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Zhong H, Wu M, Sonne C, Lam SS, Kwong RW, Jiang Y, Zhao X, Sun X, Zhang X, Li C, Li Y, Qu G, Jiang F, Shi H, Ji R, Ren H. The hidden risk of microplastic-associated pathogens in aquatic environments. ECO-ENVIRONMENT & HEALTH 2023; 2:142-151. [PMID: 38074987 PMCID: PMC10702891 DOI: 10.1016/j.eehl.2023.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2024]
Abstract
Increasing studies of plastisphere have raised public concern about microplastics (MPs) as vectors for pathogens, especially in aquatic environments. However, the extent to which pathogens affect human health through MPs remains unclear, as controversies persist regarding the distinct pathogen colonization on MPs as well as the transmission routes and infection probability of MP-associated pathogens from water to humans. In this review, we critically discuss whether and how pathogens approach humans via MPs, shedding light on the potential health risks involved. Drawing on cutting-edge multidisciplinary research, we show that some MPs may facilitate the growth and long-range transmission of specific pathogens in aquatic environments, ultimately increasing the risk of infection in humans. We identify MP- and pathogen-rich settings, such as wastewater treatment plants, aquaculture farms, and swimming pools, as possible sites for human exposure to MP-associated pathogens. This review emphasizes the need for further research and targeted interventions to better understand and mitigate the potential health risks associated with MP-mediated pathogen transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Zhong
- School of Environment, Nanjing University, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Mengjie Wu
- School of Environment, Nanjing University, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Christian Sonne
- Department of Bioscience, Arctic Research Centre, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Su Shiung Lam
- Higher Institution Centre of Excellence (HICoE), Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries (AKUATROP), Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia
- University Centre for Research and Development, Department of Chemistry, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Mohali, Punjab, India
| | - Raymond W.M. Kwong
- Department of Biology, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3, Canada
| | - Yuelu Jiang
- Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Xiaoli Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China
| | - Xuemei Sun
- Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Xuxiang Zhang
- School of Environment, Nanjing University, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Chengjun Li
- Institute of Environmental Research at Greater Bay Area, Key Laboratory for Water Quality and Conservation of the Pearl River Delta, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yuanyuan Li
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health (HUST), Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubation), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Guangbo Qu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Feng Jiang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Huahong Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Rong Ji
- School of Environment, Nanjing University, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Hongqiang Ren
- School of Environment, Nanjing University, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Nanjing 210023, China
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Fernandes LS, Galvão A, Santos R, Monteiro S. Impact of water reuse on agricultural practices and human health. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 216:114762. [PMID: 36356670 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.114762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Climate change is altering the habits of the population. Extensive drought periods and overuse of potable water led to significant water shortages in many different places. Therefore, new water sources are necessary for usage in applications where the microbiological and chemical water quality demands are less stringent, as for agriculture. In this study, we planted, germinated, and grew vegetables/fruits (cherry tomato, lettuce, and carrot) using three types of potential waters for irrigation: secondary-treated wastewater, chlorine-treated wastewater, and green wall-treated greywater, to observe potential health risks of foodstuff consumption. In this study the waters and crops were analyzed for three taxonomic groups: bacteria, enteric viruses, and protozoa. Enteric viruses, human Norovirus I (hNoVGI) and Enterovirus (EntV), were detected in tomato and carrots irrigated with secondary-treated and chlorine-treated wastewater, in concentrations as high as 2.63 log genome units (GU)/g. On the other hand, Aichi viruses were detected in lettuce. Bacteria and protozoa remained undetected in all fresh produce although being detected in both types of wastewaters. Fresh produce irrigated with green wall-treated greywater were free from the chosen pathogens. This suggests that green wall-treated greywater may be a valuable option for crop irrigation, directly impacting the cities of the future vision, and the circular and green economy concepts. On the other hand, this work demonstrates that further advancement is still necessary to improve reclaimed water to the point where it no longer constitutes risk of foodborne diseases and to human health.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ana Galvão
- Department of Civil Engineering - SHRHA, Técnico Lisboa, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Santos
- Laboratorio Analises, Técnico Lisboa, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Sílvia Monteiro
- Laboratorio Analises, Técnico Lisboa, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal.
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Efficient capturing and sensitive detection of hepatitis A virus from solid foods (green onion, strawberry, and mussel) using protamine-coated iron oxide (Fe 3O 4) magnetic nanoparticles and real-time RT-PCR. Food Microbiol 2021; 102:103921. [PMID: 34809947 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2021.103921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2021] [Revised: 09/11/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis A virus (HAV) continues to be a public health concern and has caused large foodborne outbreaks and economic losses worldwide. Rapid detection of HAV in foods can help to confirm the source of outbreaks in a timely manner and prevent more people getting infected. In order to efficiently detect HAV at low levels of contamination in foods, rapid and easy-to-use techniques are required to separate and concentrate viral particles to a small volume. In the current study, HAV particles were eluted from green onion, strawberry, and mussel using glycine buffer (0.05 M glycine, 0.14 M NaCl, 0.2% (v/v) Tween 20, pH 9.0) and suspended viral particles were captured using protamine-coated magnetic nanoparticles (PMNPs). This process caused a selective concentration of the viral particles, which could be followed by quantitative real-time RT-PCR analysis. Results showed that pH, NaCl concentration, and PMNP amount used for the capturing had significant effects on the recovery efficiency of HAV (P < 0.05). The highest recovery rate was obtained at pH 9.0, 0.14 M NaCl, and 50 μL of PMNPs. The optimized PMNP capturing method enabled the rapid capture and concentration of HAV. A sensitive real-time RT-PCR test was developed with detection limits of 8.3 × 100 PFU/15 g, 8.3 × 101 PFU/50 g, and 8.3 × 100 PFU/5 g of HAV in green onion, strawberry, and mussel, respectively. In conclusion, the PMNP method is rapid and convenient in capturing HAV from complex solid food samples and can generate concentrated HAV sample solutions suitable for high-sensitivity real time RT-PCR detection of the virus.
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Physicochemical Parameters Affecting Norovirus Adhesion to Ready-To-Eat Foods. Appl Environ Microbiol 2021; 87:e0139621. [PMID: 34550762 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01396-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The adhesion of noroviruses to strawberry, turkey slices, ham, and cheddar cheese was studied using murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1) as a surrogate for human norovirus (NoV). Based on plaque assay, the recovery and adhesion of MNV-1 depended on the food type (turkey versus strawberry), pH of the initial suspension buffer (pH 4 versus pH 7), and food fat composition (C8 versus C18). Recovery of infectious particles from turkey was 68% compared to 9.4% from strawberry. On turkey, adhesion of MNV-1 was lower at pH 7 (pH of fecal matter), and virus particles adhered to this pH were recovered more easily (33,875 PFU) than at pH 4 (pH of vomitus). The presence of fat and the composition of fatty acids seemed to increase MNV-1 recovery and adherent viral particles recovered but did not affect adhesion (68% on fat-free turkey and regular turkey). Adherent MNV-1 particles recovered from stainless steel coated with saturated fatty acid (C8, C14, C18) increased significantly with chain length (P < 0.05), but adhesion did not seem to change. Using liquid droplet contact angle to measure surface energy, it was deduced that hydrophobic interactions contribute considerably to the adhesion of MNV-1 to stainless steel, polyvinyl chloride, and high-density polyethylene. IMPORTANCE Ready-to-eat (RTE) foods are major vehicles of transmission of foodborne viral pathogens, including NoV. The high incidence of gastroenteritis caused by viruses is due largely to their persistence in the environment and adhesion to different kinds of surfaces in the food industry, including the foods themselves. Compared with bacteria, adhesion of viruses to surfaces is poorly understood. Better knowledge of the physicochemical parameters involved in the adhesion of NoV to ready-to-eat foods is essential to devising effective strategies for reducing the persistence and, thus, the transmission of this virus.
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Moresco V, Oliver DM, Weidmann M, Matallana-Surget S, Quilliam RS. Survival of human enteric and respiratory viruses on plastics in soil, freshwater, and marine environments. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 199:111367. [PMID: 34029551 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/15/2021] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The public health significance of plastics and microplastics in different environmental matrices has mainly focused on the toxicological effects of human ingestion. But these pollutants can also harbour pathogenic bacteria as the surfaces of plastics in the environment quickly become colonised by microbial biofilm. This novel microbial habitat has been termed the 'plastisphere' and could facilitate the survival and dissemination of important bacterial and fungal pathogens. Importantly, however, the role of plastic pollution as a secondary pathway for the transmission of human pathogenic viruses has never been addressed. Due to the high prevalence of both enteric and respiratory viruses in the population and in the environment, there is significant potential for human viruses to become associated with the plastisphere. In this review we critically evaluate current knowledge on the interaction of human enteric and respiratory viruses with plastic surfaces and identify the main environmental conditions and plastic characteristics that could affect virus survival and persistence in the environment. Our hypothesis is that the plastisphere can enhance the adhesion, survival and dissemination of human pathogenic viruses and potentially lead to more effective transfer and transmission of viral diseases within the environment. We identify key research questions needed to more fully assess the potential human health risks associated with viruses on plastic surfaces. These include understanding, (1) the mechanisms of viral attachment to either naked or biofilm-colonised plastic (2) how the structural characteristics of viruses (e.g., enveloped, or non-enveloped), affect their persistence in the plastisphere, (3) whether the plastisphere offers protection and increases the persistence of infectious viruses in soil, freshwater, and marine environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Moresco
- Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, UK.
| | - David M Oliver
- Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, UK
| | - Manfred Weidmann
- Institute of Microbiology and Virology, Brandenburg Medical School Theodor Fontane, Senftenberg, D-01968, Germany
| | - Sabine Matallana-Surget
- Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, UK
| | - Richard S Quilliam
- Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, UK
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6
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Presence of hepatitis E virus in commercially available pork products. Int J Food Microbiol 2020; 339:109033. [PMID: 33401188 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2020.109033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
An increasing number of hepatitis E virus (HEV) infections in industrialized countries have been foodborne and linked to the consumption of undercooked pork products. To date, data on the prevalence of HEV in pork products sold in the United States is limited and no standard processing method exists for the detection of HEV in foods. In order to develop a processing method for the detection of HEV in pork products, ground pork and pork liver were selected for method development. Murine norovirus (MNV) was used as a process control. A filtration step prior to RNA detection was shown to reduce the level of PCR inhibitors in ground pork and an additional ultracentrifugation process was successful in removing PCR inhibitors in pork liver. MNV RNA was detected in ground pork and liver samples inoculated with 4.7 log10 PFU/g and 3.0 log10 PFU/g, respectively. Using the developed method for viral RNA detection in ground pork and pork liver, 20 packages of ground pork (six 1 g sub-samples per package) and 14 pork livers (four 1 g sub-samples per liver) were screened for the presence of HEV RNA. Fifteen out of 119 (12.6%) ground pork samples tested positive for HEV RNA and 13 out of 20 packages (65%) contained at least one positive sample. Twenty-five of 56 (45%) of pork liver samples were positive for HEV RNA and 6 of 14 livers (43%) had all sub-samples test positive for HEV RNA. Overall, the results indicate ground pork and pig liver as a potential source of HEV.
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Zhao MY, Li D. Discovery of Components Acting as the Obstacles in the Detection of Enteric Viruses from Berries. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2020; 12:191-197. [PMID: 32323159 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-020-09428-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the obstacles in detecting enteric viruses from berry fruits, which are on the one hand often associated with outbreaks of viral enteric disease, and on the other hand recognized as a challenging food matrix for molecular detection of enteric viruses. According to the ISO 15216 protocol, for soft fruit samples, virus extraction is by elution with agitation followed by precipitation with polyethylene glycol/NaCl. As a result, first, the phenolic content in the berry eluate was found to be weakly correlated with the detection of coliphage MS2 spiked in the berry samples. Second and more importantly, it was observed that the gel-like pellets formed after precipitation could entrap considerable portions of viruses from being further purified and recovered for detection, suggesting that the low virus detection sensitivity from berries is largely due to the pectin content with complicated chemical structures in the berry fruits. Future research is needed to solve this problem in a targeted way.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchie Y Zhao
- Department of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Dan Li
- Department of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
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Yan R, Wang Y, Duncan T, Shieh Y. Effect of polymer and glass physicochemical properties on MS2 recovery from food contact surfaces. Food Microbiol 2020; 87:103354. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2019.103354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2019] [Revised: 10/18/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Sommer J, Trautner C, Witte AK, Fister S, Schoder D, Rossmanith P, Mester PJ. Don't Shut the Stable Door after the Phage Has Bolted-The Importance of Bacteriophage Inactivation in Food Environments. Viruses 2019; 11:E468. [PMID: 31121941 PMCID: PMC6563225 DOI: 10.3390/v11050468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, a new potential measure against foodborne pathogenic bacteria was rediscovered-bacteriophages. However, despite all their advantages, in connection to their widespread application in the food industry, negative consequences such as an uncontrolled phage spread as well as a development of phage resistant bacteria can occur. These problems are mostly a result of long-term persistence of phages in the food production environment. As this topic has been neglected so far, this article reviews the current knowledge regarding the effectiveness of disinfectant strategies for phage inactivation and removal. For this purpose, the main commercial phage products, as well as their application fields are first discussed in terms of applicable inactivation strategies and legal regulations. Secondly, an overview of the effectiveness of disinfectants for bacteriophage inactivation in general and commercial phages in particular is given. Finally, this review outlines a possible strategy for users of commercial phage products in order to improve the effectiveness of phage inactivation and removal after application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Sommer
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Monitoring of Microbial Contaminants, Department for Farm Animal and Public Health in Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Christoph Trautner
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Monitoring of Microbial Contaminants, Department for Farm Animal and Public Health in Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Anna Kristina Witte
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Monitoring of Microbial Contaminants, Department for Farm Animal and Public Health in Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria.
- HTK Hygiene Technologie Kompetenzzentrum GmbH, Buger Str. 80, 96049 Bamberg, Germany.
| | - Susanne Fister
- Former member of Christian Doppler Laboratory for Monitoring of Microbial Contaminants, Institute of Milk Hygiene, Milk Technology and Food Science, Department for Farm Animal and Public Veterinary Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Dagmar Schoder
- Unit of Food Microbiology, Institute of Food Safety, Food Technology and Veterinary Public Health, Department for Farm Animal and Public Health in Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Peter Rossmanith
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Monitoring of Microbial Contaminants, Department for Farm Animal and Public Health in Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria.
- Unit of Food Microbiology, Institute of Food Safety, Food Technology and Veterinary Public Health, Department for Farm Animal and Public Health in Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Patrick-Julian Mester
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Monitoring of Microbial Contaminants, Department for Farm Animal and Public Health in Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria.
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Brié A, Gantzer C, Boudaud N, Bertrand I. The impact of chlorine and heat on the infectivity and physicochemical properties of bacteriophage MS2. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2019; 94:5033402. [PMID: 29878194 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiy106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Accepted: 05/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteric viruses and bacteriophages are exposed to various inactivating factors outside their host, and among them chlorine and heat are the most commonly used sanitizer in water industry and treatment in the food industry, respectively. Using MS2 phages as models for enteric viruses, we investigated the impact of free chlorine and heat on their physicochemical properties. Free chlorine was first evaluated alone. No increase in either capsid permeability or hydrophobicity was observed. The negative surface charge slightly increased suggesting molecular changes in the capsid. However, a weakening of the capsid by chlorine was suggested by differential scanning fluorimetry. This phenomenon was confirmed when chlorination was followed by a heat treatment. Indeed, an increase in the inactivation of MS2 phages and the permeability of their capsids to RNases was observed. More interestingly, an increase in the expression of hydrophobic domains at the phage surface was observed, but only for phages remaining infectious. The chlorine-caused weakening of the capsid suggested that, for an optimal use, the oxidant should be followed by heat. The increased permeability to RNases and the expression of hydrophobic domains may contribute to the development or improvement of molecular methods specific for infectious enteric viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrien Brié
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour les Matériaux et l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564 CNRS Université de Lorraine, Faculté de Pharmacie, 5 rue Albert Lebrun, BP 80403, 54001 Nancy, France.,Food Safety Department, ACTALIA, 310 rue Popielujko, 50000 Saint Lô, France
| | - Christophe Gantzer
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour les Matériaux et l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564 CNRS Université de Lorraine, Faculté de Pharmacie, 5 rue Albert Lebrun, BP 80403, 54001 Nancy, France
| | - Nicolas Boudaud
- Food Safety Department, ACTALIA, 310 rue Popielujko, 50000 Saint Lô, France
| | - Isabelle Bertrand
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour les Matériaux et l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564 CNRS Université de Lorraine, Faculté de Pharmacie, 5 rue Albert Lebrun, BP 80403, 54001 Nancy, France
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Transfer of Enteric Viruses Adenovirus and Coxsackievirus and Bacteriophage MS2 from Liquid to Human Skin. Appl Environ Microbiol 2018; 84:AEM.01809-18. [PMID: 30217840 PMCID: PMC6210118 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01809-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 09/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteric viruses (viruses that infect the gastrointestinal tract) are responsible for most water-transmitted diseases. They are shed in high concentrations in the feces of infected individuals, persist for an extended period of time in water, and are highly infective. Exposure to contaminated water directly (through ingestion) or indirectly (for example, through hand-water contacts followed by hand-to-mouth contacts) increases the risk of virus transmission. The work described herein provides a quantitative model for estimating human-pathogenic virus retention on skin following contact with contaminated water. The work will be important in refining the contribution of indirect transmission of virus to risks associated with water-related activities. Indirect exposure to waterborne viruses increases the risk of infection, especially among children with frequent hand-to-mouth contacts. Here, we quantified the transfer of one bacteriophage (MS2) and two enteric viruses (adenovirus and coxsackievirus) from liquid to skin. MS2, a commonly used enteric virus surrogate, was used to compare virus transfer rates in a volunteer trial to those obtained using human cadaver skin and synthetic skin. MS2 transfer to volunteer skin was similar to transfer to cadaver skin but significantly different from transfer to synthetic skin. The transfer of MS2, adenovirus, and coxsackievirus to cadaver skin was modeled using measurements for viruses attaching to the skin (adsorbed) and viruses in liquid residual on skin (unadsorbed). We find virus transfer per surface area is a function of the concentration of virus in the liquid and the film thickness of liquid retained on the skin and is estimable using a linear model. Notably, the amount of MS2 adsorbed on the skin was on average 5 times higher than the amount of adenovirus and 4 times higher than the amount of coxsackievirus. Quantification of pathogenic virus retention to skin would thus be overestimated using MS2 adsorption data. This study provides models of virus transfer useful for risk assessments of water-related activities, demonstrates significant differences in the transfer of pathogenic virus and MS2, and suggests cadaver skin as an alternative testing system for studying interactions between viruses and skin. IMPORTANCE Enteric viruses (viruses that infect the gastrointestinal tract) are responsible for most water-transmitted diseases. They are shed in high concentrations in the feces of infected individuals, persist for an extended period of time in water, and are highly infective. Exposure to contaminated water directly (through ingestion) or indirectly (for example, through hand-water contacts followed by hand-to-mouth contacts) increases the risk of virus transmission. The work described herein provides a quantitative model for estimating human-pathogenic virus retention on skin following contact with contaminated water. The work will be important in refining the contribution of indirect transmission of virus to risks associated with water-related activities.
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Yeargin T, Gibson KE. Key characteristics of foods with an elevated risk for viral enteropathogen contamination. J Appl Microbiol 2018; 126:996-1010. [PMID: 30244501 DOI: 10.1111/jam.14113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Revised: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Viral enteropathogens are one of the leading causative agents of foodborne illnesses in both the United States and the European Union. While human noroviruses and hepatitis A virus cause the vast majority of outbreaks and illnesses, there are handful of human enteric viruses that contribute to sporadic outbreaks worldwide including astrovirus, sapovirus, rotavirus, enterovirus and Aichi virus. In addition, hepatitis E virus is increasingly being recognized as an emerging zoonotic threat within the food supply. This review aims to briefly describe the primary human enteric viruses of concern with respect to foodborne transmission. Next, we focus on the contamination and persistence of these viruses within three high-risk food commodities-leafy greens, soft red fruits and bivalve mollusks. As opposed to detailing the specific routes by which these foods can be contaminated with enteric viruses, we have chosen to focus on their persistence and specific interactions within the food itself. Therefore, the processes of attachment and internalization of the viruses in foods have been emphasized. Looking forward, the implications of these specific interactions of human enteric viruses with leafy greens, soft red fruits and bivalve mollusks are briefly considered within the context of future prevention and control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Yeargin
- Division of Agriculture, Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA
| | - K E Gibson
- Division of Agriculture, Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA
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Prez VE, Martínez LC, Victoria M, Giordano MO, Masachessi G, Ré VE, Pavan JV, Colina R, Barril PA, Nates SV. Tracking enteric viruses in green vegetables from central Argentina: potential association with viral contamination of irrigation waters. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 637-638:665-671. [PMID: 29758423 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.05.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2018] [Revised: 05/03/2018] [Accepted: 05/04/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Consumption of green vegetable products is commonly viewed as a potential risk factor for infection with enteric viruses. The link between vegetable crops and fecally contaminated irrigation water establishes an environmental scenario that can result in a risk to human health. The aim of this work was to analyze the enteric viral quality in leafy green vegetables from Córdoba (Argentina) and its potential association with viral contamination of irrigation waters. During July-December 2012, vegetables were collected from peri-urban green farms (n = 19) and its corresponding urban river irrigation waters (n = 12). Also, urban sewage samples (n = 6) were collected to analyze the viral variants circulating in the community. Viruses were eluted and concentrated by polyethylene glycol precipitation and then were subject to Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction to assess the genome presence of norovirus, rotavirus and human astrovirus. The concentrates were also inoculated in HEp-2 (Human Epidermoid carcinoma strain #2) cells to monitor the occurrence of infective enterovirus. The frequency of detection of the viral groups in sewage, irrigation water and crops was: norovirus 100%, 67% and 58%, rotavirus 100%, 75% and 5%, astrovirus 83%, 75% and 32% and infective enterovirus 50%, 33% and 79%, respectively. A similar profile in sewage, irrigation water and green vegetables was observed for norovirus genogroups (I and II) distribution as well as for rotavirus and astrovirus G-types. These results provide the first data for Argentina pointing out that green leafy vegetables are contaminated with a broad range of enteric viruses and that the irrigation water would be a source of contamination. The presence of viral genomes and infective particles in food that in general suffer minimal treatment before consumption underlines that green crops can act as potential sources of enteric virus transmission. Public intervention in the use of the river waters as irrigation source is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- V E Prez
- Instituto de Virología "Dr. J. M. Vanella", Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez s/n - Ciudad Universitaria, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas - CONICET, Argentina.
| | - L C Martínez
- Instituto de Virología "Dr. J. M. Vanella", Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez s/n - Ciudad Universitaria, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - M Victoria
- Laboratorio de Virología Molecular, CENUR Litoral Norte, Centro Universitario de Salto, Universidad de la República, Rivera 1350, Salto, Uruguay
| | - M O Giordano
- Instituto de Virología "Dr. J. M. Vanella", Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez s/n - Ciudad Universitaria, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - G Masachessi
- Instituto de Virología "Dr. J. M. Vanella", Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez s/n - Ciudad Universitaria, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas - CONICET, Argentina
| | - V E Ré
- Instituto de Virología "Dr. J. M. Vanella", Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez s/n - Ciudad Universitaria, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas - CONICET, Argentina
| | - J V Pavan
- Instituto de Virología "Dr. J. M. Vanella", Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez s/n - Ciudad Universitaria, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - R Colina
- Laboratorio de Virología Molecular, CENUR Litoral Norte, Centro Universitario de Salto, Universidad de la República, Rivera 1350, Salto, Uruguay
| | - P A Barril
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas - CONICET, Argentina; Laboratorio de Microbiología de los Alimentos, Centro de Investigación y Asistencia Técnica a la Industria (CIATI A.C.), Expedicionarios del Desierto 1310, CP 8309 Centenario, Neuquén, Argentina
| | - S V Nates
- Instituto de Virología "Dr. J. M. Vanella", Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez s/n - Ciudad Universitaria, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
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14
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Adhesion of liquid food to packaging surfaces: Mechanisms, test methods, influencing factors and anti-adhesion methods. J FOOD ENG 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2018.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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15
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Marti E, Ferrary-Américo M, Barardi CRM. Detection of Potential Infectious Enteric Viruses in Fresh Produce by (RT)-qPCR Preceded by Nuclease Treatment. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2017; 9:444-452. [PMID: 28452009 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-017-9300-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Foodborne illnesses associated with contaminated fresh produce are a common public health problem and there is an upward trend of outbreaks caused by enteric viruses, especially human noroviruses (HNoVs) and hepatitis A virus (HAV). This study aimed to assess the use of DNase and RNase coupled to qPCR and RT-qPCR, respectively, to detect intact particles of human adenoviruses (HAdVs), HNoV GI and GII and HAV in fresh produce. Different concentrations of DNase and RNase were tested to optimize the degradation of free DNA and RNA from inactivated HAdV and murine norovirus (MNV), respectively. Results indicated that 10 µg/ml of RNase was able to degrade more than 4 log10 (99.99%) of free RNA, and 1 U of DNase degraded the range of 0.84-2.5 log10 of free DNA depending on the fresh produce analysed. The treatment with nucleases coupled to (RT)-qPCR was applied to detect potential infectious virus in organic lettuce, green onions and strawberries collected in different seasons. As a result, no intact particles of HNoV GI and GII were detected in the 36 samples analysed, HAdV was found in one sample and HAV was present in 33.3% of the samples, without any reasonable distribution pattern among seasons. In conclusion, RT-qPCR preceded by RNase treatment of eluted samples from fresh produce is a good alternative to detect undamaged RNA viruses and therefore, potential infectious viruses. Moreover, this study provides data about the prevalence of enteric viruses in organic fresh produce from Brazil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabet Marti
- Laboratório de Virologia Aplicada, Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, CEP: 88040-970, Brazil.
| | - Monique Ferrary-Américo
- Laboratório de Virologia Aplicada, Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, CEP: 88040-970, Brazil
| | - Célia Regina Monte Barardi
- Laboratório de Virologia Aplicada, Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, CEP: 88040-970, Brazil
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16
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Fauvel B, Gantzer C, Cauchie HM, Ogorzaly L. In Situ Dynamics of F-Specific RNA Bacteriophages in a Small River: New Way to Assess Viral Propagation in Water Quality Studies. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2017; 9:89-102. [PMID: 27771874 PMCID: PMC5309317 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-016-9266-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2016] [Accepted: 09/30/2016] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence and propagation of enteric viruses in rivers constitute a major public health issue. However, little information is available on the in situ transport and spread of viruses in surface water. In this study, an original in situ experimental approach using the residence time of the river water mass was developed to accurately follow the propagation of F-specific RNA bacteriophages (FRNAPHs) along a 3-km studied river. Surface water and sediment of 9 sampling campaigns were collected and analyzed using both infectivity and RT-qPCR assays. In parallel, some physico-chemical variables such as flow rate, water temperature, conductivity and total suspended solids were measured to investigate the impact of environmental conditions on phage propagation. For campaigns with low flow rate and high temperature, the results highlight a decrease of infectious phage concentration along the river, which was successfully modelled according to a first-order negative exponential decay. The monitoring of infectious FRNAPHs belonging mainly to the genogroup II was confirmed with direct phage genotyping and total phage particle quantification. Reported k decay coefficients according to exponential models allowed for the determination of the actual in situ distance and time necessary for removing 90 % of infectious phage particles. This present work provides a new way to assess the true in situ viral propagation along a small river. These findings can be highly useful in water quality and risk assessment studies to determine the viral contamination spread from a point contamination source to the nearest recreational areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blandine Fauvel
- Department of Environmental Research and Innovation (ERIN), Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology (LIST), 41, rue du Brill, 4422, Belvaux, Luxembourg
- Laboratoire de Chimie, Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université de Lorraine, 5 rue Albert Lebrun, Nancy, 54000, France
- CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, Nancy, 54000, France
| | - Christophe Gantzer
- Laboratoire de Chimie, Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université de Lorraine, 5 rue Albert Lebrun, Nancy, 54000, France
- CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, Nancy, 54000, France
| | - Henry-Michel Cauchie
- Department of Environmental Research and Innovation (ERIN), Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology (LIST), 41, rue du Brill, 4422, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Leslie Ogorzaly
- Department of Environmental Research and Innovation (ERIN), Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology (LIST), 41, rue du Brill, 4422, Belvaux, Luxembourg.
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17
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Fauvel B, Ogorzaly L, Cauchie HM, Gantzer C. Interactions of infectious F-specific RNA bacteriophages with suspended matter and sediment: Towards an understanding of FRNAPH distribution in a river water system. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 574:960-968. [PMID: 27668848 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2016] [Revised: 09/13/2016] [Accepted: 09/15/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The association of viruses with settling particles is certainly a major process controlling the spread of viral pollution in surface water and sediment. To better understand the viral distribution in a river system, the behavior of F-specific RNA bacteriophages (FRNAPHs) was investigated in relationship with the suspended solids and sediment. The partitioning of phage particles (free or associated with solids) in surface water and the attachment capabilities of eight distinct strains of phages to sediment were studied in lab experiments. In situ observations were also performed with the genotyping of 166 individual plaques of FRNAPHs isolated from surface water and sediment. The results reported here demonstrate a variation of the status of infectious phages as a function of the hydro-climatological conditions. Phage-solid association seems to mainly occur during the peak of rainfall-runoff events but also to a certain extent during the recession phase compared to low flow conditions. The transfer of phages from the water column to sediment may occur at this time. Furthermore, the ability of FRNAPHs to interact with sediment was established for six strains out of eight, belonging to genogroups II, III and IV. A similar dynamic was observed for strains within a same genogroup despite different intensity of attachment and inactivation rates for strains of genogroups III and IV. The latter results match the in situ observations in the water and sediment compartments of the studied area. Infectious FRNAPH genogroup II was more abundant in sediment than in surface water. Its capability to sorb to sediment and its higher persistence in the environment compared to genogroups III and IV were the two main explanations. Together, lab and in situ experiments produce an overall vision of the mechanisms governing FRNAPH distribution among the water column and riverbed sediment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blandine Fauvel
- Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology (LIST), Department of Environmental Research and Innovation (ERIN); 41, rue du Brill, L-4422 Belvaux, Luxembourg; Université de Lorraine, Laboratoire de Chimie, Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, Nancy F-54000, France; CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, Nancy F-54000, France
| | - Leslie Ogorzaly
- Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology (LIST), Department of Environmental Research and Innovation (ERIN); 41, rue du Brill, L-4422 Belvaux, Luxembourg.
| | - Henry-Michel Cauchie
- Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology (LIST), Department of Environmental Research and Innovation (ERIN); 41, rue du Brill, L-4422 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Christophe Gantzer
- Université de Lorraine, Laboratoire de Chimie, Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, Nancy F-54000, France; CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, Nancy F-54000, France
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18
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Brié A, Bertrand I, Meo M, Boudaud N, Gantzer C. The Effect of Heat on the Physicochemical Properties of Bacteriophage MS2. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2016; 8:251-261. [PMID: 27299642 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-016-9248-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The differences in physicochemical characteristics between infectious and non-infectious viral particles are poorly known. Even for heat, which is known as one of the most efficient treatments to inactivate enteric viruses, the global inactivation mechanisms have not been described yet. Such knowledge would help distinguish between both types of particles and therefore clarify the interpretation of the presence of viral genomes in food after heat treatment. In this study, we examined in particular the differences in electrostatic charge and hydrophobicity between the two particle types. MS2 phage, a common surrogate for enteric viruses, was used as a model virus. The heat-induced inactivation process of the infectious phages caused hydrophobic domains to be transiently exposed and their charge to become less negative. The particles also became progressively permeable to small molecules such as SYPRO Orange dye. The presence of non-infectious phage particles in which the genome was not accessible to RNases has been clearly demonstrated. These observations were done for MS2 phages exposed to a temperature of 60 °C. When exposed to a temperature higher than their critical temperature (72 °C), the particles were disrupted and the genome became available for RNases. At lower temperatures, 60 °C in this study, the transient expression of hydrophobic domains of remaining infectious phages appeared as an interesting parameter for improving their specific detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrien Brié
- LCPME (Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement), Faculté de Pharmacie, UMR 7564 CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 5 Rue Albert Lebrun, Nancy, 54000, France
- CNRS LCPME UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France
- Food Safety Department, ACTALIA, Saint Lô, France
| | - Isabelle Bertrand
- LCPME (Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement), Faculté de Pharmacie, UMR 7564 CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 5 Rue Albert Lebrun, Nancy, 54000, France
- CNRS LCPME UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France
| | - Marie Meo
- LCPME (Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement), Faculté de Pharmacie, UMR 7564 CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 5 Rue Albert Lebrun, Nancy, 54000, France
- CNRS LCPME UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France
| | | | - Christophe Gantzer
- LCPME (Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement), Faculté de Pharmacie, UMR 7564 CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 5 Rue Albert Lebrun, Nancy, 54000, France.
- CNRS LCPME UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France.
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19
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Jacxsens L, Stals A, De Keuckelaere A, Deliens B, Rajkovic A, Uyttendaele M. Quantitative farm-to-fork human norovirus exposure assessment of individually quick frozen raspberries and raspberry puree. Int J Food Microbiol 2016; 242:87-97. [PMID: 27914323 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2016.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2015] [Revised: 10/12/2016] [Accepted: 11/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
A quantitative human norovirus (NoV) exposure model describing transmission of NoV during pre-harvest, harvest and further processing of soft red fruits exemplified by raspberries is presented. The outcomes of the model demonstrate the presence of NoV in raspberry puree or individual quick frozen (IQF) raspberry fruits and were generated by Monte Carlo simulations by combining GoldSim® and @Risk® software. Input data were collected from scientific literature, observational studies and assumptions. NoV contamination of soft red fruits is assumed to take place at farms by application of contaminated water for pesticides dilution or by berries' pickers shedding NoV. The model was built simulating that a collection center received berries from ten farms with a total of 245 food handlers picking soft red fruits during a 10-hour day shift. Given 0, 5 and 20 out of 245 berries' pickers were shedding NoV, these conditions were calculated to result in a mean NoV contamination of respectively 0.47, 14.1 and 36.2 NoV particles per kg raspberries in case all raspberries are mixed to one day-batch of 11tons. The NoV contamination of the fruits was mainly driven by the route of NoV shedding food pickers (95.8%) rather than by spraying contaminated pesticide water (4.2%) (baseline scenario with 5 shedding pickers and contaminated pesticide water). Inclusion of appropriate hand washing procedures or hand washing followed by hand disinfection resulted in estimated reductions of the mean NoV levels from 14.1 to 0.16 and 0.17 NoV particles per kg raspberries, respectively, for the baseline scenario with 5 out of 245 food pickers shedding NoV. The use of a mild heat treatment (30s at 75°C) during further processing of berries to purees was noted to reduce mean NoV levels substantially from 14.1 to 0.2 NoV particles per kg raspberry puree. For IQF raspberries, the NoV contamination is heterogeneously distributed and resulted in a mean contamination of 3.1 NoV particles per 250g package containing approximately 115 berries. This farm-to-fork model is a useful tool for evaluating NoV mitigation strategies in the soft red fruit supply chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Jacxsens
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium.
| | - A Stals
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - A De Keuckelaere
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - B Deliens
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - A Rajkovic
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium; Department of Food Safety and Food Quality Management, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Nemanjina 6, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - M Uyttendaele
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium
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20
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Fuzawa M, Ku KM, Palma-Salgado SP, Nagasaka K, Feng H, Juvik JA, Sano D, Shisler JL, Nguyen TH. Effect of Leaf Surface Chemical Properties on Efficacy of Sanitizer for Rotavirus Inactivation. Appl Environ Microbiol 2016; 82:6214-6222. [PMID: 27520815 PMCID: PMC5068170 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01778-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Accepted: 08/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of sanitizers is essential for produce safety. However, little is known about how sanitizer efficacy varies with respect to the chemical surface properties of produce. To answer this question, the disinfection efficacies of an oxidant-based sanitizer and a new surfactant-based sanitizer for porcine rotavirus (PRV) strain OSU were examined. PRV was attached to the leaf surfaces of two kale cultivars with high epicuticular wax contents and one cultivar of endive with a low epicuticular wax content and then treated with each sanitizer. The efficacy of the oxidant-based sanitizer correlated with leaf wax content as evidenced by the 1-log10 PRV disinfection on endive surfaces (low wax content) and 3-log10 disinfection of the cultivars with higher wax contents. In contrast, the surfactant-based sanitizer showed similar PRV disinfection efficacies (up to 3 log10) that were independent of leaf wax content. A statistical difference was observed with the disinfection efficacies of the oxidant-based sanitizer for suspended and attached PRV, while the surfactant-based sanitizer showed similar PRV disinfection efficacies. Significant reductions in the entry and replication of PRV were observed after treatment with either disinfectant. Moreover, the oxidant-based-sanitizer-treated PRV showed sialic acid-specific binding to the host cells, whereas the surfactant-based sanitizer increased the nonspecific binding of PRV to the host cells. These findings suggest that the surface properties of fresh produce may affect the efficacy of virus disinfection, implying that food sanitizers should be carefully selected for the different surface characteristics of fresh produce. IMPORTANCE Food sanitizer efficacies are affected by the surface properties of vegetables. This study evaluated the disinfection efficacies of two food sanitizers, an oxidant-based sanitizer and a surfactant-based sanitizer, on porcine rotavirus strain OSU adhering to the leaf epicuticular surfaces of high- and low-wax-content cultivars. The disinfection efficacy of the oxidant-based sanitizer was affected by the surface properties of the vegetables, while the surfactant-based sanitizer was effective for both high- and low-wax leafy vegetable cultivars. This study suggests that the surface properties of vegetables may be an important factor that interacts with disinfection with food sanitizers of rotaviruses adhering to fresh produce.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miyu Fuzawa
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Kang-Mo Ku
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, Davis College of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Design, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Sindy Paola Palma-Salgado
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Kenya Nagasaka
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Hao Feng
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - John A Juvik
- Department of Crop Science, College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Daisuke Sano
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Joanna L Shisler
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Thanh H Nguyen
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
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21
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Loison P, Majou D, Gelhaye E, Boudaud N, Gantzer C. Impact of reducing and oxidizing agents on the infectivity of Qβ phage and the overall structure of its capsid. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2016; 92:fiw153. [PMID: 27402711 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiw153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Qβ phages infect Escherichia coli in the human gut by recognizing F-pili as receptors. Infection therefore occurs under reducing conditions induced by physiological agents (e.g. glutathione) or the intestinal bacterial flora. After excretion in the environment, phage particles are exposed to oxidizing conditions and sometimes disinfection. If inactivation does not occur, the phage may infect new hosts in the human gut through the oral route. During such a life cycle, we demonstrated that, outside the human gut, cysteines of the major protein capsid of Qβ phage form disulfide bonds. Disinfection with NaClO does not allow overoxidation to occur. Such oxidation induces inactivation rather by irreversible damage to the minor proteins. In the presence of glutathione, most disulfide bonds are reduced, which slightly increases the capacity of the phage to infect E. coli in vitro Such reduction is reversible and barely alters infectivity of the phage. Reduction of all disulfide bonds by dithiothreitol leads to complete capsid destabilization. These data provide new insights into how the phages are impacted by oxidizing-reducing conditions outside their host cell and raises the possibility of the intervention of the redox during life cycle of the phage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline Loison
- LCPME (Laboratory of Physical Chemistry and Microbiology for the Environment), Joint Research Unit - UMR 7564, CNRS/Université de Lorraine, Nancy 54000, France CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol (IJB), Nancy 54000, France Food Safety Department, ACTALIA, Saint Lô 50000, France
| | - Didier Majou
- ACTIA, 16 rue Claude Bernard, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Eric Gelhaye
- Université de Lorraine, Tree-Microbe Interactions Department, UMR1136, F-54500 Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy, France INRA, Tree-Microbe Interactions Department, UMR1136, F-54280 Champenoux, France
| | | | - Christophe Gantzer
- LCPME (Laboratory of Physical Chemistry and Microbiology for the Environment), Joint Research Unit - UMR 7564, CNRS/Université de Lorraine, Nancy 54000, France CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol (IJB), Nancy 54000, France
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22
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Titcombe Lee M, Pruden A, Marr LC. Partitioning of Viruses in Wastewater Systems and Potential for Aerosolization. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY LETTERS 2016; 3:210-215. [PMID: 27213164 PMCID: PMC4869619 DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.6b00105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2016] [Revised: 04/07/2016] [Accepted: 04/08/2016] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
To gain insight into the potential for aerosolization of viruses in wastewater systems, we investigated the partitioning of MS2 and Phi6 bacteriophages in synthetic sludge and anaerobically digested sludge from a wastewater treatment plant. We evaluated partitioning among the liquid, solids, and material surfaces of porcelain, concrete, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polypropylene. In all cases, at least 94% of the virions partitioned into the liquid fraction. In real sludge, no more than 0.8% of virions partitioned to the solids and no more than 6% to the material surface. Both MS2 and Phi6 partitioned more to the surface of concrete and polypropylene than to the surface of porcelain or PVC. Partitioning of viruses in wastewater among the liquid, biosolids, and material surface does not appear to mitigate the potential for aerosolization of virus, as most of the virus remains in the liquid phase.
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Perrin A, Loutreul J, Boudaud N, Bertrand I, Gantzer C. Rapid, simple and efficient method for detection of viral genomes on raspberries. J Virol Methods 2015; 224:95-101. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2015.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2015] [Revised: 07/21/2015] [Accepted: 08/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Morin T, Martin H, Soumet C, Fresnel R, Lamaudière S, Le Sauvage A, Deleurme K, Maris P. Comparison of the virucidal efficacy of peracetic acid, potassium monopersulphate and sodium hypochlorite on bacteriophages P001 and MS2. J Appl Microbiol 2015; 119:655-65. [DOI: 10.1111/jam.12870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2015] [Revised: 05/15/2015] [Accepted: 05/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- T. Morin
- French Agency for Food; Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety; Ploufragan-Plouzané Laboratory; Viral Fish Pathology Unit; Université Européenne de Bretagne; Technopôle Brest Iroise; Plouzané France
- ACTALIA; Sécurité des Aliments; Villers Bocage France
| | - H. Martin
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety; Fougères Laboratory, Cedex France
| | - C. Soumet
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety; Fougères Laboratory, Cedex France
| | - R. Fresnel
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety; Fougères Laboratory, Cedex France
| | - S. Lamaudière
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety; Fougères Laboratory, Cedex France
| | | | - K. Deleurme
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety; Fougères Laboratory, Cedex France
| | - P. Maris
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety; Fougères Laboratory, Cedex France
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Carducci A, Caponi E, Ciurli A, Verani M. Possible Internalization of an Enterovirus in Hydroponically Grown Lettuce. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2015; 12:8214-27. [PMID: 26193291 PMCID: PMC4515718 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph120708214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Revised: 07/07/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Several studies have shown that enteric viruses can be transferred onto the surface of vegetables and fruits through spray irrigation, but, recently, reports have suggested viral contamination of vegetables sub-irrigated with reused wastewater. Hydroponic cultures, used to grow ready to eat fresh lettuce, have also been used to study the possibility of viral absorption through roots. This study was conducted to assess a possible risk of viral contamination in lettuce from contaminated water. The leaves of lettuce plants grown in hydroponic cultures where the roots were exposed to water containing Coxsakievirus B2, were analysed for evidence of the virus. The plants and water were sampled at different times and virus was measured using quantitative RT-PCR and infectivity assay. In leaf samples, the lowest observed infective data were lower than the qRT-PCR detection limits, suggesting that free viral RNA or damaged viruses are eliminated rapidly while infectious particles remain stable for a longer time. The obtained data revealed that the leaves were contaminated at a water concentration of 4.11 ± 1 Log Most Probable Number/L (8.03 ± 1 Log GC/L) a concentration observed in contaminated untreated water of wastewater treatment plants. However, the absorption dynamics and whether the virus is inactive in the leaves still remains to be clarified. Nevertheless, this work has practical implications for risk management in using reclaimed water for agricultural use; when irrigated vegetables are destined for raw consumption, virological contamination in water sources should be evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annalaura Carducci
- Laboratory of Hygiene and Environmental Virology, Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Via S. Zeno 35/39, 56127 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Elisa Caponi
- Laboratory of Hygiene and Environmental Virology, Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Via S. Zeno 35/39, 56127 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Adriana Ciurli
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Agro-Environmental Sciences, University of Pisa, Via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Marco Verani
- Laboratory of Hygiene and Environmental Virology, Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Via S. Zeno 35/39, 56127 Pisa, Italy.
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Influence of Epicuticular Physicochemical Properties on Porcine Rotavirus Adsorption to 24 Leafy Green Vegetables and Tomatoes. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0132841. [PMID: 26181904 PMCID: PMC4504507 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0132841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2015] [Accepted: 06/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Foodborne diseases are a persistent problem in the United States and worldwide. Fresh produce, especially those used as raw foods like salad vegetables, can be contaminated, causing illness. In this study, we determined the number of rotaviruses adsorbed on produce surfaces using group A porcine rotaviruses and 24 cultivars of leafy vegetables and tomato fruits. We also characterized the physicochemical properties of each produce's outermost surface layer, known as the epicuticle. The number of rotaviruses found on produce surfaces varied among cultivars. Three-dimensional crystalline wax structures on the epicuticular surfaces were found to significantly contribute to the inhibition of viral adsorption to the produce surfaces (p = 0.01). We found significant negative correlations between the number of rotaviruses adsorbed on the epicuticular surfaces and the concentrations of alkanes, fatty acids, and total waxes on the epicuticular surfaces. Partial least square model fitting results suggest that alkanes, ketones, fatty acids, alcohols, contact angle and surface roughness together can explain 60% of the variation in viral adsorption. The results suggest that various fresh produce surface properties need to be collectively considered for efficient sanitation treatments. Up to 10.8% of the originally applied rotaviruses were found on the produce surfaces after three washing treatments, suggesting a potential public health concern regarding rotavirus contamination.
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Khan W, Irshad M, Rehman G, Hussain A. HAV in fresh vegetables: a hidden health risk in district Mardan, Pakistan. SPRINGERPLUS 2014; 3:675. [PMID: 26034681 PMCID: PMC4447752 DOI: 10.1186/2193-1801-3-675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis A is an acute inflammation of the liver caused by the hepatitis A virus (HAV) in human. The path of entry of HAV to the bloodstream is the epithelium of the intestine. Liver inflammation occurs when HAV multiplies within the hepatocytes and Kupffer cells of the liver. HAV is mostly transmitted by contaminated water, fruits and vegetables. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate fresh vegetables raised on the fecal contaminated water for the detection of HAV by PCR method. Twenty nine samples were collected from 13 different locations of district Mardan and screened for the presence of HAV. Village Bajowro near Takht Bhai was the most contaminated site having HAV in all vegetables grown over there. Water samples collected from this area proved to be contaminated with HAV. It may be concluded that fecal contaminated water is unsafe for irrigation because of the health risk associated with such practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waleed Khan
- Department of Botany, Shankar Campus, Abdul Wali Khan Univerity, Mardan, 23200 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Irshad
- Department of Botany, Shankar Campus, Abdul Wali Khan Univerity, Mardan, 23200 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan
| | - Gauhar Rehman
- Department of Zoology, Shankar Campus, Abdul Wali Khan Univerity, Mardan, 23200 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan
| | - Anwar Hussain
- Department of Botany, Shankar Campus, Abdul Wali Khan Univerity, Mardan, 23200 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan
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Loutreul J, Cazeaux C, Levert D, Nicolas A, Vautier S, Le Sauvage AL, Perelle S, Morin T. Prevalence of human noroviruses in frozen marketed shellfish, red fruits and fresh vegetables. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2014; 6:157-68. [PMID: 24923255 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-014-9150-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2014] [Accepted: 05/20/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Noroviruses (NoVs), currently recognised as the most common human food-borne pathogens, are ubiquitous in the environment and can be transmitted to humans through multiple foodstuffs. In this study, we evaluated the prevalence of human NoV genogroups I (GI) and II (GII) in 493 food samples including soft red fruits (n = 200), salad vegetables (n = 210) and bivalve mollusc shellfish (n = 83), using the Bovine Enterovirus type 1 as process extraction control for the first time. Viral extractions were performed by elution concentration and genome detection by TaqMan Real-Time RT-PCR (RT-qPCR). Experimental contamination using hepatitis A virus (HAV) was used to determine the limit of detection (LOD) of the extraction methods. Positive detections were obtained from 2 g of digestive tissues of oysters or mussels kept for 16 h in seawater containing 2.0-2.7 log10 plaque-forming units (PFU)/L of HAV. For lettuces and raspberries, the LOD was, respectively, estimated at 2.2 and 2.9 log10 PFU per 25 g. Of the molluscs tested, 8.4 and 14.4% were, respectively, positive for the presence of GI NoV and GII NoV RNA. Prevalence in GI NoVs varied from 11.9% for the salad vegetables samples to 15.5% for the red soft fruits. Only 0.5% of the salad and red soft fruits samples were positive for GII NoVs. These results highlight the high occurrence of human NoVs in foodstuffs that can be eaten raw or after a moderate technological processing or treatment. The determination of the risk of infection associated with an RT-qPCR positive sample remains an important challenge for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Loutreul
- ACTALIA, Groupe Sécurité des Aliments et Innovation Procédés, 23 Boulevard du 13 Juin 1944 BP2, 14310, Villers-Bocage, France
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29
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Scientific Opinion on the risk posed by pathogens in food of non‐animal origin. Part 2 (Salmonella and Norovirus in berries). EFSA J 2014. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2014.3706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
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30
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Mok HF, Barker SF, Hamilton AJ. A probabilistic quantitative microbial risk assessment model of norovirus disease burden from wastewater irrigation of vegetables in Shepparton, Australia. WATER RESEARCH 2014; 54:347-62. [PMID: 24594660 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2014.01.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2013] [Revised: 01/24/2014] [Accepted: 01/26/2014] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater can be an important resource for water-scarce regions of the world, but a major barrier to its use is the associated health risk. Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) is a probabilistic modeling technique used to determine the health risks from wastewater reuse, but only a handful of QMRA studies have examined the norovirus health risks from consumption of vegetables irrigated with human wastewater, even though norovirus is a, if not the most, significant microbial cause of diarrheal disease world-wide. Furthermore, the majority of these studies have focused only on risks from lettuce consumption. To meet the knowledge gap in health risks for other vegetables, a QMRA model was constructed for agricultural wastewater irrigation in the regional city of Shepparton, Australia, using fecal shedding rates to estimate norovirus concentration in raw sewage. Annual norovirus disease burden was estimated for the consumption of lettuce, broccoli, cabbage, Asian vegetables, and cucumber after irrigation with treated wastewater. Results indicate that the waste stabilization pond treatment did not have sufficient virus removal to meet the World Health Organization (WHO) threshold for acceptable level of risk for wastewater reuse, but addition of disinfection treatments provided acceptable results for consumption of cucumber and broccoli. This is the first QMRA study to incorporate virus accumulation from previous wastewater irrigation events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoi-Fei Mok
- Department of Agriculture and Food Systems, Melbourne School of Land and Environment, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - S Fiona Barker
- Department of Resource Management and Geography, Melbourne School of Land and Environment, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Andrew J Hamilton
- Department of Agriculture and Food Systems, Melbourne School of Land and Environment, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia.
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Holvoet K, De Keuckelaere A, Sampers I, Van Haute S, Stals A, Uyttendaele M. Quantitative study of cross-contamination with Escherichia coli, E. coli O157, MS2 phage and murine norovirus in a simulated fresh-cut lettuce wash process. Food Control 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.09.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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32
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Bozkurt H, D'souza DH, Davidson PM. Thermal inactivation of human norovirus surrogates in spinach and measurement of its uncertainty. J Food Prot 2014; 77:276-83. [PMID: 24490922 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-13-289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Leafy greens, including spinach, have potential for human norovirus transmission through improper handling and/or contact with contaminated water. Inactivation of norovirus prior to consumption is essential to protect public health. Because of the inability to propagate human noroviruses in vitro, murine norovirus (MNV-1) and feline calicivirus (FCV-F9) have been used as surrogates to model human norovirus behavior under laboratory conditions. The objectives of this study were to determine thermal inactivation kinetics of MNV-1 and FCV-F9 in spinach, compare first-order and Weibull models, and measure the uncertainty associated with the process. D-values were determined for viruses at 50, 56, 60, 65, and 72 °C in 2-ml vials. The D-values calculated from the first-order model (50 to 72 °C) ranged from 0.16 to 14.57 min for MNV-1 and 0.15 to 17.39 min for FCV-9. Using the Weibull model, the tD for MNV-1 and FCV-F9 to destroy 1 log (D ≈ 1) at the same temperatures ranged from 0.22 to 15.26 and 0.27 to 20.71 min, respectively. The z-values determined for MNV-1 were 11.66 ± 0.42 °C using the Weibull model and 10.98 ± 0.58 °C for the first-order model and for FCV-F9 were 10.85 ± 0.67 °C and 9.89 ± 0.79 °C, respectively. There was no difference in D- or z-value using the two models (P > 0.05). Relative uncertainty for dilution factor, personal counting, and test volume were 0.005, 0.0004, and ca. 0.84%, respectively. The major contribution to total uncertainty was from the model selected. Total uncertainties for FCV-F9 for the Weibull and first-order models were 3.53 to 7.56% and 11.99 to 21.01%, respectively, and for MNV-1, 3.10 to 7.01% and 13.14 to 16.94%, respectively. Novel and precise information on thermal inactivation of human norovirus surrogates in spinach was generated, enabling more reliable thermal process calculations to control noroviruses. The results of this study may be useful to the frozen food industry in designing blanching processes for spinach to inactivate or control noroviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayriye Bozkurt
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Tennessee-Knoxville, 2605 River Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996-4591, USA
| | - Doris H D'souza
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Tennessee-Knoxville, 2605 River Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996-4591, USA
| | - P Michael Davidson
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Tennessee-Knoxville, 2605 River Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996-4591, USA.
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Control of Foodborne Viruses at Retail. RETAIL FOOD SAFETY 2014. [PMCID: PMC7122658 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-1550-7_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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