify the genes responsible for neuronal differentiation from BMSCs. GSE68243 gene microarray data of rat BMSCs and GSE18860 gene microarray data of rat neurons were received from the Gene Expression Omnibus database. Transcriptome Analysis Console software showed that 1248 genes were up-regulated and 1273 were down-regulated in neurons compared with BMSCs. Gene Ontology functional enrichment, protein-protein interaction networks, functional modules, and hub genes were analyzed using DAVID, STRING 10, BiNGO tool, and Network Analyzer software, revealing that nine hub genes, Nrcam, Sema3a, Mapk8, Dlg4, Slit1, Creb1, Ntrk2, Cntn2, and Pax6, may play a pivotal role in neuronal differentiation from BMSCs. Seven genes, Dcx, Nrcam, sema3a, Cntn2, Slit1, Ephb1, and Pax6, were shown to be hub nodes within the neuronal development network, while six genes, Fgf2, Tgfβ1, Vegfa, Serpine1, Il6, and Stat1, appeared to play an important role in suppressing neuronal differentiation. However, additional studies are required to confirm these results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Ning Su
- Department of Biology, Hebei North University, Zhangjiakou 075029, China
| | - Xiao-Qing Song
- Department of Biology, Hebei North University, Zhangjiakou 075029, China
| | - Hui-Ping Wei
- Department of Biology, Hebei North University, Zhangjiakou 075029, China
| | - Hai-Feng Yin
- Department of Biology, Hebei North University, Zhangjiakou 075029, China
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15
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Andrews RN, Metheny-Barlow LJ, Peiffer AM, Hanbury DB, Tooze JA, Bourland JD, Hampson RE, Deadwyler SA, Cline JM. Cerebrovascular Remodeling and Neuroinflammation is a Late Effect of Radiation-Induced Brain Injury in Non-Human Primates. Radiat Res 2017; 187:599-611. [PMID: 28398880 PMCID: PMC5508216 DOI: 10.1667/rr14616.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Fractionated whole-brain irradiation (fWBI) is a mainstay of treatment for patients with intracranial neoplasia; however late-delayed radiation-induced normal tissue injury remains a major adverse consequence of treatment, with deleterious effects on quality of life for affected patients. We hypothesize that cerebrovascular injury and remodeling after fWBI results in ischemic injury to dependent white matter, which contributes to the observed cognitive dysfunction. To evaluate molecular effectors of radiation-induced brain injury (RIBI), real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) was performed on the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC, Brodmann area 46), hippocampus and temporal white matter of 4 male Rhesus macaques (age 6-11 years), which had received 40 Gray (Gy) fWBI (8 fractions of 5 Gy each, twice per week), and 3 control comparators. All fWBI animals developed neurologic impairment; humane euthanasia was elected at a median of 6 months. Radiation-induced brain injury was confirmed histopathologically in all animals, characterized by white matter degeneration and necrosis, and multifocal cerebrovascular injury consisting of perivascular edema, abnormal angiogenesis and perivascular extracellular matrix deposition. Herein we demonstrate that RIBI is associated with white matter-specific up-regulation of hypoxia-associated lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA) and that increased gene expression of fibronectin 1 (FN1), SERPINE1 and matrix metalloprotease 2 (MMP2) may contribute to cerebrovascular remodeling in late-delayed RIBI. Additionally, vascular stability and maturation associated tumor necrosis super family member 15 (TNFSF15) and vascular endothelial growth factor beta (VEGFB) mRNAs were increased within temporal white matter. We also demonstrate that radiation-induced brain injury is associated with decreases in white matter-specific expression of neurotransmitter receptors SYP, GRIN2A and GRIA4. We additionally provide evidence that macrophage/microglial mediated neuroinflammation may contribute to RIBI through increased gene expression of the macrophage chemoattractant CCL2 and macrophage/microglia associated CD68. Global patterns in cerebral gene expression varied significantly between regions examined (P < 0.0001, Friedman's test), with effects most prominent within cerebral white matter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel N. Andrews
- Department of Pathology, Section on Comparative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157
| | - Linda J. Metheny-Barlow
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157
- Department of Brain Tumor Center of Excellence, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157
| | - Ann M. Peiffer
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157
- Department of Brain Tumor Center of Excellence, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157
| | - David B. Hanbury
- Department of Psychology, Averett University, Danville, Virginia 24541
| | - Janet A. Tooze
- Department of Biostatistical Sciences, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157
| | - J. Daniel Bourland
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157
- Department of Brain Tumor Center of Excellence, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157
| | - Robert E. Hampson
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157
| | - Samuel A. Deadwyler
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157
| | - J. Mark Cline
- Department of Pathology, Section on Comparative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157
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16
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Podbielska M, Das A, Smith AW, Chauhan A, Ray SK, Inoue J, Azuma M, Nozaki K, Hogan EL, Banik NL. Neuron-microglia interaction induced bi-directional cytotoxicity associated with calpain activation. J Neurochem 2016; 139:440-455. [PMID: 27529445 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2015] [Revised: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 07/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Activated microglia release pro-inflammatory factors and calpain into the extracellular milieu, damaging surrounding neurons. However, mechanistic links to progressive neurodegeneration in disease such as multiple sclerosis (MS) remain obscure. We hypothesize that persistent damaged/dying neurons may also release cytotoxic factors and calpain into the media, which then activate microglia again. Thus, inflammation, neuronal damage, and microglia activation, i.e., bi-directional interaction between neurons and microglia, may be involved in the progressive neurodegeneration. We tested this hypothesis using two in vitro models: (i) the effects of soluble factors from damaged primary cortical neurons upon primary rat neurons and microglia and (ii) soluble factors released from CD3/CD28 activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells of MS patients on primary human neurons and microglia. The first model indicated that neurons due to injury with pro-inflammatory agents (IFN-γ) release soluble neurotoxic factors, including COX-2, reactive oxygen species, and calpain, thus activating microglia, which in turn released neurotoxic factors as well. This repeated microglial activation leads to persistent inflammation and neurodegeneration. The released calpain from neurons and microglia was confirmed by the use of calpain inhibitor calpeptin or SNJ-1945 as well as μ- and m-calpain knock down using the small interfering RNA (siRNA) technology. Our second model using activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells, a source of pro-inflammatory Th1/Th17 cytokines and calpain released from auto-reactive T cells, corroborated similar results in human primary cell cultures and confirmed calpain to be involved in progressive MS. These insights into reciprocal paracrine regulation of cell injury and calpain activation in the progressive phase of MS, Parkinson's disease, and other neurodegenerative diseases suggest potentially beneficial preventive and therapeutic strategies, including calpain inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Podbielska
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA.,Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, Charleston, South Carolina, USA.,Laboratory of Signaling Proteins, Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology & Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Arabinda Das
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA
| | - Amena W Smith
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA
| | - Ashok Chauhan
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, USA
| | - Swapan K Ray
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, USA
| | - Jun Inoue
- Senju Pharmaceutical, Co LTD, Kobe, Japan
| | | | - Kenkichi Nozaki
- Department of Neurology, University of Alabama School of Medicine, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Edward L Hogan
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA
| | - Naren L Banik
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA. .,Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, Charleston, South Carolina, USA.
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17
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Scholz R, Caramoy A, Bhuckory MB, Rashid K, Chen M, Xu H, Grimm C, Langmann T. Targeting translocator protein (18 kDa) (TSPO) dampens pro-inflammatory microglia reactivity in the retina and protects from degeneration. J Neuroinflammation 2015; 12:201. [PMID: 26527153 PMCID: PMC4630900 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-015-0422-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2015] [Accepted: 10/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reactive microglia are commonly seen in retinal degenerative diseases, and neurotoxic microglia responses can contribute to photoreceptor cell death. We and others have previously shown that translocator protein (18 kDa) (TSPO) is highly induced in retinal degenerations and that the selective TSPO ligand XBD173 (AC-5216, emapunil) exerts strong anti-inflammatory effects on microglia in vitro and ex vivo. Here, we investigated whether targeting TSPO with XBD173 has immuno-modulatory and neuroprotective functions in two mouse models of acute retinal degeneration using bright white light exposure. METHODS BALB/cJ and Cx3cr1(GFP/+) mice received intraperitoneal injections of 10 mg/kg XBD173 or vehicle for five consecutive days, starting 1 day prior to exposure to either 15,000 lux white light for 1 h or 50,000 lux focal light for 10 min, respectively. The effects of XBD173 treatment on microglia and Müller cell reactivity were analyzed by immuno-stainings of retinal sections and flat mounts, fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis, and mRNA expression of microglia markers using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). Optical coherence tomography (OCT), terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) stainings, and morphometric analyses were used to quantify the extent of retinal degeneration and photoreceptor apoptosis. RESULTS Four days after the mice were challenged with bright white light, a large number of amoeboid-shaped alerted microglia appeared in the degenerating outer retina, which was nearly completely prevented by treatment with XBD173. This treatment also down-regulated the expression of TSPO protein in microglia but did not change the TSPO levels in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). RT-PCR analysis showed that the microglia/macrophage markers Cd68 and activated microglia/macrophage whey acidic protein (Amwap) as well as the pro-inflammatory genes Ccl2 and Il6 were reduced after XBD173 treatment. Light-induced degeneration of the outer retina was nearly fully blocked by XBD173 treatment. We further confirmed these findings in an independent mouse model of focal light damage. Retinas of animals receiving XBD173 therapy displayed significantly more ramified non-reactive microglia and more viable arrestin-positive cone photoreceptors than vehicle controls. CONCLUSIONS Targeting TSPO with XBD173 effectively counter-regulates microgliosis and ameliorates light-induced retinal damage, highlighting a new pharmacological concept for the treatment of retinal degenerations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Scholz
- Department of Ophthalmology, Laboratory for Experimental Immunology of the Eye, University of Cologne, 50931, Cologne, Germany.
| | - Albert Caramoy
- Department of Ophthalmology, Laboratory for Experimental Immunology of the Eye, University of Cologne, 50931, Cologne, Germany.
| | - Mohajeet B Bhuckory
- Centre for Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, BT12 6BA, UK.
| | - Khalid Rashid
- Department of Ophthalmology, Laboratory for Experimental Immunology of the Eye, University of Cologne, 50931, Cologne, Germany.
| | - Mei Chen
- Centre for Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, BT12 6BA, UK.
| | - Heping Xu
- Centre for Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, BT12 6BA, UK.
| | - Christian Grimm
- Department of Ophthalmology, Lab for Retinal Cell Biology, University of Zürich, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland.
| | - Thomas Langmann
- Department of Ophthalmology, Laboratory for Experimental Immunology of the Eye, University of Cologne, 50931, Cologne, Germany.
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18
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Abstract
Peripheral and CNS inflammation leads to aberrations in developmental and postnatal neurogenesis, yet little is known about the mechanism linking inflammation to neurogenic abnormalities. Specific miRs regulate peripheral and CNS inflammatory responses. miR-155 is the most significantly upregulated miR in primary murine microglia stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a proinflammatory Toll-Like Receptor 4 ligand. Here, we demonstrate that miR-155 is essential for robust IL6 gene induction in microglia under LPS stimulation in vitro. LPS-stimulated microglia enhance astrogliogenesis of cocultured neural stem cells (NSCs), whereas blockade of IL6 or genetic ablation of microglial miR-155 restores neural differentiation. miR-155 knock-out mice show reversal of LPS-induced neurogenic deficits and microglial activation in vivo. Moreover, mice with transgenic elevated expression of miR-155 in nestin-positive neural and hematopoietic stem cells, including microglia, show increased cell proliferation and ectopically localized doublecortin-positive immature neurons and radial glia-like cells in the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) granular cell layer. Microglia have proliferative and neurogenic effects on NSCs, which are significantly altered by microglial miR-155 overexpression. In addition, miR-155 elevation leads to increased microglial numbers and amoeboid morphology in the DG. Our study demonstrates that miR-155 is essential for inflammation-induced neurogenic deficits via microglial activation and induction of IL6 and is sufficient for disrupting normal hippocampal development.
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19
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Xian B, Huang B. The immune response of stem cells in subretinal transplantation. Stem Cell Res Ther 2015; 6:161. [PMID: 26364954 PMCID: PMC4568575 DOI: 10.1186/s13287-015-0167-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Stem cell transplantation is a potential curative treatment for degenerative diseases of the retina. Among cell injection sites, the subretinal space (SRS) is particularly advantageous as it is maintained as an immune privileged site by the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) layer. Thus, the success of subretinal transplantation depends on maintenance of RPE integrity. Moreover, both embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have negligible immunogenicity and in fact are immunosuppressive. Indeed, many studies have demonstrated that immunosuppressive drugs are not necessary for subretinal transplantation of stem cells if the blood-retinal barrier is not breached during surgery. The immunogenicity of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) appears more complex, and requires careful study before clinical application. Despite low rates of graft rejection in animal models, survival rates for ESCs, MSCs, and iPSCs in retina are generally poor, possibly due to resident microglia activated by cell transplantation. To improve graft survival in SRS transplantation, damage to the blood-retinal barrier must be minimized using appropriate surgical techniques. In addition, agents that inhibit microglial activation may be required. Finally, immunosuppressants may be required, at least temporarily, until the blood-retinal barrier heals. We review surgical methods and drug regimens to enhance the likelihood of graft survival after SRS transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bikun Xian
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510060, Guangdong Province, China.
| | - Bing Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510060, Guangdong Province, China.
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20
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21
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Xu Y, Balasubramaniam B, Copland DA, Liu J, Armitage MJ, Dick AD. Activated adult microglia influence retinal progenitor cell proliferation and differentiation toward recoverin-expressing neuron-like cells in a co-culture model. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2015; 253:1085-96. [PMID: 25680876 DOI: 10.1007/s00417-015-2961-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2014] [Revised: 12/15/2014] [Accepted: 12/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Microglia contribute to immune homeostasis of the retina, and thus act as a potential regulator determining successful repair or retinal stem cell transplantation. We investigated the interaction between human microglia and retinal progenitor cells in cell co-culture to further our exploration on developing a new therapeutic strategy for retinal degeneration. METHODS Microglia and retinal progenitor cultures were developed using CD11b(+) and CD133(+), respectively, from adult donor retina. Microglia activation was developed using interferon-gamma and lipopolysaccharide. Retinal progenitor differentiation was analysed in co-culture with or without microglial activation. Retinal progenitor proliferation was analysed in presence of conditioned medium from activated microglia. Phenotype and function of adult human retinal cell cultures were examined using cell morphology, immunohistochemistry and real-time PCR. RESULTS By morphology, neuron-like cells generated in co-culture expressed photoreceptor marker recoverin. Neurospheres derived from retinal progenitor cells showed reduced growth in the presence of conditioned medium from activated microglia. Delayed retinal progenitor cell migration and reduced cellular differentiation was observed in co-cultures with activated microglia. In independent experiments, activated microglia showed enhanced mRNA expression of CXCL10, IL-27, IL-6, and TNF-alpha compared to controls. CONCLUSION Adult human retina retains retinal progenitors or potential to reprogram cells to then proliferate and differentiate into neuron-like cells in vitro. Human microglia support retinal progenitor differentiation into neuron-like cells, but such capacity is altered following microglial activation. Modulating microglia activity is a potential approach to promote retinal repair and facilitate success of stem-cell transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunhe Xu
- School of Clinical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom,
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22
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Hoyo-Becerra C, Schlaak JF, Hermann DM. Insights from interferon-α-related depression for the pathogenesis of depression associated with inflammation. Brain Behav Immun 2014; 42:222-31. [PMID: 25066466 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2014.06.200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2014] [Revised: 06/26/2014] [Accepted: 06/27/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Interferon-α (IFN-α) is a pleiotropic cytokine that is administered as a therapeutic in highly prevalent medical conditions such as chronic hepatitis C and B virus infection, melanoma and lymphoma. IFN-α induces, to a clinically relevant degree, concentration, memory, drive and mood disturbances in almost half of all patients. For this reason, IFN-α is increasingly being replaced by more specifically acting drugs. In the past decades, IFN-α has offered a valuable insight into the pathogenesis of major depression, particularly in settings associated with inflammation. IFN-α triggers immune responses, hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis abnormalities and disturbances of brain metabolism resembling those in other depression states. IFN-α stimulates indoleamine-2,3 dioxygenase-1, activating the kynurenine pathway with reduced formation of the neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine, excessive formation of the NMDA agonist quinolinic acid, and reduced formation of the NMDA antagonist kynurenic acid. In addition, IFN-α disturbs neurotrophic signaling and impedes neurite outgrowth, synaptic plasticity, endogenous neurogenesis and neuronal survival. Consequently, IFN-α-related depression may represent a model for the neurodegenerative changes that are noticed in late-life major depression. Indeed, the observation that brain responses in IFN-α-related depression resemble idiopathic depression is supported by the existence of common genetic signatures, among which of note, a number of neuronal survival and plasticity genes have been identified. In view of the high incidence of depressive symptoms, IFN-α-related depression is an attractive model for studying links between neuronal plasticity, neurodegeneration and depression. We predict that in the latter areas new targets for anti-depressant therapies could be identified, which may deepen our understanding of idiopathic major depression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joerg F Schlaak
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital Essen, Germany
| | - Dirk M Hermann
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Essen, Germany.
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23
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Morris G, Maes M. Oxidative and Nitrosative Stress and Immune-Inflammatory Pathways in Patients with Myalgic Encephalomyelitis (ME)/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS). Curr Neuropharmacol 2014; 12:168-85. [PMID: 24669210 PMCID: PMC3964747 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x11666131120224653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2013] [Revised: 07/12/2013] [Accepted: 11/02/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Myalgic Encephalomyelitis (ME) / Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS) has been classified as a disease of the central nervous system by the WHO since 1969. Many patients carrying this diagnosis do demonstrate an almost bewildering array of biological abnormalities particularly the presence of oxidative and nitrosative stress (O&NS) and a chronically activated innate immune system. The proposal made herein is that once generated chronically activated O&NS and immune-inflammatory pathways conspire to generate a multitude of self-sustaining and self-amplifying pathological processes which are associated with the onset of ME/CFS. Sources of continuous activation of O&NS and immune-inflammatory pathways in ME/CFS are chronic, intermittent and opportunistic infections, bacterial translocation, autoimmune responses, mitochondrial dysfunctions, activation of the Toll-Like Receptor Radical Cycle, and decreased antioxidant levels. Consequences of chronically activated O&NS and immune-inflammatory pathways in ME/CFS are brain disorders, including neuroinflammation and brain hypometabolism / hypoperfusion, toxic effects of nitric oxide and peroxynitrite, lipid peroxidation and oxidative damage to DNA, secondary autoimmune responses directed against disrupted lipid membrane components and proteins, mitochondrial dysfunctions with a disruption of energy metabolism (e.g. compromised ATP production) and dysfunctional intracellular signaling pathways. The interplay between all of these factors leads to self-amplifying feed forward loops causing a chronic state of activated O&NS, immune-inflammatory and autoimmune pathways which may sustain the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael Maes
- Department of Psychiatry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand ; Department of Psychiatry, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
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Prokosch V, Chiwitt C, Rose K, Thanos S. Deciphering proteins and their functions in the regenerating retina. Expert Rev Proteomics 2014; 7:775-95. [DOI: 10.1586/epr.10.47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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25
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Time course modifications in organotypic culture of human neuroretina. Exp Eye Res 2012; 104:26-38. [PMID: 23022403 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2012.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2012] [Revised: 08/29/2012] [Accepted: 08/31/2012] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to characterize organ culture of human neuroretina and to establish survival and early degeneration patterns of neural and glial cells. Sixteen neuroretina explants were prepared from 2 postmortem eyes of 2 individuals. Four explants were used as fresh retina controls, and 12 were evaluated at 3, 6, and 9 days of culture. Neuroretina explants (5 × 5 mm) were cultured in Transwell(®) dishes with the photoreceptor layer facing the supporting membrane. Culture medium (Neurobasal A-based) was maintained in contact with the membrane beneath the explant. Cryostat and ultrathin sections were prepared for immunohistochemistry and electron microscopy. Neuroretinal modifications were evaluated after toluidine blue staining and after immunostaining for neuronal and glial cell markers. Ultrastructural changes were analyzed by electron microscopy. From 0 to 9 days in culture, there was progressive retinal degeneration, including early pyknosis of photoreceptor nuclei, cellular vacuolization in the ganglion cell layer, decrease of both plexiform layer thicknesses, disruption and truncation of photoreceptor outer segments (OS), and marked reduction in the number of nuclei at both nuclear layers where the cells were less densely packed. At 3 days there was swelling of cone OS with impairment of pedicles, loss of axons and dendrites of horizontal and rod bipolar cells that stained for calbindin (CB) and protein kinase C (PKC-α), respectively. After 9 days, horizontal cells were pyknotic and without terminal tips. There were similar degenerative processes in the outer plexiform layer for rod bipolar cells and loss of axon terminal lateral varicosities in the inner plexiform layer. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) staining did not reveal a dramatic increase of gliosis in Müller cells. However, some Müller cells were CB immunoreactive at 6 days of culture. Over 9 days of culture, human neuroretina explants underwent morphological changes in photoreceptors, particularly the OS and axon terminals, and in postsynaptic horizontal and bipolar cells. These early changes, not previously described in cultured human samples, reproduce some celullar modifications after retinal damage. Thus, this model may be suitable to evaluate therapeutic agents during retinal degeneration processes.
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Eyre H, Baune BT. Neuroplastic changes in depression: a role for the immune system. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2012; 37:1397-416. [PMID: 22525700 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 210] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2011] [Revised: 03/15/2012] [Accepted: 03/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggests that there is a rich cross-talk between the neuroimmune system and neuroplasticity mechanisms under both physiological conditions and pathophysiological conditions in depression. Anti-neuroplastic changes which occur in depression include a decrease in proliferation of neural stem cells (NSCs), decreased survival of neuroblasts and immature neurons, impaired neurocircuitry (cortical-striatal-limbic circuits), reduced levels of neurotrophins, reduced spine density and dendritic retraction. Since both humoral and cellular immune factors have been implicated in neuroplastic processes, in this review we present a model suggesting that neuroplastic processes in depression are mediated through various neuroimmune mechanisms. The review puts forward a model in that both humoral and cellular neuroimmune factors are involved with impairing neuroplasticity under pathophysiological conditions such as depression. Specifically, neuroimmune factors including interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, CD4⁺CD25⁺T regulatory cells (T reg), self-specific CD4⁺T cells, monocyte-derived macrophages, microglia and astrocytes are shown to be vital to processes of neuroplasticity such as long-term potentiation (LTP), NSC survival, synaptic branching, neurotrophin regulation and neurogenesis. In rodent models of depression, IL-1, IL-6 and TNF are associated with reduced hippocampal neurogenesis; mechanisms which are associated with this include the stress-activated protein kinase (SAPK)/Janus Kinase (JNK) pathway, hypoxia-inducible factors (HIF)-1α, JAK-Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription (STAT) pathway, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/cAMP responsive element binding protein (CREB) pathway, Ras-MAPK, PI-3 kinase, IKK/nuclear factor (NF)-κB and TGFβ activated kinase-1 (TAK-1). Neuroimmunological mechanisms have an active role in the neuroplastic changes associated with depression. Since therapies in depression, including antidepressants (AD), omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and physical activity exert neuroplasticity-enhancing effects potentially mediated by neuroimmune mechanisms, the immune system might serve as a promising target for interventions in depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harris Eyre
- Discipline of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Adelaide, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
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Baune BT, Konrad C, Grotegerd D, Suslow T, Birosova E, Ohrmann P, Bauer J, Arolt V, Heindel W, Domschke K, Schöning S, Rauch AV, Uhlmann C, Kugel H, Dannlowski U. Interleukin-6 gene (IL-6): a possible role in brain morphology in the healthy adult brain. J Neuroinflammation 2012; 9:125. [PMID: 22695063 PMCID: PMC3464888 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-9-125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2012] [Accepted: 06/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cytokines such as interleukin 6 (IL-6) have been implicated in dual functions in neuropsychiatric disorders. Little is known about the genetic predisposition to neurodegenerative and neuroproliferative properties of cytokine genes. In this study the potential dual role of several IL-6 polymorphisms in brain morphology is investigated. Methodology In a large sample of healthy individuals (N = 303), associations between genetic variants of IL-6 (rs1800795; rs1800796, rs2069833, rs2069840) and brain volume (gray matter volume) were analyzed using voxel-based morphometry (VBM). Selection of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) followed a tagging SNP approach (e.g., Stampa algorigthm), yielding a capture 97.08% of the variation in the IL-6 gene using four tagging SNPs. Principal findings/results In a whole-brain analysis, the polymorphism rs1800795 (−174 C/G) showed a strong main effect of genotype (43 CC vs. 150 CG vs. 100 GG; x = 24, y = −10, z = −15; F(2,286) = 8.54, puncorrected = 0.0002; pAlphaSim-corrected = 0.002; cluster size k = 577) within the right hippocampus head. Homozygous carriers of the G-allele had significantly larger hippocampus gray matter volumes compared to heterozygous subjects. None of the other investigated SNPs showed a significant association with grey matter volume in whole-brain analyses. Conclusions/significance These findings suggest a possible neuroprotective role of the G-allele of the SNP rs1800795 on hippocampal volumes. Studies on the role of this SNP in psychiatric populations and especially in those with an affected hippocampus (e.g., by maltreatment, stress) are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard T Baune
- Discipline of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Adelaide, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia.
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Luo XG, Chen SD. The changing phenotype of microglia from homeostasis to disease. Transl Neurodegener 2012; 1:9. [PMID: 23210447 PMCID: PMC3514090 DOI: 10.1186/2047-9158-1-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2012] [Accepted: 04/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been nearly a century since the early description of microglia by Rio-Hortega; since then many more biological and pathological features of microglia have been recognized. Today, microglia are generally considered to be beneficial to homeostasis at the resting state through their abilities to survey the environment and phagocytose debris. However, when activated microglia assume diverse phenotypes ranging from fully inflamed, which involves the release of many pro-inflammatory cytokines, to alternatively activated, releasing anti-inflammatory cytokines or neurotrophins, the consequences to neurons can range from detrimental to supportive. Due to the different experimental sets and conditions, contradictory results have been obtained regarding the controversial question of whether microglia are “good” or “bad.” While it is well understood that the dual roles of activated microglia depend on specific situations, the underlying mechanisms have remained largely unclear, and the interpretation of certain findings related to diverse microglial phenotypes continues to be problematic. In this review we discuss the functions of microglia in neuronal survival and neurogenesis, the crosstalk between microglia and surrounding cells, and the potential factors that could influence the eventual manifestation of microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Guang Luo
- Department of Neurology & Institute of Neurology, Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200025, China.
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Abstract
The identification of stem/progenitor cells within the retinal neural environment has opened up the possibility of therapy via cellular replacement and/or reprogramming of resident cell populations. Within the neuro-retinal niche, following injury or in disease states (including inflammation and degeneration), cellular responses affect tissue homeostasis, reduce cell density, disrupt tissue architecture, and produce scar formation. Microglia (resident retinal immune cell tissue macrophage) are key to the maintenance of retinal homeostasis and are implicated in responses that may influence the control and behavior of retinal progenitors. Factors to consider in the generation of a transplantable cell resource with good migratory and integrative capacity include their yield, purity, and functional viability. Utilizing human postmortem retina, we have created a research platform to isolate, culture, and characterize adult retinal microglia as well as analyze their effect on retinal progenitors. Here, we describe techniques using magnetic labeled bead cell separation to isolate pure populations of retinal CD133(+) precursor cells and CD11b(+) microglia from primary adult retinal cell suspensions (RCSs), enabling flow cytometric cell phenotypic and qPCR genotypic analysis, as well as functional analysis by real-time ratiometric calcium imaging.
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Dick AD. Road to Fulfilment: Taming the Immune Response to Restore Vision. Ophthalmic Res 2012; 48:43-9. [DOI: 10.1159/000335982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2011] [Accepted: 11/30/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Lee YS, Amadi-Obi A, Yu CR, Egwuagu CE. Retinal cells suppress intraocular inflammation (uveitis) through production of interleukin-27 and interleukin-10. Immunology 2011; 132:492-502. [PMID: 21294722 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2010.03379.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuronal or photoreceptor deficit observed in uveitis and multiple sclerosis derives in part from inability to control inflammatory responses in neuroretina or brain. Recently, IL-27 was found to play a role in suppressing experimental autoimmune uveitis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, two animal models that share essential pathological features of human uveitis and multiple sclerosis, respectively. However, the mechanism by which interleukin-27 (IL-27) inhibits central nervous system (CNS) inflammation is not clear. In this study we have investigated mechanisms that mitigate or curtail intraocular inflammation (uveitis) and examined whether inhibitory effects of IL-27 are mediated locally by neuroretinal cells or by regulatory T cells. We show here that microglia cells in the neuroretina constitutively secrete IL-27 and its expression is up-regulated during uveitis. We further show that photoreceptors constitutively express IL-27 receptor and respond to IL-27 signalling by producing anti-inflammatory molecules, IL-10 and suppressor of cytokine signalling 1 (SOCS1) through signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) -dependent mechanisms. Moreover, STAT1-deficient mice produced reduced amounts of IL-27, IL-10 and SOCS1 and developed more severe uveitis. Surprisingly, IL-10-producing regulatory T cells had marginal roles in suppressing uveitis. These results suggest that suppression of intraocular inflammation might be mediated through endogenous production of IL-27 and IL-10 by retinal cells, whereas SOCS proteins induced by IL-27 during uveitis may function to protect the neuroretinal cells from the toxic effects of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Targeted delivery of IL-27 into immune privileged tissues of the CNS may therefore be beneficial in the treatment of CNS inflammatory diseases, such as uveitis and multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Sang Lee
- Molecular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunology, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1857, USA
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London A, Itskovich E, Benhar I, Kalchenko V, Mack M, Jung S, Schwartz M. Neuroprotection and progenitor cell renewal in the injured adult murine retina requires healing monocyte-derived macrophages. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 208:23-39. [PMID: 21220455 PMCID: PMC3023128 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20101202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
After retinal injury in mice, infiltrating monocyte-derived macrophages preserve retinal ganglion cells and promote retinal progenitor cell renewal. The death of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) is a hallmark of many retinal neuropathies. Neuroprotection, axonal regeneration, and cell renewal are vital for the integrity of the visual system after insult but are scarce in the adult mammalian retina. We hypothesized that monocyte-derived macrophages, known to promote healing in peripheral tissues, are required after an insult to the visual system, where their role has been largely overlooked. We found that after glutamate eye intoxication, monocyte-derived macrophages infiltrated the damaged retina of mice. Inhibition of this infiltration resulted in reduced survival of RGCs and diminished numbers of proliferating retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) in the ciliary body. Enhancement of the circulating monocyte pool led to increased RGC survival and RPC renewal. The infiltrating monocyte-derived macrophages skewed the milieu of the injured retina toward an antiinflammatory and neuroprotective one and down-regulated accumulation of other immune cells, thereby resolving local inflammation. The beneficial effect on RGC survival depended on expression of interleukin 10 and major histocompatibility complex class II molecules by monocyte-derived macrophages. Thus, we attribute to infiltrating monocyte-derived macrophages a novel role in neuroprotection and progenitor cell renewal in the injured retina, with far-reaching potential implications to retinal neuropathies and other neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anat London
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
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