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El Filali Z, El Idrissi Boutaher A, Oumato J, Abdelmoumen H, Bourais I. Validation and screening of patulin in apple beverages marketed in Morocco. Food Chem 2024; 456:139994. [PMID: 38914035 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.139994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2024] [Accepted: 06/04/2024] [Indexed: 06/26/2024]
Abstract
Patulin is one of the mycotoxins frequently detected in apples and derivatives, representing a major food safety risk. This study aimed to validate a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method with an ultraviolet (UV) detector for patulin quantification and assess its occurrence in apple beverages marketed in Morocco. The validation parameters showed satisfactory results with adequate linearity (R > 0.997), a relative standard deviation below 2.5%, repeatability between 3.6 and 7.1%, reproducibility between 3.9 and 11.5%, a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 4 μg/L, and recoveries close to 100% for three levels. Analysis of 30 samples revealed patulin levels ranging from 0 to 16.36 μg/L, with 50% of samples showing negative levels. All positive results remained below the regulatory maximum limit of 50 μg/L. These findings affirm the efficacy of the HPLC proposed method in ensuring compliance with patulin regulations in apple beverages, underlining its importance in safeguarding food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zainab El Filali
- Laboratory of Human Pathologies Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Morocco; Regional Laboratory of Analysis and Research, Casablanca, Morocco
| | | | - Jihane Oumato
- Food Science Department, Agronomy and Veterinary Institute, Rabat, Morocco
| | - Hanaa Abdelmoumen
- Microbiology and Molecular Biology Team, Center of Plant and Microbial Biotechnology, Biodiversity and Environment, Faculty of Sciences, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Morocco
| | - Ilhame Bourais
- Laboratory of Human Pathologies Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Morocco; Mohammed VI University of Sciences and Health (UM6SS), Casablanca, Morocco; Mohammed VI Center for Research and Innovation (CM6RI), Rabat, Morocco.
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Rovetto EI, Luz C, La Spada F, Meca G, Riolo M, Cacciola SO. Diversity of Mycotoxins and Other Secondary Metabolites Recovered from Blood Oranges Infected by Colletotrichum, Alternaria, and Penicillium Species. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:407. [PMID: 37505676 PMCID: PMC10467077 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15070407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
This study identified secondary metabolites produced by Alternaria alternata, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, and Penicillium digitatum in fruits of two blood orange cultivars before harvest. Analysis was performed by UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS. Three types of fruits were selected, asymptomatic, symptomatic showing necrotic lesions caused by hail, and mummified. Extracts from peel and juice were analyzed separately. Penicillium digitatum was the prevalent species recovered from mummified and hail-injured fruits. Among 47 secondary metabolites identified, 16, 18, and 13 were of A. alternata, C. gloeosporioides, and P. digitatum, respectively. Consistently with isolations, indicating the presence of these fungi also in asymptomatic fruits, the metabolic profiles of the peel of hail-injured and asymptomatic fruits did not differ substantially. Major differences were found in the profiles of juice from hail-injured and mummified fruits, such as a significant higher presence of 5,4-dihydroxy-3,7,8-trimethoxy-6C-methylflavone and Atrovenetin, particularly in the juice of mummified fruits of the Tarocco Lempso cultivar. Moreover, the mycotoxins patulin and Rubratoxin B were detected exclusively in mummified fruits. Patulin was detected in both the juice and peel, with a higher relative abundance in the juice, while Rubratoxin B was detected only in the juice. These findings provide basic information for evaluating and preventing the risk of contamination by mycotoxins in the citrus fresh fruit supply chain and juice industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ermes Ivan Rovetto
- Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (E.I.R.); (F.L.S.)
| | - Carlos Luz
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Burjassot, 460100 València, Spain; (C.L.); (G.M.)
| | - Federico La Spada
- Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (E.I.R.); (F.L.S.)
| | - Giuseppe Meca
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Burjassot, 460100 València, Spain; (C.L.); (G.M.)
| | - Mario Riolo
- Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (E.I.R.); (F.L.S.)
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Burjassot, 460100 València, Spain; (C.L.); (G.M.)
| | - Santa Olga Cacciola
- Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (E.I.R.); (F.L.S.)
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Implementation of the HACCP System for Apple Juice Concentrate Based on Patulin Prevention and Control. Foods 2023; 12:foods12040786. [PMID: 36832860 PMCID: PMC9956176 DOI: 10.3390/foods12040786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Patulin (PAT) is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by Aspergillus sp. and Penicillium sp., which acts as a contaminant of most apples and their products. The internationally recognized HACCP system is selected as the theoretical basis to more effectively reduce the PAT in apple juice concentrate (AJC). Through field investigation of apple juice concentrate (AJC) production enterprises, we collected 117 samples from 13 steps of AJC production, including whole apple, apple pulp, and apple juice. PAT contents were analyzed via high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and compared with samples from the different production processes. The result demonstrated that the PAT content was significantly (p < 0.05) influenced by five processes, receipt of raw apples, sorting of raw apples, adsorption step, pasteurization, and aseptic filling. These processes were determined as the CCPs. Monitoring systems for maintaining CCPs within acceptable limits were established, and corrective actions were proposed in case a CCP was surpassed. Based on the above-identified CCPs, critical limits, and control methods (corrective actions), a HACCP plan related to the production process of AJC was established. This study provided important guidance for juice manufacturers wishing to effectively control the PAT content in their products.
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Küçük N, Şahin S, Çağlayan MO. An Overview of Biosensors for the Detection of Patulin Focusing on Aptamer-Based Strategies. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2023:1-13. [PMID: 36719654 DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2023.2172677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Patulin is a low molecular weight mycotoxin and poses a global problem, especially threatening food safety. It is also resistant to processing temperatures and is commonly found in fruits and vegetables. Studies have shown that it has toxic effects on animals and humans and the severity of patulin toxicity depends on the amount ingested. Therefore, the consumption of contaminated products, especially in infants and children, is important. The maximum daily intake of PAT that can be tolerated is found to be 0.4 µg/kg body weight to prevent chronic effects and the maximum residue limits in food samples were given as 50 ng/g (∼320 nM). Conventional methods for the detection of PAT have many disadvantages such as the use of expensive equipment, the need for trained personnel, and complicated sample preparation steps. To this extent, various numbers of research have been conducted on selective and sensitive detection of patulin using biosensor platforms in various media. This review presents an overview of the current literature dealing with the studies to develop patulin-specific aptamer-based biosensors and adapts various immobilization methods to increase the sensor response using different nanomaterials. Furthermore, a comparison of biosensors with conventional methods is presented using analytical performance parameters and their practicality for the detection of patulin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Netice Küçük
- Department of Biotechnology, Bilecik Seyh Edebali University, Bilecik, Turkey
| | - Samet Şahin
- Department of Bioengineering, Bilecik Seyh Edebali University, Bilecik, Turkey
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Bacha SAS, Li Y, Nie J, Xu G, Han L, Farooq S. Comprehensive review on patulin and Alternaria toxins in fruit and derived products. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1139757. [PMID: 37077634 PMCID: PMC10108681 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1139757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by certain fungi, which can contaminate various food commodities, including fruits and their derived products. Patulin and Alternaria toxins are among the most commonly encountered mycotoxins in fruit and their derived products. In this review, the sources, toxicity, and regulations related to these mycotoxins, as well as their detection and mitigation strategies are widely discussed. Patulin is a mycotoxin produced mainly by the fungal genera Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Byssochlamys. Alternaria toxins, produced by fungi in the Alternaria genus, are another common group of mycotoxins found in fruits and fruit products. The most prevalent Alternaria toxins are alternariol (AOH) and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME). These mycotoxins are of concern due to their potential negative effects on human health. Ingesting fruits contaminated with these mycotoxins can cause acute and chronic health problems. Detection of patulin and Alternaria toxins in fruit and their derived products can be challenging due to their low concentrations and the complexity of the food matrices. Common analytical methods, good agricultural practices, and contamination monitoring of these mycotoxins are important for safe consumption of fruits and derived products. And Future research will continue to explore new methods for detecting and managing these mycotoxins, with the ultimate goal of ensuring the safety and quality of fruits and derived product supply.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syed Asim Shah Bacha
- Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Fruit, Research Institute of Pomology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Xingcheng, Liaoning, China
| | - Yinping Li
- Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Fruit, Research Institute of Pomology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Xingcheng, Liaoning, China
- *Correspondence: Jiyun Nie, ; Yinping Li,
| | - Jiyun Nie
- College of Horticulture, Qingdao Agricultural University/Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Fruit (Qingdao), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/National Technology Centre for Whole Process Quality Control of FSEN Horticultural Products (Qingdao)/Qingdao Key Lab of Modern Agriculture Quality and Safety Engineering, Qingdao, China
- *Correspondence: Jiyun Nie, ; Yinping Li,
| | - Guofeng Xu
- Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Fruit, Research Institute of Pomology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Xingcheng, Liaoning, China
| | - Lingxi Han
- College of Horticulture, Qingdao Agricultural University/Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Fruit (Qingdao), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/National Technology Centre for Whole Process Quality Control of FSEN Horticultural Products (Qingdao)/Qingdao Key Lab of Modern Agriculture Quality and Safety Engineering, Qingdao, China
| | - Saqib Farooq
- Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Fruit, Research Institute of Pomology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Xingcheng, Liaoning, China
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Influence of processing steps on the fate of ochratoxin A, patulin, and alternariol during production of cloudy and clear apple juices. Mycotoxin Res 2021; 37:341-354. [PMID: 34693499 PMCID: PMC8571144 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-021-00443-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are frequently found in fruits and fruit juices. However, data about occurrence and fate of mycotoxins along the fruit juice processing chain are currently insufficient. Herein, a liquid chromatographic/tandem mass spectrometric (LC–MS/MS) multi-mycotoxin method was developed and applied to investigate the effect of technological unit operations on the fate of three of the most relevant mycotoxins along the processing chain for cloudy and clear apple juice, namely patulin (PAT), ochratoxin A (OTA), and alternariol (AOH). Raw juice obtained directly after dejuicing was spiked with the aforementioned mycotoxins at pilot-plant scale prior to subjecting it to different technological unit operations. Regarding clear apple juice production treatment with a pectinolytic enzyme preparation, and pasteurization were insignificant for mycotoxin reduction, but fining with subsequent filtration was effective, although the mycotoxins showed different affinity towards the tested agents. The most effective fining agent was activated charcoal/bentonite in combination with ultrafiltration, which removed OTA (54 µg/L) and AOH (79 µg/L) to not quantifiable amounts (limit of quantification (LOQ) 1.4 and 4.6 µg/L, respectively), while PAT was reduced only by 20% (from 396 to 318 µg/L). Regarding cloudy apple juice production, all studied processing steps such as centrifugation and pasteurization were ineffective in reducing mycotoxin levels. In brief, none of the common steps of clear and cloudy apple juice production represented a fully effective safety step for minimizing or even eliminating common mycotoxins. Thus, ensuring the sole use of sound apples should be of utmost importance for processors, particularly for those manufacturing cloudy juices.
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Aslam K, Iqbal SZ, Razis AFA, Usman S, Ali NB. Patulin Contamination of Citrus Fruits from Punjab and Northern Pakistan and Estimation of Associated Dietary Intake. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:2270. [PMID: 33668973 PMCID: PMC7956212 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18052270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
This research aims to assess the natural occurrence of patulin (PAT) in selected citrus fruits from central cities of Punjab and Pakistan's northern cities. A total of 2970 fruit samples from 12 citrus cultivars were examined using liquid chromatography fitted with a UV detector. The detection limit (LOD) and quantification limit were 0.04 and 0.12 µg/kg, respectively. About 56% of samples of citrus fruits from Punjab's central cities, Pakistan, were found to be contaminated with PAT, with values ranging from 0.12 to 1150 µg/kg in samples from central Punjab cities. Furthermore, 31.7% of samples of citrus fruits from northern cities of Pakistan were contaminated with PAT, with values ranging from 0.12 to 320 µg/kg. About 22.1% of citrus fruit samples had PAT levels greater than the suggested limits established by the European Union (EU). The dietary intake levels of PAT ranged from 0.10 to 1.11 µg/kg bw/day in the central cities of Punjab, Pakistan, and 0.13 to 1.93 µg/kg bw/day in the northern cities of Pakistan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kinza Aslam
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Government College University Faisalabad, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan;
| | - Shahzad Zafar Iqbal
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Government College University Faisalabad, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan;
| | - Ahmad Faizal Abdull Razis
- Natural Medicines and Products Research Laboratory, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia;
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia;
| | - Sunusi Usman
- Natural Medicines and Products Research Laboratory, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia;
| | - Nada Basheir Ali
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia;
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The characteristics of patulin detoxification by Lactobacillus plantarum 13M5. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 146:111787. [PMID: 33031840 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Patulin (PAT) is a widespread mycotoxin that harms the health of both humans and animals. In this study, among the 17 tested Lactobacillus plantarum strains, L. plantarum 13M5, isolated from traditional Chinese fermented foods, showed the highest PAT degradation rate of up to 43.8% (PAT 5 mg/L). Evaluation of the living and dead 13M5 cells revealed that only the living cells had the ability to remove PAT and degrade it into E-ascladiol. A cell-based assay revealed that L. plantarum 13M5 administration alleviated PAT-induced injuries in Caco-2 cells, including cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, and tight junction disruption. Our results suggest that L. plantarum 13M5 has the potential to reduce PAT toxicity and can thus be used as a probiotic supplement to reduce or eliminate the toxicity of PAT ingested from diet.
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Lien KW, Ling MP, Pan MH. Probabilistic risk assessment of patulin in imported apple juice and apple-containing beverages in Taiwan. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2020; 100:4776-4781. [PMID: 32458424 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.10536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2019] [Revised: 02/22/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In Taiwan, nearly 90% of apples and raw ingredients for apple-based products are imported. Apple juices (137 samples) and apple-containing beverages (35 samples) were collected in Taiwan from imported food and analyzed for patulin content. RESULTS The results revealed that the incidence levels of patulin for apple juice and apple-containing beverages are 5.84% and 5.71%. The mean contamination levels were 1.7 and 1.4 μg kg-1 for apple juice and apple-containing beverages. One sample exceeded 50 μg kg-1 , the maximum permissible limit according to the Taiwan Sanitation Standard for the Tolerance of Mycotoxins in Foods. The estimated intake of patulin for consumers ranged from 5.4 to 18.0 ng kg-1 body weight per day for apple juice and between 6.1 and 11.2 ng kg-1 body weight for apple-containing beverages. The highest average patulin intake was observed among infants aged 0-3 years, followed by children aged 4-12 years old. Finally, the hazard index (HI) for the 50th, 90th, and 95th percentiles are 0.0186, 0.1201, and 0.2048, respectively, for infants aged 0-3 years. CONCLUSION The dietary intake of patulin from imported apple juices and apple-containing beverages is well below the safety levels and does not present a risk for adult and children consumers. However, it is important to point out that we only analyzed imported apple juices and apple-containing beverages. More studies are necessary to establish if the HI for patulin will still remain below 1 when other foods and beverages are included in the risk calculations. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keng-Wen Lien
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Min-Pei Ling
- Department of Food Science, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung City, Taiwan
| | - Min-Hsiung Pan
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, Taipei City, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung City, Taiwan
- Department of Health and Nutrition Biotechnology, Asia University, Taichung City, Taiwan
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Wei C, Yu L, Qiao N, Zhao J, Zhang H, Zhai Q, Tian F, Chen W. Progress in the distribution, toxicity, control, and detoxification of patulin: A review. Toxicon 2020; 184:83-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Revised: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 05/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Moreno-González D, Jáč P, Riasová P, Nováková L. In-line molecularly imprinted polymer solid phase extraction-capillary electrophoresis coupled with tandem mass spectrometry for the determination of patulin in apple-based food. Food Chem 2020; 334:127607. [PMID: 32711279 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Revised: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
We present a simple and sensitive method for the determination of patulin at µg·kg-1 level in apple-based products. Our method relies on the application of an in-line molecularly imprinted polymer solid-phase extraction microcartridge in capillary electrophoresis coupled with mass spectrometry. Capillary zone electrophoresis method has been developed and parameters affecting the in-line process have been carefully optimized. Validation parameters were assessed for patulin, giving LOQ of 1 µg·kg-1 and linearity range 1-100 µg·kg-1 with R2 ≥ 0.997. The LOQ was below the maximum content of patulin requested by the European Union in this type of products. The precision of the peak area and the migration time were less than 14.9 and 1.6%, respectively. Patulin has been analyzed in the presence of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, which is the main interference in this kind of matrix. The method was applied to assay patulin content in various apple-based products.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Moreno-González
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy in Hradec Králové, Charles University, Akademika Heyrovského 1203, 500 05 Hradec Králové, Czech Republic.
| | - Pavel Jáč
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy in Hradec Králové, Charles University, Akademika Heyrovského 1203, 500 05 Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
| | - Petra Riasová
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy in Hradec Králové, Charles University, Akademika Heyrovského 1203, 500 05 Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
| | - Lucie Nováková
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy in Hradec Králové, Charles University, Akademika Heyrovského 1203, 500 05 Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
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HARTWIG N, FERREIRA CFJ, COLAZZO CC, KUPSKI L, BADIALE-FURLONG E. Dry fruit as source of fungal contaminants or functional compounds? FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1590/fst.32118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Saleh I, Goktepe I. Health risk assessment of Patulin intake through apples and apple-based foods sold in Qatar. Heliyon 2019; 5:e02754. [PMID: 31844700 PMCID: PMC6895755 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2019] [Revised: 09/29/2019] [Accepted: 10/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
This is the first report on assessing the non-carcinogenic health risk associated with Patulin exposure in Qatar. The concentrations of Patulin, as determined in previous studies, in apples, apple juice, and apple-based baby foods sold in Qatar and nearby countries were used to conduct the health risk assessment (HRA). The risk related to Patulin intake by different age groups was calculated using the USEPA risk assessment models. The intake levels (ILs) of various age groups was compared with the international standards. The highest IL in Qatar was for babies between 5-12 months old through ingesting contaminated apple-based baby foods, yet those levels were below the tolerable daily intake of Patulin set by the EU at 0.4 μg/kg BW/d. The results showed that the intake of Patulin in Qatar is lower than that in Tunisia and Iran based on the HRA analysis. The risk caused by chronic exposure to Patulin through ingesting raw apples and apple juice separately was below “1,” indicating that the overall population is not likely to be at risk of Patulin exposure. However, various uncertainties should be considered when adopting these results, mainly the low number of samples and additive exposure to other mycotoxins from different sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iman Saleh
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, College of Art and Science, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar
| | - Ipek Goktepe
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, College of Art and Science, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar
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Saleh I, Goktepe I. The characteristics, occurrence, and toxicological effects of patulin. Food Chem Toxicol 2019; 129:301-311. [PMID: 31029720 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2019.04.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Revised: 04/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/21/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are the secondary metabolites secreted by different types of fungi to which humans can get exposed mainly via ingestion. Patulin (C7H6O4) is a polyketide lactone produced by various fungal specifies, including Penicillium expansum as the main producer. P. expansum can infect different fruits and vegetables yet it has preference to apples in which they cause blue rot. Therefore, apples and apple-based food products are the main source of Patulin exposure for humans. Patulin was first identified in 1943 under the name of tercinin as a possible antimicrobial agent. Although it is categorized as a non-carcinogen, Patulin has been linked, in the last decades, to neurological, gastrointestinal, and immunological adverse effects, mainly causing liver and kidney damages. In this review, the characteristics of and possible human exposure pathways to Patulin are discussed. Various surveillance and toxicity studies on the levels of Patulin in various food products and effects of Patulin on cells and animal models have been documented as well. Importance of epidemiological studies and a summary of the possible toxicity mechanisms are highlighted with a case study. The commonly used control methods as described in the literature are also discussed to guide future researchers to focus on mitigating mycotoxins contamination in the food industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iman Saleh
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, College of Art and Science, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar.
| | - Ipek Goktepe
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, College of Art and Science, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar
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Zhong L, Carere J, Lu Z, Lu F, Zhou T. Patulin in Apples and Apple-Based Food Products: The Burdens and the Mitigation Strategies. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E475. [PMID: 30445713 PMCID: PMC6267208 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10110475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Revised: 11/09/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Apples and apple-based products are among the most popular foods around the world for their delightful flavors and health benefits. However, the commonly found mold, Penicillium expansum invades wounded apples, causing the blue mold decay and ensuing the production of patulin, a mycotoxin that negatively affects human health. Patulin contamination in apple products has been a worldwide problem without a satisfactory solution yet. A comprehensive understanding of the factors and challenges associated with patulin accumulation in apples is essential for finding such a solution. This review will discuss the effects of the pathogenicity of Penicillium species, quality traits of apple cultivars, and environmental conditions on the severity of apple blue mold and patulin contamination. Moreover, beyond the complicated interactions of the three aforementioned factors, patulin control is also challenged by the lack of reliable detection methods in food matrices, as well as unclear degradation mechanisms and limited knowledge about the toxicities of the metabolites resulting from the degradations. As apple-based products are mainly produced with stored apples, pre- and post-harvest strategies are equally important for patulin mitigation. Before storage, disease-resistance breeding, orchard-management, and elicitor(s) application help control the patulin level by improving the storage qualities of apples and lowering fruit rot severity. From storage to processing, patulin mitigation strategies could benefit from the optimization of apple storage conditions, the elimination of rotten apples, and the safe and effective detoxification or biodegradation of patulin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhong
- College of Food Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Xuanwu District, Nanjing 210095, China.
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 93 Stone Road West, Guelph, ON N1G 5C9, Canada.
| | - Jason Carere
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 93 Stone Road West, Guelph, ON N1G 5C9, Canada.
| | - Zhaoxin Lu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Xuanwu District, Nanjing 210095, China.
| | - Fengxia Lu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Xuanwu District, Nanjing 210095, China.
| | - Ting Zhou
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 93 Stone Road West, Guelph, ON N1G 5C9, Canada.
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Sadok I, Stachniuk A, Staniszewska M. Developments in the Monitoring of Patulin in Fruits Using Liquid Chromatography: an Overview. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-018-1340-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Diao E, Chu X, Hou H, Dong H, Gao D. Improving the safety of apple juice by UV irradiation. JOURNAL OF FOOD MEASUREMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11694-018-9815-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Torović L, Dimitrov N, Lopes A, Martins C, Alvito P, Assunção R. Patulin in fruit juices: occurrence, bioaccessibility, and risk assessment for Serbian population. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2018; 35:985-995. [PMID: 29279001 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2017.1419580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
This paper reports the first study of patulin occurrence in fruit juices and risk assessment related to patulin intake by children, adolescents and adults in Serbia. During 3 consecutive years (2013-2015), 142 fruit (apple or multi-fruit) juices were collected from the market and analysed using HPLC-UV. Patulin was found in 51.4% of juices with 0.7% of the samples in excess of the legal limit of 50 μg kg-1 (mean 4.3 μg kg-1). Apple juices showed significantly higher percentage of contaminated samples (74.0% vs 27.5%), as well as higher mean patulin content (6.4 vs 2.1 μg kg-1) when compared with the multi-fruit ones. Bioaccessibility of patulin in fruit juices was studied using the standardised in vitro digestion method. A mean of 21.6% of the initial patulin amount reached the end of the intestinal phase showing a significant reduction of this toxin during the human digestion process. Risk assessment of patulin intake by Serbian children, adolescents and adults, conducted by deterministic and probabilistic approaches and including the bioaccessibility results, revealed no health concern. Although patulin alone does not represent risk, further research should consider its co-occurrence with other toxic substances in food and potential adverse effects of their mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ljilja Torović
- a University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Medicine , Department of Pharmacy , Novi Sad , Serbia.,b Institute of Public Health of Vojvodina, Center for Hygiene and Human Ecology , Novi Sad , Serbia
| | - Nina Dimitrov
- a University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Medicine , Department of Pharmacy , Novi Sad , Serbia
| | - André Lopes
- c Food and Nutrition Department , National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge , Lisboa , Portugal.,d Faculty of Sciences , University of Lisbon , Lisboa , Portugal
| | - Carla Martins
- c Food and Nutrition Department , National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge , Lisboa , Portugal.,e CESAM , University of Aveiro , Aveiro , Portugal.,f National School of Public Health , NOVA University of Lisbon , Lisboa , Portugal
| | - Paula Alvito
- c Food and Nutrition Department , National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge , Lisboa , Portugal.,e CESAM , University of Aveiro , Aveiro , Portugal
| | - Ricardo Assunção
- c Food and Nutrition Department , National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge , Lisboa , Portugal.,e CESAM , University of Aveiro , Aveiro , Portugal
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Iqbal SZ, Malik S, Asi MR, Selamat J, Malik N. Natural occurrence of patulin in different fruits, juices and smoothies and evaluation of dietary intake in Punjab, Pakistan. Food Control 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.08.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Torović L, Dimitrov N, Assunção R, Alvito P. Risk assessment of patulin intake through apple-based food by infants and preschool children in Serbia. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2017; 34:2023-2032. [PMID: 28783008 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2017.1364434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
This study reports for the first time in Serbia the occurrence of patulin in apple-based food and the risk assessment associated with patulin intake by infants and preschool children. In total, 214 samples of infant fruit juices (48), infant purée (66), and juices for children (small package with straw, 100) were collected over 3 years (2013-15) and analysed using HPLC with ultraviolet detection. Patulin was found in 43.8% of infant juices and 16.7% of infant purée, with all values below the legal limit of 10 μg kg-1 (maximum 8.3 and 7.7 μg kg-1, respectively). The proportion of contaminated samples among fruit juices for children was 43.0%, with the highest patulin concentration at 30.2 μg kg-1, not exceeding the maximum allowed level of 50 μg kg-1. Risk assessment of patulin intake by Serbian infants and preschool children, conducted by deterministic and probabilistic approaches, revealed a hazard quotient well below 1, indicating a tolerable exposure level and no health concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ljilja Torović
- a University of Novi Sad , Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacy , Novi Sad , Serbia.,b Centre for Hygiene and Human Ecology , Institute of Public Health of Vojvodina , Novi Sad , Serbia
| | - Nina Dimitrov
- a University of Novi Sad , Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacy , Novi Sad , Serbia
| | - Ricardo Assunção
- c Food and Nutrition Department , National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge , Lisboa , Portugal.,d IIFA, Instituto de Investigação e Formação Avançada , Universidade de Évora, Palácio do Vimioso , Évora , Portugal.,e CESAM, Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro , Campus Universitário de Santiago , Aveiro , Portugal
| | - Paula Alvito
- c Food and Nutrition Department , National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge , Lisboa , Portugal.,e CESAM, Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro , Campus Universitário de Santiago , Aveiro , Portugal
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Shi H, Yu P. Advanced synchrotron-based and globar-sourced molecular (micro) spectroscopy contributions to advances in food and feed research on molecular structure, mycotoxin determination, and molecular nutrition. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2017; 58:2164-2175. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2017.1303769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Haitao Shi
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada
| | - Peiqiang Yu
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada
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Oteiza JM, Khaneghah AM, Campagnollo FB, Granato D, Mahmoudi MR, Sant’Ana AS, Gianuzzi L. Influence of production on the presence of patulin and ochratoxin A in fruit juices and wines of Argentina. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2017.02.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Tannous J, Keller NP, Atoui A, El Khoury A, Lteif R, Oswald IP, Puel O. Secondary metabolism in Penicillium expansum: Emphasis on recent advances in patulin research. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2017; 58:2082-2098. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2017.1305945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Tannous
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1550 Linden Dr., Madison, Wisconsin, USA
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
- Université Saint-Joseph, Centre d'Analyses et de Recherche, Unité de Technologie et Valorisation Alimentaire, Campus des Sciences et Technologies, Mar Roukos, Mkallès, Riad El Solh, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Nancy P. Keller
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1550 Linden Dr., Madison, Wisconsin, USA
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Ali Atoui
- Laboratory of Microorganisms and Food Irradiation, Lebanese Atomic Energy Commission-CNRS, Riad El Solh, Beirut, Lebanon
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Lebanese University, Hadath Campus, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - André El Khoury
- Université Saint-Joseph, Centre d'Analyses et de Recherche, Unité de Technologie et Valorisation Alimentaire, Campus des Sciences et Technologies, Mar Roukos, Mkallès, Riad El Solh, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Roger Lteif
- Université Saint-Joseph, Centre d'Analyses et de Recherche, Unité de Technologie et Valorisation Alimentaire, Campus des Sciences et Technologies, Mar Roukos, Mkallès, Riad El Solh, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Isabelle P. Oswald
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Olivier Puel
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
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Zoghi A, Khosravi-Darani K, Sohrabvandi S, Attar H, Alavi SA. Effect of probiotics on patulin removal from synbiotic apple juice. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2017; 97:2601-2609. [PMID: 27785791 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.8082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2015] [Revised: 07/09/2016] [Accepted: 10/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Studies have reported the occurrence of the mycotoxin patulin in apple products. The aim of this study was to produce synbiotic apple juice and investigate the detoxification of patulin by Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus plantarum as probiotic strains. The impact of seven process variables on efficiency of toxin removal was investigated using Plackett-Burman design and presence of the surface-layer proteins as binding site of probiotics to patulin was confirmed during 6 weeks of cold storage. RESULTS Results showed that the removal of patulin by probiotic bacteria from apple juice depends significantly (P < 0.05) on the fructooligosaccharide content (as a prebiotic), concentration of patulin and the addition of ascorbic acid. Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of cell surface proteins of probiotic strains revealed that surface layer proteins have an important role in patulin removal from apple juice. In the best conditions, 91.23% of initial patulin concentration was removed from juice during 6 weeks refrigerated storage. No significant difference was observed in organoleptic properties of the synbiotic apple juice and raw sample. CONCLUSION In the best condition reported in this study, contaminated synbiotic apple juice by patulin will be safe for consumers after the first day of probiotic inoculation. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alaleh Zoghi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Kianoush Khosravi-Darani
- Research Department of Food Technology, National Nutrition and food Technology Research Institute, Faculty of Food and Nutrition Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, P.O. Box 19395-4741, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sara Sohrabvandi
- Research Department of Food Technology, National Nutrition and food Technology Research Institute, Faculty of Food and Nutrition Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, P.O. Box 19395-4741, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hosein Attar
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sayed Abolhasan Alavi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
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Yang Y, Yang Y, Shao B, Zhang J. A Simple and Rapid Method for Determination of Patulin in Juice by High Performance Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-017-0859-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Patulin and ochratoxin A co-occurrence and their bioaccessibility in processed cereal-based foods: A contribution for Portuguese children risk assessment. Food Chem Toxicol 2016; 96:205-14. [PMID: 27497766 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2016.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2016] [Revised: 07/27/2016] [Accepted: 08/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Patulin (PAT) and ochratoxin A (OTA) are well known enteropathogenic mycotoxins that are present in several foodstuffs. Processed cereal-based foods are among the first solid foods eaten by children, a particularly vulnerable population group. There is a lack of knowledge related to the co-occurrence of PAT and OTA in food intended for children consumption and their potential interactions during the digestion process. The present study aims to evaluate, for the first time, the co-occurrence of PAT and OTA in processed cereal-based foods for children consumption, the bioaccessibility of these two mycotoxins, and the contribution of the bioaccessibility data for human health risk assessment. PAT and OTA incidence were 75% and 50%, respectively. These mycotoxins co-occurred in 40% of analysed samples. Bioaccessibility assays revealed mean values of 52% and 56% for PAT, alone and combined with OTA; and 100% and 106% for OTA, alone and combined with PAT. Considering the human health risk assessment, and taking into account the co-occurrence and the bioaccessibility results, this study indicates a tolerable exposure to these mycotoxins representing a low risk for Portuguese children. The present work reinforces the importance of a holistic approach for risk assessment which gathers data from occurrence, exposure and bioaccessibility.
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Wang Y, Wen Y, Ling YC. Graphene Oxide-Based Magnetic Solid Phase Extraction Combined with High Performance Liquid Chromatography for Determination of Patulin in Apple Juice. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-016-0570-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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28
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Molecularly imprinted polymer-based materials as thin films on silica supports for efficient adsorption of Patulin. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2016.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Saladino F, Manyes L, Luciano FB, Mañes J, Fernandez-Franzon M, Meca G. Bioactive compounds from mustard flours for the control of patulin production in wheat tortillas. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2015.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Molecular characterization of patulin producing and non-producing Penicillium species in apples from Morocco. Int J Food Microbiol 2015; 217:137-40. [PMID: 26513254 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2015.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2015] [Revised: 09/17/2015] [Accepted: 10/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The isolation of patulin-producing Penicillia in apples collected in different markets in four localities in Morocco is reported. Fungi were identified by β-tubulin sequencing and further characterized using a specific PCR-based method targeting the isoepoxydon dehydrogenase (IDH) gene to discriminate between patulin-producing and non-producing strains. Production of patulin was also evaluated using standard cultural and biochemical methods. Results showed that 79.5% of contaminant fungi belonged to the genus Penicillium and that Penicillium expansum was the most isolated species (83.9%) followed by Penicillium chrysogenum (~9.7%) and Penicillium crustosum (~6.4%). Molecular analysis revealed that 64.5% of the Penicillium species produced the expected IDH-amplicon denoting patulin production in these strains. However, patulin production was not chemically confirmed in all P. expansum strains. The isolation of IDH(-)/patulin(+) strains poses the hypothesis that gentisylaldehyde is not a direct patulin precursor, supporting previous observations that highlighted the importance of the gentisyl alcohol in the production of this mycotoxin. Total agreement between IDH-gene detection and cultural/chemical methods employed was observed in 58% of P. expansum strains and for 100% of the other species isolated. Overall the data reported here showed a substantial genetic variability within P. expansum population from Morocco.
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Manyes L, Luciano FB, Mañes J, Meca G. In vitro antifungal activity of allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) against Aspergillus parasiticus and Penicillium expansum and evaluation of the AITC estimated daily intake. Food Chem Toxicol 2015; 83:293-9. [PMID: 26140951 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2015.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2015] [Revised: 06/08/2015] [Accepted: 06/16/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Isothiocyanates (ITCs) are natural compounds derived from cruciferous vegetables produced by enzymatic conversion of metabolites called glucosinolates. They are potentially useful antimicrobial compounds for food applications have been shown to be promising agents against cancer in human cell culture, animal models, and in epidemiological studies. In this study, the antifungal activity of the allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) was evaluated on two mycotoxigenic fungi as Aspergillus parasiticus and Penicillium expnsum, aflatoxins (AFs) and patulin (PAT) producers, employing an assay on solid medium. Also an approximation of the risk evaluation associated to the intake of food treated with the AITC to reduce the risk of fungi spoilage has been evaluated. On solid medium and after 20 days incubation the strain of Penicillium expansum was inhibited with AITC quantities highest than 50 mg, whereas the strain of A. parasiticus was sensible to AITC doses highest than 5 mg. The analysis of the risk assessment associated to the intake of several food classes treated with the bioactive compound AITC to prevent fungi spoilage evidenced that this product can be considered as safe due that the estimated daily intakes (EDIs) are always lower than the AITC Admissible Daily intake (ADI).
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Affiliation(s)
- L Manyes
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - F B Luciano
- School of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná, BR 376 Km 14, São José dos Pinhais, PR 83010-500, Brazil
| | - J Mañes
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - G Meca
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain.
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Zouaoui N, Sbaii N, Bacha H, Abid-Essefi S. Occurrence of patulin in various fruit juice marketed in Tunisia. Food Control 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2014.09.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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33
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Mahunu GK, Zhang H, Yang Q, Li C, Zheng X. Biological Control of Patulin by Antagonistic Yeast: A case study and possible model. Crit Rev Microbiol 2015; 42:643-55. [DOI: 10.3109/1040841x.2015.1009823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gustav Komla Mahunu
- Jiangsu University, School of Food and Biological Engineering, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Hongyin Zhang
- Jiangsu University, School of Food and Biological Engineering, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Qiya Yang
- Jiangsu University, School of Food and Biological Engineering, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Chaolan Li
- Jiangsu University, School of Food and Biological Engineering, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Xiangfeng Zheng
- Jiangsu University, School of Food and Biological Engineering, Zhenjiang, China
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Tannous J, Atoui A, El Khoury A, Kantar S, Chdid N, Oswald IP, Puel O, Lteif R. Development of a real-time PCR assay for Penicillium expansum quantification and patulin estimation in apples. Food Microbiol 2015; 50:28-37. [PMID: 25998812 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2015.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2014] [Revised: 01/19/2015] [Accepted: 03/02/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Due to the occurrence and spread of the fungal contaminants in food and the difficulties to remove their resulting mycotoxins, rapid and accurate methods are needed for early detection of these mycotoxigenic fungi. The polymerase chain reaction and the real time PCR have been widely used for this purpose. Apples are suitable substrates for fungal colonization mostly caused by Penicillium expansum, which produces the mycotoxin patulin during fruit infection. This study describes the development of a real-time PCR assay incorporating an internal amplification control (IAC) to specifically detect and quantify P. expansum. A specific primer pair was designed from the patF gene, involved in patulin biosynthesis. The selected primer set showed a high specificity for P. expansum and was successfully employed in a standardized real-time PCR for the direct quantification of this fungus in apples. Using the developed system, twenty eight apples were analyzed for their DNA content. Apples were also analyzed for patulin content by HPLC. Interestingly, a positive correlation (R(2) = 0.701) was found between P. expansum DNA content and patulin concentration. This work offers an alternative to conventional methods of patulin quantification and mycological detection of P. expansum and could be very useful for the screening of patulin in fruits through the application of industrial quality control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Tannous
- Université Saint-Joseph, Centre d'Analyses et de Recherche (Faculté des Sciences), Campus des Sciences et Technologies, Mar Roukos, Mkallès, P.O Box 11-514, Riad El Solh, 1107 2050 Beirut, Lebanon; INRA, UMR 1331 Toxalim, Research Centre in Food Toxicology, 180 Chemin de Tournefeuille, F-31027 Toulouse, Cedex, France; Université de Toulouse III, ENVT, INP, UMR 1331, Toxalim, F-31076, Toulouse, France
| | - Ali Atoui
- Laboratory of Microorganisms and Food Irradiation, Lebanese Atomic Energy Commission-CNRS, P.O. Box 11-8281, Riad El Solh, 1107 2260 Beirut, Lebanon.
| | - André El Khoury
- Université Saint-Joseph, Centre d'Analyses et de Recherche (Faculté des Sciences), Campus des Sciences et Technologies, Mar Roukos, Mkallès, P.O Box 11-514, Riad El Solh, 1107 2050 Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Sally Kantar
- Université Saint-Joseph, Centre d'Analyses et de Recherche (Faculté des Sciences), Campus des Sciences et Technologies, Mar Roukos, Mkallès, P.O Box 11-514, Riad El Solh, 1107 2050 Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Nader Chdid
- Université Saint-Joseph, Centre d'Analyses et de Recherche (Faculté des Sciences), Campus des Sciences et Technologies, Mar Roukos, Mkallès, P.O Box 11-514, Riad El Solh, 1107 2050 Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Isabelle P Oswald
- INRA, UMR 1331 Toxalim, Research Centre in Food Toxicology, 180 Chemin de Tournefeuille, F-31027 Toulouse, Cedex, France; Université de Toulouse III, ENVT, INP, UMR 1331, Toxalim, F-31076, Toulouse, France
| | - Olivier Puel
- INRA, UMR 1331 Toxalim, Research Centre in Food Toxicology, 180 Chemin de Tournefeuille, F-31027 Toulouse, Cedex, France; Université de Toulouse III, ENVT, INP, UMR 1331, Toxalim, F-31076, Toulouse, France
| | - Roger Lteif
- Université Saint-Joseph, Centre d'Analyses et de Recherche (Faculté des Sciences), Campus des Sciences et Technologies, Mar Roukos, Mkallès, P.O Box 11-514, Riad El Solh, 1107 2050 Beirut, Lebanon
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Rahimi E, Rezapoor Jeiran M. Patulin and its dietary intake by fruit juice consumption in Iran. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS PART B-SURVEILLANCE 2014; 8:40-3. [DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2014.967814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Yang J, Li J, Jiang Y, Duan X, Qu H, Yang B, Chen F, Sivakumar D. Natural occurrence, analysis, and prevention of mycotoxins in fruits and their processed products. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2014; 54:64-83. [PMID: 24188233 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2011.569860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are small toxic chemical products formed as the secondary metabolites by fungi that readily contaminate foods with toxins in the field or after harvest. The presence of mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, and patulin, in fruits and their processed products is of high concern for human health due to their properties to induce severe acute and chronic toxicity at low-dose levels. Currently, a broad range of detection techniques used for practical analysis and detection of a wide spectrum of mycotoxins are available. Many analytical methods have been developed for the determination of each group of these mycotoxins in different food matrices, but new methods are still required to achieve higher sensitivity and address other challenges that are posed by these mycotoxins. Effective technologies are needed to reduce or even eliminate the presence of the mycotoxins in fruits and their processed products. Preventive measures aimed at the inhibition of mycotoxin formation in fruits and their processed products are the most effective approach. Detoxification of mycotoxins by different physical, chemical, and biological methods are less effective and sometimes restricted because of concerns of safety, possible losses in nutritional quality of the treated commodities and cost implications. This article reviewed the available information on the major mycotoxins found in foods and feeds, with an emphasis of fruits and their processed products, and the analytical methods used for their determination. Based on the current knowledge, the major strategies to prevent or even eliminate the presence of the mycotoxins in fruits and their processed products were proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinyi Yang
- a Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Sustainable Utilization, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences , People's Republic of China
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Oroian M, Amariei S, Gutt G. Patulin in apple juices from the Romanian market. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS PART B-SURVEILLANCE 2014; 7:147-50. [DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2013.861518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Montaseri H, Eskandari M, Yeganeh A, Karami S, Javidnia K, Dehghanzadeh G, Mesbahi G, Niakousari M. Patulin in apple leather in Iran. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS PART B-SURVEILLANCE 2013; 7:106-9. [DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2013.855825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Marin S, Ramos AJ, Cano-Sancho G, Sanchis V. Mycotoxins: occurrence, toxicology, and exposure assessment. Food Chem Toxicol 2013; 60:218-37. [PMID: 23907020 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.07.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 885] [Impact Index Per Article: 80.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2013] [Revised: 07/15/2013] [Accepted: 07/18/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are abiotic hazards produced by certain fungi that can grow on a variety of crops. Consequently, their prevalence in plant raw materials may be relatively high. The concentration of mycotoxins in finished products is usually lower than in raw materials. In this review, occurrence and toxicology of the main mycotoxins are summarised. Furthermore, methodological approaches for exposure assessment are described. Existing exposure assessments, both through contamination and consumption data and biomarkers of exposure, for the main mycotoxins are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Marin
- Food Technology Dept., UTPV-XaRTA, Agrotecnio Center, University of Lleida, Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain
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Piqué E, Vargas-Murga L, Gómez-Catalán J, Lapuente JD, Llobet JM. Occurrence of patulin in organic and conventional apple-based food marketed in Catalonia and exposure assessment. Food Chem Toxicol 2013; 60:199-204. [PMID: 23900007 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.07.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2013] [Revised: 07/18/2013] [Accepted: 07/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
In the last years, consumption of organic foods has become increasingly popular. Nevertheless, safety of organic foods is still unclear, and needs to be thoroughly evaluated. Patulin is a mycotoxin mainly present in rotten apples and apple-based products. The aim of this study is to analyse the content of patulin in apple juices and purees derived from organic and conventional production systems, in order to assess the risk to consumers, particularly in children. A total of 93 apple-based products marketed in Catalonia were analysed, 49 of which were derived from conventional and 44 from organic farming. The results showed higher incidence of positive samples and higher concentration of patulin in organic apple purees when comparing with conventional ones. In the case of juices, significant differences were found between conventional and organic samples, but applying a multivariate analysis the type of agriculture did not seem to have a relevant contribution to patulin occurrence, being cloudiness the main factor involved. The estimated daily intake of patulin for infants and young children (0-3 years old), children (4-18 years old) and adults (19-66 years old), were below the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of 0.4 μg/kg bw in all scenarios considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ester Piqué
- GRET-CERETOX and Toxicology Unit, Public Health Department, School of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Av. Joan XXIII s/n, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; Nutrition and Food Safety Research Institute (INSA·UB), Food and Nutrition Torribera Campus, Avda. Prat de la Riba 171, 08921 Santa Coloma de Gramenet, Spain.
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Beltrán E, Ibáñez M, Sancho JV, Hernández F. Determination of patulin in apple and derived products by UHPLC-MS/MS. Study of matrix effects with atmospheric pressure ionisation sources. Food Chem 2013; 142:400-7. [PMID: 24001858 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.07.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2013] [Revised: 07/12/2013] [Accepted: 07/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Sensitive and reliable analytical methodology has been developed for the measurement of patulin in regulated foodstuffs by using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) with triple quadrupole analyser. Solid samples were extracted with ethyl acetate, while liquid samples were directly injected into the chromatographic system after dilution and filtration without any clean-up step. Chromatographic separation was achieved in less than 4min. Electrospray (ESI) and atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation (APCI) sources were evaluated, in order to assess matrix effects. The use of ESI source caused strong signal suppression in samples; however, matrix effect was negligible using APCI, allowing quantification with calibration standards prepared in solvent. The method was validated in four different apple matrices (juice, fruit, puree and compote) at two concentrations at the low μgkg(-1) level. Average recoveries (n=5) ranged from 71% to 108%, with RSDs lower than 14%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Beltrán
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, E-12071 Castellón, Spain
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Güray T, Tuncel M, Uysal UD. A rapid determination of patulin using capillary zone electrophoresis and its application to analysis of apple juices. J Chromatogr Sci 2012; 51:310-7. [PMID: 22988003 DOI: 10.1093/chromsci/bms142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
This study describes a capillary zone electrophoretic method for the determination of patulin. An optimum run buffer was found to be 25 mM of sodium tetraborate and 10% acetonitrile (v/v) at pH 10. Optimum conditions were determined to be: an applied voltage of 25 kV (normal polarity), temperature of 25°C and injection time of 10 s at 50 mbar; the signals of patulin and phenobarbital as internal standard were detected at 276 nm. The method was highly reproducible, with relative standard deviations of 0.02-0.85 for intra-day and 0.04-0.42 for inter-day for standard patulin. Acceptable linearity [y = 0.0020C (μg/L) - 0.0680 (r = 0.9999)] was obtained over a concentration range of 0.25 to 4.99 µg/mL of patulin. The limits of detection and quantification were calculated to be 5.9 × 10(-3) and 1.79 × 10(-2) µg/mL, respectively. Recovery was 68.0%. The proposed method was applied to 21 apple juice samples purchased from different Turkish markets, and two were found to contain higher than the limits of the European Union Directive for patulin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tufan Güray
- Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Faculty of Arts and Science, Department of Chemistry, 26480, Eskişehir, Turkey.
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Zhou Y, Kong W, Li Y, Logrieco AF, Xu J, Yang M. A new solid-phase extraction and HPLC method for determination of patulin in apple products and hawthorn juice in China. J Sep Sci 2012; 35:641-9. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201100919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Weijun Kong
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development; Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences; Peking Union Medical College; Beijing; P. R. China
| | | | | | - Jun Xu
- Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine; Nanchang; P. R. China
| | - Meihua Yang
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development; Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences; Peking Union Medical College; Beijing; P. R. China
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Shephard G, Berthiller F, Burdaspal P, Crews C, Jonker M, Krska R, MacDonald S, Malone B, Maragos C, Sabino M, Solfrizzo M, van Egmond H, Whitaker T. Developments in mycotoxin analysis: an update for 2009-2010. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2011. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2010.1249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This review highlights developments in mycotoxin analysis and sampling over a period between mid-2009 and mid-2010. It covers the major mycotoxins aflatoxins, Alternaria toxins, ergot alkaloids, fumonisins, ochratoxin, patulin, trichothecenes, and zearalenone. New and improved methods for mycotoxins continue to be published. Immunological-based method developments continue to be of wide interest in a broad range of formats. Multimycotoxin determination by LC-MS/MS is now being targeted at the specific ranges of mycotoxins and matrices of interest or concern to the individual laboratory. Although falling outside the main emphasis of the review, some aspects of natural occurrence have been mentioned, especially if linked to novel method developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- G. Shephard
- PROMEC Unit, Medical Research Council, P.O. Box 19070, Tygerberg 7505, South Africa
| | - F. Berthiller
- Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences Vienna, Center for Analytical Chemistry, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Research, Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - P. Burdaspal
- National Centre for Food, Spanish Food Safety and Nutrition Agency, Carretera a Pozuelo Km 5.1, 28220 Majadahonda (Madrid), Spain
| | - C. Crews
- The Food and Environment Research Agency, Sand Hutton, York YO41 1LZ, United Kingdom
| | - M. Jonker
- RIKILT Institute of Food Safety, Cluster Natural Toxins & Pesticides, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - R. Krska
- Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences Vienna, Center for Analytical Chemistry, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Research, Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - S. MacDonald
- The Food and Environment Research Agency, Sand Hutton, York YO41 1LZ, United Kingdom
| | - B. Malone
- Trilogy Analytical Laboratory, 870 Vossbrink Drive, Washington, MO 63090, USA
| | - C. Maragos
- USDA, ARS, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, 1815 N. University St, Peoria, IL 61604, USA
| | - M. Sabino
- Instituto Adolfo Lutz, Av Dr Arnaldo 355, 01246-902 São Paulo/SP, Brazil
| | - M. Solfrizzo
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Via Amendola 122/o, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - H. van Egmond
- RIKILT Institute of Food Safety, Cluster Natural Toxins & Pesticides, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - T. Whitaker
- Biological and Agricultural Engineering Department, N.C. State University, P.O. Box 7625, Raleigh, NC 27695-7625, USA
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Murillo-Arbizu M, González-Peñas E, Amézqueta S. Comparison between capillary electrophoresis and high performance liquid chromatography for the study of the occurrence of patulin in apple juice intended for infants. Food Chem Toxicol 2010; 48:2429-34. [PMID: 20566341 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2010.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2010] [Revised: 05/31/2010] [Accepted: 06/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Apple juice samples intended for infants purchased in Navarra (Spain) have been analyzed for PAT occurrence. Two capillary electrophoresis methods, based on a MEKC and a CEC system, and an HPLC method were evaluated for the aforementioned study. The CEC system gave less satisfying separations and several practical problems, so samples have been analyzed by MEKC and HPLC. Both methods have been comparable in terms of recovery, precision, limits of detection, volume of organic solvents used and adequate selectivity with regard to PAT and HMF. The analysis time in HPLC has been slightly lower than in the MEKC methodology. The PAT levels obtained in apple juice by both validated methods showed a strong correlation (p<0.001). Therefore, both methodologies are useful for the accurate quantification of patulin in this matrix. The PAT levels obtained in the 20 infant apple juices samples were in a range between <LOD and 29.6 microg L(-1), with a mean concentration of 8.0 microg L(-1) which implies a dietary intake estimation of 104 ng kg(-1)b.w.day(-1) considering a body weight of 10 kg and an apple juice consumption of 130 mL day(-1), 26% of the PMTDI recommended by JECFA.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Murillo-Arbizu
- Organic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry Department, School of Pharmacy, University of Navarra, 31080 Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
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