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Rossignoli AE, Lamas JP, Mariño C, Martín H, Blanco J. Enzymatic Biotransformation of 13-desmethyl Spirolide C by Two Infaunal Mollusk Species: The Limpet Patella vulgata and the Cockle Cerastoderma edule. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14120848. [PMID: 36548745 PMCID: PMC9786092 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14120848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The presence of a 13-desmethyl Spirolide C isomer (Iso-13-desm SPX C) is very common in some infaunal mollusks in Galicia contaminated with this toxin. Its possible origin by biological transformation was investigated by incubating homogenates of the soft tissues of limpets and cockles spiked with 13-desmethyl Spirolide C (13-desm SPX C). The involvement of an enzymatic process was also tested using a raw and boiled cockle matrix. The enzymatic biotransformation of the parent compound into its isomer was observed in the two species studied, but with different velocities. The structural similarity between 13-desm SPX C and its isomer suggests that epimerization is the most likely chemical process involved. Detoxification of marine toxins in mollusks usually implies the enzymatic biotransformation of original compounds, such as hydroxylation, demethylation, or esterification; however, this is the first time that this kind of transformation between spirolides in mollusks has been demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Araceli E. Rossignoli
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Pedras de Corón s/n, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
- Correspondence: (A.E.R.); (J.B.); Tel.: +34-886-206344 (A.E.R.); +34-886-206340 (J.B.)
| | - Juan Pablo Lamas
- Intecmar (Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control do Medio Mariño de Galicia), Peirao de Vilaxoán s/n, Vilagarcía de Arousa, 36611 Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Carmen Mariño
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Pedras de Corón s/n, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Helena Martín
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Pedras de Corón s/n, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Juan Blanco
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Pedras de Corón s/n, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
- Correspondence: (A.E.R.); (J.B.); Tel.: +34-886-206344 (A.E.R.); +34-886-206340 (J.B.)
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2
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Alzheimer’s Disease and Toxins Produced by Marine Dinoflagellates: An Issue to Explore. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20040253. [PMID: 35447926 PMCID: PMC9029327 DOI: 10.3390/md20040253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Revised: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper examined the toxins naturally produced by marine dinoflagellates and their effects on increases in β-amyloid plaques along with tau protein hyperphosphorylation, both major drivers of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). This approach is in line with the demand for certain natural compounds, namely those produced by marine invertebrates that have the potential to be used in the treatment of AD. Current advances in AD treatment are discussed as well as the main factors that potentially affect the puzzling global AD pattern. This study focused on yessotoxins (YTXs), gymnodimine (GYM), spirolides (SPXs), and gambierol, all toxins that have been shown to reduce β-amyloid plaques and tau hyperphosphorylation, thus preventing the neuronal or synaptic dysfunction that ultimately causes the cell death associated with AD (or other neurodegenerative diseases). Another group of toxins described, okadaic acid (OA) and its derivatives, inhibit protein phosphatase activity, which facilitates the presence of phosphorylated tau proteins. A few studies have used OA to trigger AD in zebrafish, providing an opportunity to test in vivo the effectiveness of new drugs in treating or attenuating AD. Constraints on the production of marine toxins for use in these tests have been considered. Different lines of research are anticipated regarding the action of the two groups of toxins.
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3
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Otero P, Silva M. Emerging Marine Biotoxins in European Waters: Potential Risks and Analytical Challenges. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:199. [PMID: 35323498 PMCID: PMC8955394 DOI: 10.3390/md20030199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms pose a challenge regarding food safety due to their erratic nature and forming circumstances which are yet to be disclosed. The best strategy to protect human consumers is through legislation and monitoring strategies. Global warming and anthropological intervention aided the migration and establishment of emerging toxin producers into Europe's temperate waters, creating a new threat to human public health. The lack of information, standards, and reference materials delay effective solutions, being a matter of urgent resolution. In this work, the recent findings of the presence of emerging azaspiracids, spirolildes, pinnatoxins, gymnodimines, palitoxins, ciguatoxins, brevetoxins, and tetrodotoxins on European Coasts are addressed. The information concerning emerging toxins such as new matrices, locations, and toxicity assays is paramount to set the risk assessment guidelines, regulatory levels, and analytical methodology that would protect the consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paz Otero
- Department of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Marisa Silva
- MARE—Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal
- Department of Plant Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal
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4
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Long M, Krock B, Castrec J, Tillmann U. Unknown Extracellular and Bioactive Metabolites of the Genus Alexandrium: A Review of Overlooked Toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:905. [PMID: 34941742 PMCID: PMC8703713 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13120905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Various species of Alexandrium can produce a number of bioactive compounds, e.g., paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), spirolides, gymnodimines, goniodomins, and also uncharacterised bioactive extracellular compounds (BECs). The latter metabolites are released into the environment and affect a large range of organisms (from protists to fishes and mammalian cell lines). These compounds mediate allelochemical interactions, have anti-grazing and anti-parasitic activities, and have a potentially strong structuring role for the dynamic of Alexandrium blooms. In many studies evaluating the effects of Alexandrium on marine organisms, only the classical toxins were reported and the involvement of BECs was not considered. A lack of information on the presence/absence of BECs in experimental strains is likely the cause of contrasting results in the literature that render impossible a distinction between PSTs and BECs effects. We review the knowledge on Alexandrium BEC, (i.e., producing species, target cells, physiological effects, detection methods and molecular candidates). Overall, we highlight the need to identify the nature of Alexandrium BECs and urge further research on the chemical interactions according to their ecological importance in the planktonic chemical warfare and due to their potential collateral damage to a wide range of organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Long
- IFREMER, Centre de Brest, DYNECO Pelagos, 29280 Plouzané, France;
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany;
| | - Justine Castrec
- University Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, 29280 Plouzané, France;
- Station de Recherches Sous-Marines et Océanographiques (STARESO), Punta Revellata, BP33, 20260 Calvi, France
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany;
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O'Neill A, Morrell N, Turner AD, Maskrey BH. Method performance verification for the combined detection and quantitation of the marine neurotoxins cyclic imines and brevetoxin shellfish metabolites in mussels (Mytilus edulis) and oysters (Crassostrea gigas) by UHPLC-MS/MS. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2021; 1179:122864. [PMID: 34343946 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2021.122864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
A single laboratory method performance verification is reported for a rapid sensitive UHPLC-MS/MS method for the quantification of eight cyclic imine and two brevetoxin analogues in two bivalve shellfish matrices: mussel (Mytilus edulis) and Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas). Targeted cyclic imine analogues were from the spirolide, gymnodimine and pinnatoxin groups, namely 20-Me-SPX-C, 13-desMe-SPX-C, 13,19-didesMe-SPX-C, GYM-A, 12-Me-GYM, PnTx-E, PnTx-F and PnTx-G. Brevetoxin analogues consisted of the shellfish metabolites BTX-B5 and S-desoxy-BTX-B2. A rapid dispersive extraction was used as well as a fast six-minute UHPLC-MS/MS analysis. Mobile phase prepared using ammonium fluoride and methanol was optimised for both chromatographic separation and MS/MS response to suit all analytes. Method performance verification checks for both matrices were carried out. Matrix influence was acceptable for the majority of analogues with the MS response for all analogues being linear across an appropriate range of concentrations. In terms of limits of detection and quantitation the method was shown to be highly sensitive when compared with other methods. Acceptable recoveries were found with most analogues, with laboratory precision in terms of intra- and inter-batch precision deemed appropriate. The method was applied to environmental shellfish samples with results showing low concentrations of cyclic imines to be present. The method is fast and highly sensitive for the detection and quantification of all targeted analogues, in both mussel and oyster matrices. Consequently, the method has been shown to provide a useful tool for simultaneous monitoring for the presence or future emergence of these two toxin groups in shellfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison O'Neill
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Nadine Morrell
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin H Maskrey
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom.
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6
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Silva M, Seijas P, Otero P. Exploitation of Marine Molecules to Manage Alzheimer's Disease. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19070373. [PMID: 34203244 PMCID: PMC8307759 DOI: 10.3390/md19070373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases are sociosanitary challenges of today, as a result of increased average life expectancy, with Alzheimer’s disease being one of the most prevalent. This pathology is characterized by brain impairment linked to a neurodegenerative process culminating in cognitive decline and behavioral disorders. Though the etiology of this pathology is still unknown, it is usually associated with the appearance of senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. The most used prophylaxis relies on anticholinesterase drugs and NMDA receptor antagonists, whose main action is to relieve symptoms and not to treat or prevent the disease. Currently, the scientific community is gathering efforts to disclose new natural compounds effective against Alzheimer’s disease and other neurodegenerative pathologies. Marine natural products have been shown to be promising candidates, and some have been proven to exert a high neuroprotection effect, constituting a large reservoir of potential drugs and nutraceutical agents. The present article attempts to describe the processes of extraction and isolation of bioactive compounds derived from sponges, algae, marine bacteria, invertebrates, crustaceans, and tunicates as drug candidates against AD, with a focus on the success of pharmacological activity in the process of finding new and effective drug compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisa Silva
- MARE—Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal;
- Department of Plant Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Lisbon, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Paula Seijas
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain;
| | - Paz Otero
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain;
- Department of Production and Characterization of Novel Foods, Institute of Food Science Research (CIAL), Campus of International Excellence UAM+CSIC, 28049 Madrid, Spain
- Nutrition and Bromatology Group, CITACA, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo, Ourense Campus, 32004 Ourense, Spain
- Correspondence: or
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7
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Nieva JA, Krock B, Tillmann U, Tebben J, Zurhelle C, Bickmeyer U. Gymnodimine A and 13-desMethyl Spirolide C Alter Intracellular Calcium Levels via Acetylcholine Receptors. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12120751. [PMID: 33261221 PMCID: PMC7760841 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Gymnodimines and spirolides are cyclic imine phycotoxins and known antagonists of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). We investigated the effect of gymnodimine A (GYM A) and 13-desmethyl spirolide C (SPX 1) from Alexandrium ostenfeldii on rat pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells by monitoring intracellular calcium levels ([Ca]i). Using whole cells, the presence of 0.5 µM of GYM A or SPX 1 induced an increase in [Ca]i mediated by acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) and inhibited further activation of AChRs by acetylcholine (ACh). To differentiate the effects of GYM A or SPX 1, the toxins were applied to cells with pharmacologically isolated nAChRs and muscarinic AChRs (mAChRs) as mediated by the addition of atropine and tubocurarine, respectively. GYM A and SPX 1 activated nAChRs and inhibited the further activation of nAChRs by ACh, indicating that both toxins mimicked the activity of ACh. Regarding mAChRs, a differential response was observed between the two toxins. Only GYM A activated mAChRs, resulting in elevated [Ca]i, but both toxins prevented a subsequent activation by ACh. The absence of the triketal ring system in GYM A may provide the basis for a selective activation of mAChRs. GYM A and SPX 1 induced no changes in [Ca]i when nAChRs and mAChRs were inhibited simultaneously, indicating that both toxins target AChRs.
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8
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Ho TNT, Abraham N, Lewis RJ. Structure-Function of Neuronal Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Inhibitors Derived From Natural Toxins. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:609005. [PMID: 33324158 PMCID: PMC7723979 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.609005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are prototypical cation-selective, ligand-gated ion channels that mediate fast neurotransmission in the central and peripheral nervous systems. nAChRs are involved in a range of physiological and pathological functions and hence are important therapeutic targets. Their subunit homology and diverse pentameric assembly contribute to their challenging pharmacology and limit their drug development potential. Toxins produced by an extensive range of algae, plants and animals target nAChRs, with many proving pivotal in elucidating receptor pharmacology and biochemistry, as well as providing templates for structure-based drug design. The crystal structures of these toxins with diverse chemical profiles in complex with acetylcholine binding protein (AChBP), a soluble homolog of the extracellular ligand-binding domain of the nAChRs and more recently the extracellular domain of human α9 nAChRs, have been reported. These studies have shed light on the diverse molecular mechanisms of ligand-binding at neuronal nAChR subtypes and uncovered critical insights useful for rational drug design. This review provides a comprehensive overview and perspectives obtained from structure and function studies of diverse plant and animal toxins and their associated inhibitory mechanisms at neuronal nAChRs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Richard J. Lewis
- Centre for Pain Research, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
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9
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Mass Spectrometry-Based Characterization of New Spirolides from Alexandrium ostenfeldii (Dinophyceae). Mar Drugs 2020; 18:md18100505. [PMID: 33023163 PMCID: PMC7599687 DOI: 10.3390/md18100505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Spirolides belong to a group of marine phycotoxins produced by the marine planktonic dinophyte Alexandrium ostenfeldii. Composed of an imine moiety and a spiroketal ring system within a macrocylcle, spirolides are highly diverse with toxin types that vary among different strains. This study aims to characterize the spirolides from clonal A. ostenfeldii strains collected from The Netherlands, Greenland and Norway by mass spectral techniques. The structural characterization of unknown spirolides as inferred from high-resolution mass spectrometry (HR-MS) and collision induced dissociation (CID) spectra revealed the presence of nine novel spirolides that have the pseudo-molecular ions m/z 670 (1), m/z 666 (2), m/z 696 (3), m/z 678 (4), m/z 694 (5), m/z 708 (6), m/z 720 (7), m/z 722 (8) and m/z 738 (9). Of the nine new spirolides proposed in this study, compound 1 was suggested to have a truncated side chain in lieu of the commonly observed butenolide ring in spirolides. Moreover, there is indication that compound 5 might belong to new spirolide subclasses with a trispiroketal ring configuration having a 6:5:6 trispiroketal ring system. On the other hand, the other compounds were proposed as C- and G-type SPX, respectively. Compound 7 is proposed as the first G-type SPX with a 10-hydroxylation as usually observed in C-type SPX. This mass spectrometry-based study thus demonstrates that structural variability of spirolides is larger than previously known and does not only include the presence or absence of certain functional groups but also involves the triketal ring system.
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Otero P, Miguéns N, Rodríguez I, Botana LM. LC-MS/MS Analysis of the Emerging Toxin Pinnatoxin-G and High Levels of Esterified OA Group Toxins in Galician Commercial Mussels. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11070394. [PMID: 31284457 PMCID: PMC6669594 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11070394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The occurrence of marine harmful algae is increasing worldwide and, therefore, the accumulation of lipophilic marine toxins from harmful phytoplankton represents a food safety threat in the shellfish industry. Galicia, which is a commercially important EU producer of edible bivalve mollusk have been subjected to recurring cases of mussel farm closures, in the last decades. This work aimed to study the toxic profile of commercial mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) in order to establish a potential risk when ingested. For this, a total of 41 samples of mussels farmed in 3 Rías (Ares-Sada, Arousa, and Pontevedra) and purchased in 5 local markets were analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS). Chromatograms showed the presence of okadaic acid (OA), dinophysistoxin-2 (DTX-2), pectenotoxin-2 (PTX-2), azaspiracid-2 (AZA-2), and the emerging toxins 13-desmethyl spirolide C (SPX-13), and pinnatoxin-G (PnTX-G). Quantification of each toxin was determined using their own standard calibration in the range 0.1%–50 ng/mL (R2 > 0.99) and by considering the toxin recovery (62–110%) and the matrix correction (33–211%). Data showed that OA and DTX-2 (especially in the form of esters) are the main risk in Galician mollusks, which was detected in 38 samples (93%) and 3 of them exceeded the legal limit (160 µg/kg), followed by SPX-13 that was detected in 19 samples (46%) in quantities of up to 28.9 µg/kg. Analysis from PTX-2, AZA-2, and PnTX-G showed smaller amounts. Fifteen samples (37%) were positive for PTX-2 (0.7–2.9 µg/kg), 12 samples (29%) for AZA-2 (0.1–1.8 µg/kg), and PnTX-G was detected in 5 mussel samples (12%) (0.4 µg/kg–0.9 µg/kg). This is the first time Galician mollusk was contaminated with PnTX-G. Despite results indicating that this toxin was not a potential risk through the mussel ingestion, it should be considered in the shellfish safety monitoring programs through the LC–MS/MS methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paz Otero
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Natalia Miguéns
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Inés Rodríguez
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
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11
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Alarcan J, Dubreil E, Huguet A, Aráoz R, Brée F, Bouaita B, Hurtaud-Pessel D, Braeuning A, Hessel-Pras S, Lampen A, Le Hégarat L, Fessard V. Metabolism of the lipophilic phycotoxin 13-Desmethylspirolide C using human and rat in vitro liver models. Toxicol Lett 2019; 307:17-25. [PMID: 30825503 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2019.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Revised: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 02/23/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
13-Desmethylspirolide C (13-SPX-C) is a phycotoxin produced by dinoflagellates which can accumulate in shellfish. 13-SPX-C induces neurotoxic effects in rodents through blockade of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. As no human intoxication has been to date attributed to the consumption of 13-SPX-C-contaminated seafood, this toxin is not regulated according to the Codex Alimentarius. Nevertheless, shellfish consumers can be exposed to 13-SPX-C via shellfish consumption. In order to follow the fate of the toxin after ingestion and to verify whether metabolic detoxification could explain the lack of human intoxications, we assessed the metabolism of 13-SPX-C using several in vitro liver systems. First, both phase I and II reactions occurring with rat and human liver S9 fractions were screened. Our results indicated that 13-SPX-C was almost completely metabolized with both rat and human liver S9. Using a receptor binding assay towards nicotinic acetylcholine receptors we demonstrated that the resulting metabolites showed less affinity towards nicotinic acetylcholine receptors than 13-SPX-C. Finally, we showed that 13-SPX-C induced a pronounced increase of gene expression of the drug-metabolizing enzyme cytochrome P450 (CYP) CYP1A2. The role of this CYP in 13-SPX-C metabolism was clarified using an innovative in vitro tool, CYP1A2-Silensomes™. In summary, this study highlights that liver first-pass metabolism can contribute to the detoxification of 13-SPX-C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jimmy Alarcan
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, ANSES, Fougères, 35306, France; BfR, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Food Safety, Max Dohrn Strasse 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Estelle Dubreil
- Analysis of Residues and Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, ANSES, Fougères, 35306, France.
| | - Antoine Huguet
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, ANSES, Fougères, 35306, France.
| | - Romulo Aráoz
- CNRS, Institut de Neurosciences (Neuro-PSI), UMR9197, 91191, Gif sur Yvette, France; CEA/DRF/JOLIOT/SIMOPRO, Université Paris-Saclay, 91191, Gif sur Yvette, France.
| | - Françoise Brée
- Eurosafe, Parc d'Affaires La Bretêche, 35760, Saint Grégoire, France.
| | - Belkacem Bouaita
- Biopredic International, Parc d'Affaires La Bretêche, 35760, Saint Grégoire, France.
| | - Dominique Hurtaud-Pessel
- Analysis of Residues and Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, ANSES, Fougères, 35306, France.
| | - Albert Braeuning
- BfR, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Food Safety, Max Dohrn Strasse 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Stefanie Hessel-Pras
- BfR, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Food Safety, Max Dohrn Strasse 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Alfonso Lampen
- BfR, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Food Safety, Max Dohrn Strasse 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Ludovic Le Hégarat
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, ANSES, Fougères, 35306, France.
| | - Valérie Fessard
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, ANSES, Fougères, 35306, France.
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12
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Boente-Juncal A, Méndez AG, Vale C, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. In Vitro Effects of Chronic Spirolide Treatment on Human Neuronal Stem Cell Differentiation and Cholinergic System Development. ACS Chem Neurosci 2018. [PMID: 29518322 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Spirolides (SPX) are marine toxins, produced by dinoflagellates that act as potent antagonists of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. These compounds are not toxic for humans, and since there are no reports of human intoxications caused by this group of toxins they are not yet currently regulated in Europe. Currently 13-desmethyl spirolide C, 13,19-didesmethyl spirolide C, and 20-methyl spirolide G are commercially available as reference materials. Previous work in our laboratory has demonstrated that after 4 days of treatment of primary mice cortical neurons with 13-desmethyl spirolide C, the compound ameliorated the glutamate induced toxicity and increased acetylcholine levels and the expression of the acetylcholine synthesizing enzyme being useful both in vitro and in vivo to decrease the brain pathology associated with Alzheimer's disease. In this work, we aimed to extend the study of the neuronal effects of spirolides in human neuronal cells. To this end, human neuronal progenitor cells CTX0E16 were employed to evaluate the in vitro effect of spirolides on neuronal development. The results presented here indicate that long-term exposure (30 days) of human neuronal stem cells to SPX compounds, at concentrations up to 50 nM, ameliorated the MPP+-induced neurotoxicity and increased the expression of neuritic and dendritic markers, the levels of the choline acetyltransferase enzyme and the protein levels of the α7 subunit of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. These effects are presumably due to the previously described interaction of these compounds with nicotinic receptors containing both α7 and α4 subunits. All together, these data emphasize the idea that SPX could be attractive lead molecules against neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Boente-Juncal
- Departamento de Farmacología, Farmacia y Tecnología Farmacéutica, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27001 Lugo, Spain
| | - Aida G. Méndez
- Departamento de Farmacología, Farmacia y Tecnología Farmacéutica, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27001 Lugo, Spain
| | - Carmen Vale
- Departamento de Farmacología, Farmacia y Tecnología Farmacéutica, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27001 Lugo, Spain
| | - Mercedes R. Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27001 Lugo, Spain
| | - Luis M. Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Farmacia y Tecnología Farmacéutica, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27001 Lugo, Spain
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13
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Couesnon A, Aráoz R, Iorga BI, Benoit E, Reynaud M, Servent D, Molgó J. The Dinoflagellate Toxin 20-Methyl Spirolide-G Potently Blocks Skeletal Muscle and Neuronal Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:E249. [PMID: 27563924 PMCID: PMC5037475 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8090249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2016] [Revised: 08/06/2016] [Accepted: 08/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The cyclic imine toxin 20-methyl spirolide G (20-meSPX-G), produced by the toxigenic dinoflagellate Alexandrium ostenfeldii/Alexandrium peruvianum, has been previously reported to contaminate shellfish in various European coastal locations, as revealed by mouse toxicity bioassay. The aim of the present study was to determine its toxicological profile and its molecular target selectivity. 20-meSPX-G blocked nerve-evoked isometric contractions in isolated mouse neuromuscular preparations, while it had no action on contractions elicited by direct electrical stimulation, and reduced reversibly nerve-evoked compound muscle action potential amplitudes in anesthetized mice. Voltage-clamp recordings in Xenopus oocytes revealed that 20-meSPX-G potently inhibited currents evoked by ACh on Torpedo muscle-type and human α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR), whereas lower potency was observed in human α4β2 nAChR. Competition-binding assays showed that 20-meSPX-G fully displaced [³H]epibatidine binding to HEK-293 cells expressing the human α3β2 (Ki = 0.040 nM), whereas a 90-fold lower affinity was detected in human α4β2 nAChR. The spirolide displaced [(125)I]α-bungarotoxin binding to Torpedo membranes (Ki = 0.028 nM) and in HEK-293 cells expressing chick chimeric α7-5HT₃ nAChR (Ki = 0.11 nM). In conclusion, this is the first study to demonstrate that 20-meSPX-G is a potent antagonist of nAChRs, and its subtype selectivity is discussed on the basis of molecular docking models.
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MESH Headings
- Action Potentials
- Animals
- Binding Sites
- Binding, Competitive
- Bridged Bicyclo Compounds, Heterocyclic/metabolism
- Chickens
- Cholinergic Fibers/drug effects
- Cholinergic Fibers/metabolism
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Electric Stimulation
- Female
- HEK293 Cells
- Humans
- In Vitro Techniques
- Isometric Contraction/drug effects
- Mice
- Molecular Docking Simulation
- Muscle, Skeletal/drug effects
- Muscle, Skeletal/innervation
- Muscle, Skeletal/metabolism
- Neuromuscular Junction/drug effects
- Neuromuscular Junction/metabolism
- Nicotinic Antagonists/chemistry
- Nicotinic Antagonists/metabolism
- Nicotinic Antagonists/toxicity
- Protein Binding
- Protein Conformation
- Pyridines/metabolism
- Receptors, Nicotinic/chemistry
- Receptors, Nicotinic/drug effects
- Receptors, Nicotinic/genetics
- Receptors, Nicotinic/metabolism
- Spiro Compounds/chemistry
- Spiro Compounds/metabolism
- Spiro Compounds/toxicity
- Structure-Activity Relationship
- Torpedo
- Transfection
- Xenopus laevis
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie Couesnon
- Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay, UMR 9197 CNRS/Université Paris-Sud, F-91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
| | - Rómulo Aráoz
- Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay, UMR 9197 CNRS/Université Paris-Sud, F-91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
- Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives (CEA), Institut de Biologie et Technologies de Saclay (IBITECS), Université Paris-Saclay, Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines, bâtiment 152, F-91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
| | - Bogdan I Iorga
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, UPR 2301, Labex LERMIT, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
| | - Evelyne Benoit
- Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay, UMR 9197 CNRS/Université Paris-Sud, F-91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
- Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives (CEA), Institut de Biologie et Technologies de Saclay (IBITECS), Université Paris-Saclay, Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines, bâtiment 152, F-91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
| | - Morgane Reynaud
- Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives (CEA), Institut de Biologie et Technologies de Saclay (IBITECS), Université Paris-Saclay, Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines, bâtiment 152, F-91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
| | - Denis Servent
- Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives (CEA), Institut de Biologie et Technologies de Saclay (IBITECS), Université Paris-Saclay, Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines, bâtiment 152, F-91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
| | - Jordi Molgó
- Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay, UMR 9197 CNRS/Université Paris-Sud, F-91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
- Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives (CEA), Institut de Biologie et Technologies de Saclay (IBITECS), Université Paris-Saclay, Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines, bâtiment 152, F-91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
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14
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How Safe Is Safe for Marine Toxins Monitoring? Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8070208. [PMID: 27399774 PMCID: PMC4963841 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8070208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2016] [Revised: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 07/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Current regulation for marine toxins requires a monitoring method based on mass spectrometric analysis. This method is pre-targeted, hence after searching for pre-assigned masses, it identifies those compounds that were pre-defined with available calibrants. Therefore, the scope for detecting novel toxins which are not included in the monitoring protocol are very limited. In addition to this, there is a poor comprehension of the toxicity of some marine toxin groups. Also, the validity of the current approach is questioned by the lack of sufficient calibrants, and by the insufficient coverage by current legislation of the toxins reported to be present in shellfish. As an example, tetrodotoxin, palytoxin analogs, or cyclic imines are mentioned as indicators of gaps in the system that require a solid comprehension to assure consumers are protected.
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15
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Davidson K, Baker C, Higgins C, Higman W, Swan S, Veszelovszki A, Turner AD. Potential Threats Posed by New or Emerging Marine Biotoxins in UK Waters and Examination of Detection Methodologies Used for Their Control: Cyclic Imines. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:7087-112. [PMID: 26703628 PMCID: PMC4699231 DOI: 10.3390/md13127057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2015] [Revised: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyclic imines (CIs) are a group of phytoplankton produced toxins related to shellfish food products, some of which are already present in UK and European waters. Their risk to shellfish consumers is poorly understood, as while no human intoxication has been definitively related to this group, their fast acting toxicity following intraperitoneal injection in mice has led to concern over their human health implications. A request was therefore made by UK food safety authorities to examine these toxins more closely to aid possible management strategies. Of the CI producers only the spirolide producer Alexandrium ostenfeldii is known to exist in UK waters at present but trends in climate change may lead to increased risk from other organisms/CI toxins currently present elsewhere in Europe and in similar environments worldwide. This paper reviews evidence concerning the prevalence of CIs and CI-producing phytoplankton, together with testing methodologies. Chemical, biological and biomolecular methods are reviewed, including recommendations for further work to enable effective testing. Although the focus here is on the UK, from a strategic standpoint many of the topics discussed will also be of interest in other parts of the world since new and emerging marine biotoxins are of global concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith Davidson
- Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Oban PA37 1QA, Scotland, UK.
| | - Clothilde Baker
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Cowan Higgins
- Agri-food and Biosciences Institute (AFBI), Newforge Lane, Belfast BT9 5PX, Northern Ireland, UK.
| | - Wendy Higman
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Sarah Swan
- Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Oban PA37 1QA, Scotland, UK.
| | - Andrea Veszelovszki
- Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Oban PA37 1QA, Scotland, UK.
| | - Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
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16
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Stivala CE, Benoit E, Aráoz R, Servent D, Novikov A, Molgó J, Zakarian A. Synthesis and biology of cyclic imine toxins, an emerging class of potent, globally distributed marine toxins. Nat Prod Rep 2015; 32:411-35. [PMID: 25338021 DOI: 10.1039/c4np00089g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
From a small group of exotic compounds isolated only two decades ago, Cyclic Imine (CI) toxins have become a major class of marine toxins with global distribution. Their distinct chemical structure, biological mechanism of action, and intricate chemistry ensures that CI toxins will continue to be the subject of fascinating fundamental studies in the broad fields of chemistry, chemical biology, and toxicology. The worldwide occurrence of potent CI toxins in marine environments, their accumulation in shellfish, and chemical stability are important considerations in assessing risk factors for human health. This review article aims to provide an account of chemistry, biology, and toxicology of CI toxins from their discovery to the present day.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig E Stivala
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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17
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Aráoz R, Ouanounou G, Iorga BI, Goudet A, Alili D, Amar M, Benoit E, Molgó J, Servent D. The Neurotoxic Effect of 13,19-Didesmethyl and 13-Desmethyl Spirolide C Phycotoxins Is Mainly Mediated by Nicotinic Rather Than Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptors. Toxicol Sci 2015; 147:156-67. [DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfv119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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18
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Lassudrie M, Soudant P, Richard G, Henry N, Medhioub W, da Silva PM, Donval A, Bunel M, Le Goïc N, Lambert C, de Montaudouin X, Fabioux C, Hégaret H. Physiological responses of Manila clams Venerupis (=Ruditapes) philippinarum with varying parasite Perkinsus olseni burden to toxic algal Alexandrium ostenfeldii exposure. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2014; 154:27-38. [PMID: 24858898 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2014.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2013] [Revised: 04/22/2014] [Accepted: 05/05/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Manila clam stock from Arcachon Bay, France, is declining, as is commercial harvest. To understand the role of environmental biotic interactions in this decrease, effects of a toxic dinoflagellate, Alexandrium ostenfeldii, which blooms regularly in Arcachon bay, and the interaction with perkinsosis on clam physiology were investigated. Manila clams from Arcachon Bay, with variable natural levels of perkinsosis, were exposed for seven days to a mix of the nutritious microalga T-Iso and the toxic dinoflagellate A. ostenfeldii, a producer of spirolides, followed by seven days of depuration fed only T-Iso. Following sacrifice and quantification of protozoan parasite Perkinsus olseni burden, clams were divided into two groups according to intensity of the infection ("Light-Moderate" and "Moderate-Heavy"). Hemocyte and plasma responses, digestive enzyme activities, antioxidant enzyme activities in gills, and histopathological responses were analyzed. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in hemocytes and catalase (CAT) activity in gills increased with P. olseni intensity of infection in control clams fed T-Iso, but did not vary among A. ostenfeldii-exposed clams. Exposure to A. ostenfeldii caused tissue alterations associated with an inflammatory response and modifications in hemocyte morphology. In the gills, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity decreased, and an increase in brown cell occurrence was seen, suggesting oxidative stress. Observations of hemocytes and brown cells in tissues during exposure and depuration suggest involvement of both cell types in detoxication processes. Results suggest that exposure to A. ostenfeldii disrupted the pro-/anti-oxidant response of clams to heavy P. olseni intensity. In addition, depressed mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) in hemocytes of clams exposed to A. ostenfeldii suggests that mitochondrial functions are regulated to maintain homeostasis of digestive enzyme activity and condition index.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malwenn Lassudrie
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (LEMAR), Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer (IUEM), UBO/CNRS, rue Dumont d'Urville, technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Philippe Soudant
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (LEMAR), Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer (IUEM), UBO/CNRS, rue Dumont d'Urville, technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Gaëlle Richard
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (LEMAR), Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer (IUEM), UBO/CNRS, rue Dumont d'Urville, technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Nicolas Henry
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (LEMAR), Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer (IUEM), UBO/CNRS, rue Dumont d'Urville, technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Walid Medhioub
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (LEMAR), Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer (IUEM), UBO/CNRS, rue Dumont d'Urville, technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France; Laboratoire Phycotoxines, Ifremer, Institut Français de Recherche pour l'Exploitation de la Mer, BP 21105, 44311 Nantes CEDEX3, France; Laboratoire Milieu Marin, INSTM, Institut National des Sciences et Technologies de la Mer, 28 rue du 2 mars 1934, 2025 Salammbô, Tunisie
| | - Patricia Mirella da Silva
- Laboratory of Immunology and Pathology of Invertebrates, Department of Molecular Biology, Exact and Natural Sciences Center, Federal University of Paraíba-Campus I, 58051-900 João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
| | - Anne Donval
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (LEMAR), Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer (IUEM), UBO/CNRS, rue Dumont d'Urville, technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Mélanie Bunel
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (LEMAR), Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer (IUEM), UBO/CNRS, rue Dumont d'Urville, technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Nelly Le Goïc
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (LEMAR), Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer (IUEM), UBO/CNRS, rue Dumont d'Urville, technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Christophe Lambert
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (LEMAR), Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer (IUEM), UBO/CNRS, rue Dumont d'Urville, technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Xavier de Montaudouin
- Université de Bordeaux UMR 5805 EPOC, station marine d'Arcachon, 2 rue du Pr Jolyet, 33120 Arcachon, France
| | - Caroline Fabioux
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (LEMAR), Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer (IUEM), UBO/CNRS, rue Dumont d'Urville, technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Hélène Hégaret
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (LEMAR), Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer (IUEM), UBO/CNRS, rue Dumont d'Urville, technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France.
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19
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Labarre-Lainé J, Periñan I, Desvergnes V, Landais Y. Synthesis of the C10-C24-bis-spiroacetal core of 13-desmethyl spirolide C based on a sila-Stetter-acetalization process. Chemistry 2014; 20:9336-41. [PMID: 24925107 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201402894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Synthesis of the bis-spiroacetal core of 13-desmethyl spirolide C has been completed based on a sila-Stetter-acetalization process. The acylsilane and enone partners in the Stetter reaction were prepared in 7 and 11 steps, respectively, from (S) and (R)-aspartic acid. The quaternary center at C19 in the enone moiety was controlled by relying on the Seebach's chiral self-reproduction method using an enantiopure (S)-lactic acid based dioxolanone. The final acid-catalyzed spiroacetalization provided the desired spiroacetal as a mixture of diastereoisomers in 13 linear steps. Whatever the conditions used, the non-natural transoid isomer was formed preferentially. However, both cisoid and transoid isomers were isolated pure and their structure assigned unambiguously through NMR spectroscopic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Labarre-Lainé
- University of Bordeaux, 351, Cours de la libération, 33405 Talence Cedex (France), Fax: (+33) 5-40-00-62-86
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20
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High-throughput receptor-based assay for the detection of spirolides by chemiluminescence. Toxicon 2013; 75:35-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2013] [Revised: 06/13/2013] [Accepted: 06/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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21
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Analysis of the action of gymnodimine-A and 13-desmethyl spirolide C on the mouse neuromuscular system in vivo. Toxicon 2013; 75:27-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.08.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2013] [Revised: 08/02/2013] [Accepted: 08/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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22
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Munday R, Reeve J. Risk assessment of shellfish toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2013; 5:2109-37. [PMID: 24226039 PMCID: PMC3847717 DOI: 10.3390/toxins5112109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2013] [Revised: 10/23/2013] [Accepted: 10/30/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Complex secondary metabolites, some of which are highly toxic to mammals, are produced by many marine organisms. Some of these organisms are important food sources for marine animals and, when ingested, the toxins that they produce may be absorbed and stored in the tissues of the predators, which then become toxic to animals higher up the food chain. This is a particular problem with shellfish, and many cases of poisoning are reported in shellfish consumers each year. At present, there is no practicable means of preventing uptake of the toxins by shellfish or of removing them after harvesting. Assessment of the risk posed by such toxins is therefore required in order to determine levels that are unlikely to cause adverse effects in humans and to permit the establishment of regulatory limits in shellfish for human consumption. In the present review, the basic principles of risk assessment are described, and the progress made toward robust risk assessment of seafood toxins is discussed. While good progress has been made, it is clear that further toxicological studies are required before this goal is fully achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rex Munday
- AgResearch Ltd, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +64-7-838-5138; Fax: +64-7-838-5012
| | - John Reeve
- Ministry of Primary Industries, PO Box 2526, Wellington, New Zealand; E-Mail:
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23
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Abstract
Although there has been much progress with regard to marine toxins from dinoflagellates, much remains to be done. Because these compounds are a seafood consumer risk, the demands cover from legislative to scientific aspects. Legislation is required for all new toxins that appear in the coasts. On the other hand, it is important to understand the toxicity of the different analogues, in terms of both the relative toxicity to reference compounds and the mechanism of toxicity itself, both acute and long-term. For this, a uniform approach to do toxic studies is necessary, especially acute toxicity. The need for pure standards in sufficient supply and the understanding of the mode of action of some of the compounds (such as yessotoxin or azaspiracids) will help the development of another important field, the use of marine toxins as drug leads, and the chemistry around them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis M Botana
- Department Farmacología, Fac. Veterinaria-USC, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
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24
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Munday R, Quilliam MA, LeBlanc P, Lewis N, Gallant P, Sperker SA, Ewart HS, MacKinnon SL. Investigations into the toxicology of spirolides, a group of marine phycotoxins. Toxins (Basel) 2011; 4:1-14. [PMID: 22347619 PMCID: PMC3277094 DOI: 10.3390/toxins4010001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2011] [Revised: 12/13/2011] [Accepted: 12/23/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Spirolides are marine phycotoxins produced by the dinoflagellates Alexandrium ostenfeldii and A. peruvianum. Here we report that 13-desmethyl spirolide C shows little cytotoxicity when incubated with various cultured mammalian cell lines. When administered to mice by intraperitoneal (ip) injection, however, this substance was highly toxic, with an LD50 value of 6.9 µg/kg body weight (BW), showing that such in vitro cytotoxicity tests are not appropriate for predicting the in vivo toxicity of this toxin. Four other spirolides, A, B, C, and 20-methyl spirolide G, were also toxic to mice by ip injection, with LD50 values of 37, 99, 8.0 and 8.0 µg/kg BW respectively. However, the acute toxicities of these compounds were lower by at least an order of magnitude when administration by gavage and their toxic effects were further diminished when administered with food. These results have implications for future studies of the toxicology of these marine toxins and the risk assessment of human exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rex Munday
- AgResearch, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag, Hamilton 3123, New Zealand;
| | - Michael A. Quilliam
- National Research Council of Canada, Institute for Marine Biosciences, 1411 Oxford Street Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada; (M.A.Q.); (P.L.); (N.L.); (P.G.); (S.A.S.); (H.S.E.)
| | - Patricia LeBlanc
- National Research Council of Canada, Institute for Marine Biosciences, 1411 Oxford Street Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada; (M.A.Q.); (P.L.); (N.L.); (P.G.); (S.A.S.); (H.S.E.)
| | - Nancy Lewis
- National Research Council of Canada, Institute for Marine Biosciences, 1411 Oxford Street Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada; (M.A.Q.); (P.L.); (N.L.); (P.G.); (S.A.S.); (H.S.E.)
| | - Pamela Gallant
- National Research Council of Canada, Institute for Marine Biosciences, 1411 Oxford Street Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada; (M.A.Q.); (P.L.); (N.L.); (P.G.); (S.A.S.); (H.S.E.)
| | - Sandra A. Sperker
- National Research Council of Canada, Institute for Marine Biosciences, 1411 Oxford Street Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada; (M.A.Q.); (P.L.); (N.L.); (P.G.); (S.A.S.); (H.S.E.)
| | - H. Stephen Ewart
- National Research Council of Canada, Institute for Marine Biosciences, 1411 Oxford Street Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada; (M.A.Q.); (P.L.); (N.L.); (P.G.); (S.A.S.); (H.S.E.)
| | - Shawna L. MacKinnon
- National Research Council of Canada, Institute for Marine Biosciences, 1411 Oxford Street Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada; (M.A.Q.); (P.L.); (N.L.); (P.G.); (S.A.S.); (H.S.E.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; ; Tel.: +1-902-426-6351; Fax: +1-902-426-6351
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