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Dodlek Šarkanj I, Vahčić N, Markov K, Haramija J, Uršulin-Trstenjak N, Hajdek K, Sulyok M, Krska R, Šarkanj B. First Report on Mycotoxin Contamination of Hops ( Humulus lupulus L.). Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:293. [PMID: 39057933 PMCID: PMC11281705 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16070293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2024] [Revised: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The presence of mycotoxins and other toxic metabolites in hops (Humulus lupulus L.) was assessed for the first time. In total, 62 hop samples were sampled in craft breweries, and analyzed by a multi-toxin LS-MS/MS method. The study collected samples from craft breweries in all of the Croatian counties and statistically compared the results. Based on previous reports on Alternaria spp. and Fusarium spp. contamination of hops, the study confirmed the contamination of hops with these toxins. Alternaria toxins, particularly tenuazonic acid, were found in all tested samples, while Fusarium toxins, including deoxynivalenol, were present in 98% of samples. However, no Aspergillus or Penicillium metabolites were detected, indicating proper storage conditions. In addition to the Alternaria and Fusarium toxins, abscisic acid, a drought stress indicator in hops, was also detected, as well as several unspecific metabolites. The findings suggest the need for monitoring, risk assessment, and potential regulation of Alternaria and Fusarium toxins in hops to ensure the safety of hop usage in the brewing and pharmaceutical industries. Also, four local wild varieties were tested, with similar results to the commercial varieties for toxin contamination, but the statistically significant regional differences in toxin occurrence highlight the importance and need for targeted monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Dodlek Šarkanj
- Department of Food Technology, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, HR-48000 Koprivnica, Croatia; (I.D.Š.); (N.U.-T.)
| | - Nada Vahčić
- Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (N.V.); (K.M.)
| | - Ksenija Markov
- Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (N.V.); (K.M.)
| | - Josip Haramija
- Koprivnica Branch, State Inspectorate, Florijanski trg 18, HR-48000, Koprivnica, Croatia;
| | - Natalija Uršulin-Trstenjak
- Department of Food Technology, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, HR-48000 Koprivnica, Croatia; (I.D.Š.); (N.U.-T.)
| | - Krunoslav Hajdek
- Department of Packaging, Recycling and Environmental Protection, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, HR-48000 Koprivnica, Croatia;
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, AT-3430 Tulln, Austria; (M.S.); (R.K.)
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, AT-3430 Tulln, Austria; (M.S.); (R.K.)
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, University Road, Belfast BT7 1NN, UK
| | - Bojan Šarkanj
- Department of Food Technology, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, HR-48000 Koprivnica, Croatia; (I.D.Š.); (N.U.-T.)
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Saleh I, Zeidan R, Abu-Dieyeh M. The characteristics, occurrence, and toxicological effects of alternariol: a mycotoxin. Arch Toxicol 2024; 98:1659-1683. [PMID: 38662238 PMCID: PMC11106155 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-024-03743-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Alternaria species are mycotoxin-producing fungi known to infect fresh produce and to cause their spoilage. Humans get exposed to fungal secondary metabolites known as mycotoxin via the ingestion of contaminated food. Alternariol (AOH) (C14H10O5) is an isocoumarins produced by different species of Alternaria including Alternaria alternata. AOH is often found in grain, fruits and fruits-based food products with high levels in legumes, nuts, and tomatoes. AOH was first discovered in 1953, and it is nowadays linked to esophagus cancer and endocrine disruption due to its similarity to estrogen. Although considered as an emerging mycotoxin with no regulated levels in food, AOH occurs in highly consumed dietary products and has been detected in various masked forms, which adds to its occurrence. Therefore, this comprehensive review was developed to give an overview on recent literature in the field of AOH. The current study summarizes published data on occurrence levels of AOH in different food products in the last ten years and evaluates those levels in comparison to recommended levels by the regulating entities. Such surveillance facilitates the work of health risk assessors and highlights commodities that are most in need of AOH levels regulation. In addition, the effects of AOH on cells and animal models were summarized in two tables; data include the last two-year literature studies. The review addresses also the main characteristics of AOH and the possible human exposure routes, the populations at risk, and the effect of anthropogenic activities on the widespread of the mycotoxin. The commonly used detection and control methods described in the latest literature are also discussed to guide future researchers to focus on mitigating mycotoxins contamination in the food industry. This review aims mainly to serve as a guideline on AOH for mycotoxin regulation developers and health risk assessors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iman Saleh
- Biological Science Program, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, College of Art and Science, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar.
| | - Randa Zeidan
- Biological Science Program, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, College of Art and Science, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar
| | - Mohammed Abu-Dieyeh
- Biological Science Program, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, College of Art and Science, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar
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Marin DE, Bulgaru VC, Pertea A, Grosu IA, Pistol GC, Taranu I. Alternariol Monomethyl-Ether Induces Toxicity via Cell Death and Oxidative Stress in Swine Intestinal Epithelial Cells. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:223. [PMID: 38787075 PMCID: PMC11125839 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16050223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2024] [Revised: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Alternariol monomethyl-ether (AME), together with altenuene and alternariol, belongs to the Alternaria mycotoxins group, which can contaminate different substrates, including cereals. The aim of the present study was to obtain a deeper understanding concerning the effects of AME on pig intestinal health using epithelial intestinal cell lines as the data concerning the possible effects of Alternaria toxins on swine are scarce and insufficient for assessing the risk represented by Alternaria toxins for animal health. Our results have shown a dose-related effect on IPEC-1 cell viability, with an IC50 value of 10.5 μM. Exposure to the toxin induced an increase in total apoptotic cells, suggesting that AME induces programmed cell death through apoptosis based on caspase-3/7 activation in IPEC-1 cells. DNA and protein oxidative damage triggered by AME were associated with an alteration of the antioxidant response, as shown by a decrease in the enzymatic activity of catalase and superoxide dismutase. These effects on the oxidative response can be related to an inhibition of the Akt/Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway; however, further studies are needed in order to validate these in vitro data using in vivo trials in swine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Eliza Marin
- National Research and Development Institute for Biology and Animal Nutrition (INCDBNA-IBNA-Balotesti), Calea Bucuresti nr.1, 077015 Balotesti Ilfov, Romania; (V.C.B.); (A.P.); (I.A.G.); (G.C.P.); (I.T.)
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Ahmad T, Xing F, Cao C, Liu Y. Characterization and toxicological potential of Alternaria alternata associated with post-harvest fruit rot of Prunus avium in China. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1273076. [PMID: 38380098 PMCID: PMC10877066 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1273076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Post-harvest fruit rot caused by Alternaria species is one of the most important threats to the fruit industry. Post-harvest rot on sweet cherry (Prunus avium) fruit was observed in the fruit markets of the Haidian district of Beijing, China. The fungal isolates obtained from the infected sweet cherry fruits matched the descriptions of Alternaria alternata based on the morphology and multi-gene (ITS, endo-PG, and Alta1) sequence analysis. Pathogenicity tests indicated that ACT-3 was the most virulent isolate, exhibiting typical post-harvest fruit rot symptoms. Physiological studies revealed that the optimal conditions for the growth of ACT-3 were temperature of 28°C, water activity of 0.999, and pH of 8 with 87, 85, and 86 mm radial growth of ACT-3 on a potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium, respectively, at 12 days post-inoculation (dpi). Moreover, the fungus showed the highest growth on a Martin agar medium (MAM) modified (85 mm) and a PDA medium (84 mm) at 12 dpi. The proliferation of the fungus was visualized inside the fruit tissues by confocal and scanning electron microscope (SEM), revealing the invasion and destruction of fruit tissues. Alternaria mycotoxins, tenuazonic acid (TeA), and alternariol (AOH) were detected in five representative isolates by HPLC analysis. The highest concentrations of TeA (313 μg/mL) and AOH (8.9 μg/mL) were observed in ACT-6 and ACT-3 isolates, respectively. This study is the first to present a detailed report on the characteristics and proliferation of A. alternata associated with sweet cherry fruit rot and the detection of toxic metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanvir Ahmad
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Foshan University, National Technical Center (Foshan) for Quality Control of Famous and Special Agricultural Products (CAQS-GAP-KZZX043), Guangdong Key Laboratory of Food Intelligent Manufacturing, Foshan, Guangdong, China
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Fuguo Xing
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Changyu Cao
- School of Life Sciences and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan, Guangdong, China
| | - Yang Liu
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Foshan University, National Technical Center (Foshan) for Quality Control of Famous and Special Agricultural Products (CAQS-GAP-KZZX043), Guangdong Key Laboratory of Food Intelligent Manufacturing, Foshan, Guangdong, China
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
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Addante-Moya LG, Abad-Fuentes A, Agulló C, Abad-Somovilla A, Mercader JV. Sensitive and selective alternariol analysis by a newly developed monoclonal antibody-based immunoassay. Talanta 2024; 267:125263. [PMID: 37816292 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2023.125263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/12/2023]
Abstract
Alternariol is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by Alternaria fungi. Nowadays, this mycotoxin can be found in many products of plant origin at concerning concentrations. The aim of the present study was to develop a highly sensitive and selective immunochemical method for the analysis of alternariol. To this end, hapten synthesis was carried out from the scratch and specific high-affinity monoclonal antibodies to alternariol were generated by using, for the first time, alternariol bioconjugates with unambiguous linker tethering sites. A novel indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay that incorporated a rationally designed heterologous conjugate was developed. The optimized assay showed an outstanding half-maximal inhibition concentration for alternariol below 0.04 ng/mL, and no cross-reactivity with alternariol monomethyl ether was observed. Very good recovery values and coefficients of variation were obtained from the analysis of alternariol-fortified fruit and cereal flour samples. Finally, alternariol was quantitatively determined in pears that had been previously infected with Alternaria alternata, showing excellent correlation with liquid chromatography results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis G Addante-Moya
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Valencia, Dr. Moliner 50, Burjassot, 46100, Valencia, Spain
| | - Antonio Abad-Fuentes
- Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology, Spanish Council for Scientific Research (IATA-CSIC), Av. Agustí Escardino 7, Paterna, 46980, Valencia, Spain
| | - Consuelo Agulló
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Valencia, Dr. Moliner 50, Burjassot, 46100, Valencia, Spain
| | - Antonio Abad-Somovilla
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Valencia, Dr. Moliner 50, Burjassot, 46100, Valencia, Spain
| | - Josep V Mercader
- Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology, Spanish Council for Scientific Research (IATA-CSIC), Av. Agustí Escardino 7, Paterna, 46980, Valencia, Spain.
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Éder de Vilhena Araújo, Souza Jesus FF, Lederman Valente B, Cristianini M, Montagner CC, Fill TP. Analytical determination of tryptoquialanines A and B: Ensuring the quality and safety of orange juices. Food Res Int 2023; 174:113607. [PMID: 37986534 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2023.113607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Revised: 10/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
Although orange juice is a popular beverage worldwide, fruit distribution, storage, and processing can facilitate fungal infection by Penicillium digitatum; leading to the production of tremorgenic alkaloids, specifically tryptoquialanines A (TA) and B (TB). An Analytical method was developed and validated based on QuEChERS and LC-MS/MS analysis to determine the levels of TA and TB in fresh, industrial, and homemade orange juices. Excellent linearity was observed in the method over a high range of 1-1000 μg/kg and low range of 1-75 μg/kg with R2 ≥ 0.998. The LOD and LOQ were 1 and 3 μg/kg, respectively. Recoveries showed values between 57 and 83 %, with RSD ≤ 13 %. Our data indicated a higher prevalence of mycotoxin TA in fresh and industrial orange juices. Reduction in TA and TB content after thermal and HPP treatments were ≤ 32 %. However, thermal treatment was more effective in reducing TA and TB contents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Éder de Vilhena Araújo
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), PO Box 6154, 13083-970 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Francielly F Souza Jesus
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), PO Box 6154, 13083-970 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Beatriz Lederman Valente
- Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), PO Box 6121, 13083-862 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Cristianini
- Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), PO Box 6121, 13083-862 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Cassiana C Montagner
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), PO Box 6154, 13083-970 Campinas, SP, Brazil.
| | - Taicia P Fill
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), PO Box 6154, 13083-970 Campinas, SP, Brazil.
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Lan F, Jiang F, Zang H, Wang Z. Saturated brine dissolution and liquid-liquid extraction combined with UPLC-MS/MS for the detection of typical Alternaria toxins in pear paste. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2023; 103:6861-6870. [PMID: 37288717 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.12770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alternaria can infest pears to produce metabolites, which can contaminate pears and their processed products. Pear paste, one of the most important pear-based products, is popular among Chinese consumers especially for its cough relieving and phlegm removal properties. Although people are concerned about the risk of Alternaria toxins in many agro-foods and their products, little is known about the toxins in pear paste. RESULTS A method was developed for the determination of tenuazonic acid, alternariol, alternariol menomethyl ether, altenuene and tentoxin in pear paste by ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry with saturated sodium sulphate dissolution and acidified acetonitrile extraction. The mean recoveries of the five toxins were 75.3-113.8% with relative standard deviations of 2.8-12.2% at spiked levels of 1.0-100 μg kg-1 . Alternaria toxins were detected in 53 out of 76 samples, with a detection rate of 71.4%. Tenuazonic acid (67.1%), alternariol (35.5%), tentoxin (23.7%) and alternariol monomethyl ether (7.9%) were detected in all samples at concentrations of < limit of quantification (LOQ)-105.0 μg kg-1 , < LOQ-32.1 μg kg-1 , < LOQ-74.2 μg kg-1 and < LOQ-15.1 μg kg-1 , respectively. Altenuene was never found in pear paste samples. Tenuazonic acid, alternariol, tentoxin and alternariol menomethyl ether should be focused on due to their toxicity and detection rates. CONCLUSION To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the detection method and residue levels of Alternaria toxins in pear paste. The proposed method and research data can provide technical support for the Chinese government to continuously monitor and control Alternaria toxins in pear paste, especially tenuazonic acid. It can also provide a useful reference for related researchers. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Lan
- Yantai Key Laboratory of Quality Safety and Nutrition of Characteristic Fruits, Quality Inspection Center, Yantai Academy of Agricultural Sciences in Shandong Province, Yantai, P. R. China
| | - Fudong Jiang
- Yantai Key Laboratory of Quality Safety and Nutrition of Characteristic Fruits, Quality Inspection Center, Yantai Academy of Agricultural Sciences in Shandong Province, Yantai, P. R. China
| | - Hongwei Zang
- Yantai Key Laboratory of Quality Safety and Nutrition of Characteristic Fruits, Quality Inspection Center, Yantai Academy of Agricultural Sciences in Shandong Province, Yantai, P. R. China
| | - Zhixin Wang
- Yantai Key Laboratory of Quality Safety and Nutrition of Characteristic Fruits, Quality Inspection Center, Yantai Academy of Agricultural Sciences in Shandong Province, Yantai, P. R. China
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Soares Mateus AR, Barros S, Pena A, Sanches-Silva A. The potential of citrus by-products in the development of functional food and active packaging. ADVANCES IN FOOD AND NUTRITION RESEARCH 2023; 107:41-90. [PMID: 37898542 DOI: 10.1016/bs.afnr.2023.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/30/2023]
Abstract
Food by-product valorization has become an important research area for promoting the sustainability of the food chain. Citrus fruits are among the most widely cultivated fruit crops worldwide. Citrus by-products, including pomace, seeds, and peels (flavedo and albedo), are produced in large amounts each year. Those by-products have an important economic value due to the high content on bioactive compounds, namely phenolic compounds and carotenoids, and are considered a valuable bio-resource for potential applications in the food industry. However, green extraction techniques are required to ensure their sustainability. This chapter addresses the main components of citrus by-products and their recent applications in food products and active food packaging, towards a circular economy. In addition, the concern regarding citrus by-products contamination (e.g. with pesticides residues and mycotoxins) is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Rita Soares Mateus
- National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinary Research (INIAV), I.P., Rua dos Lagidos, Lugar da Madalena, Vairão, Vila do Conde, Portugal; University of Coimbra, Pharmacy Faculty, Polo III, Azinhaga de Stª Comba, Coimbra, Portugal; LAQV, REQUIMTE, Food Science and Pharmacology Laboratory, University of Coimbra, Pharmacy Faculty, Polo III, Azinhaga de Stª Comba, Coimbra, Portugal; Animal Science Studies Centre (CECA), ICETA, University of Porto, Apartado, Porto, Portugal
| | - Silvia Barros
- National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinary Research (INIAV), I.P., Rua dos Lagidos, Lugar da Madalena, Vairão, Vila do Conde, Portugal
| | - Angelina Pena
- National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinary Research (INIAV), I.P., Rua dos Lagidos, Lugar da Madalena, Vairão, Vila do Conde, Portugal; LAQV, REQUIMTE, Food Science and Pharmacology Laboratory, University of Coimbra, Pharmacy Faculty, Polo III, Azinhaga de Stª Comba, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ana Sanches-Silva
- National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinary Research (INIAV), I.P., Rua dos Lagidos, Lugar da Madalena, Vairão, Vila do Conde, Portugal; University of Coimbra, Pharmacy Faculty, Polo III, Azinhaga de Stª Comba, Coimbra, Portugal; Animal Science Studies Centre (CECA), ICETA, University of Porto, Apartado, Porto, Portugal.
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Li W, Long Y, Yin X, Wang W, Zhang R, Mo F, Zhang Z, Chen T, Chen J, Wang B, Chen X. Antifungal activity and mechanism of tetramycin against Alternaria alternata, the soft rot causing fungi in kiwifruit. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 192:105409. [PMID: 37105636 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2023.105409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Kiwifruit rot caused by the fungus Alternaria alternata occurs in many countries, leading to considerable losses during kiwifruit production. In this study, we evaluated the antifungal activity and mechanism of tetramycin against kiwifruit soft rot caused by Alternaria alternata. Tetramycin exerted antifungal effects through the suppression of mycelial growth, conidial germination, and the pathogenicity of A. alternata. Scanning electron microscopic observations revealed that tetramycin destroyed the mycelial structure, causing the mycelia to twist, shrink, and even break. Furthermore, transmission electron microscopy revealed that tetramycin caused severe plasmolysis and a decrease in cell inclusions, and the cell wall appeared thinner with blurred boundaries. In addition, tetramycin destroyed cell membrane integrity, resulting in the leakage of cellular components such as nucleic acids and proteins in mycelial suspensions. Moreover, tetramycin also caused cell wall lysis by enhancing the activities of chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase and inducing the overexpression of related chitinase gene (Chit) and β-1,3-glucanase gene (β-1,3-glu) in A. alternata. In field trials, tetramycin not only decreased the incidence of kiwifruit rot but also create a beneficial living space for kiwifruit growth. Overall, this study indicated that the application of tetramycin could serve as an alternative measure for the management of kiwifruit rot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenzhi Li
- Research Center for Engineering Technology of Kiwifruit, Institute of Crop Protection, College of Agriculture, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China.
| | - Youhua Long
- Research Center for Engineering Technology of Kiwifruit, Institute of Crop Protection, College of Agriculture, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China; Teaching Experiment Farm, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China.
| | - Xianhui Yin
- Research Center for Engineering Technology of Kiwifruit, Institute of Crop Protection, College of Agriculture, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China.
| | - Weizhen Wang
- Research Center for Engineering Technology of Kiwifruit, Institute of Crop Protection, College of Agriculture, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China
| | - Rongquan Zhang
- Management Committee of Eastern Agricultural Industrial Park of Shuicheng County, Liupanshui 553000, China
| | - Feixu Mo
- Research Center for Engineering Technology of Kiwifruit, Institute of Crop Protection, College of Agriculture, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China.
| | - Zhuzhu Zhang
- Research Center for Engineering Technology of Kiwifruit, Institute of Crop Protection, College of Agriculture, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China.
| | - Tingting Chen
- Research Center for Engineering Technology of Kiwifruit, Institute of Crop Protection, College of Agriculture, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China
| | - Jia Chen
- Research Center for Engineering Technology of Kiwifruit, Institute of Crop Protection, College of Agriculture, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China
| | - Bingce Wang
- Research Center for Engineering Technology of Kiwifruit, Institute of Crop Protection, College of Agriculture, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China
| | - Xuetang Chen
- Research Center for Engineering Technology of Kiwifruit, Institute of Crop Protection, College of Agriculture, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China
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Miranda-Apodaca J, Artetxe U, Aguado I, Martin-Souto L, Ramirez-Garcia A, Lacuesta M, Becerril JM, Estonba A, Ortiz-Barredo A, Hernández A, Zarraonaindia I, Pérez-López U. Stress Response to Climate Change and Postharvest Handling in Two Differently Pigmented Lettuce Genotypes: Impact on Alternaria alternata Invasion and Mycotoxin Production. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:1304. [PMID: 36986993 PMCID: PMC10059781 DOI: 10.3390/plants12061304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Many species of Alternaria are important pathogens that cause plant diseases and postharvest rots. They lead to significant economic losses in agriculture and affect human and animal health due to their capacity to produce mycotoxins. Therefore, it is necessary to study the factors that can result in an increase in A. alternata. In this study, we discuss the mechanism by which phenol content protects from A. alternata, since the red oak leaf cultivar (containing higher phenols) showed lower invasion than the green one, Batavia, and no mycotoxin production. A climate change scenario enhanced fungal growth in the most susceptible cultivar, green lettuce, likely because elevated temperature and CO2 levels decrease plant N content, modifying the C/N ratio. Finally, while the abundance of the fungi was maintained at similar levels after keeping the lettuces for four days at 4 °C, this postharvest handling triggered TeA and TEN mycotoxin synthesis, but only in the green cultivar. Therefore, the results demonstrated that invasion and mycotoxin production are cultivar- and temperature-dependent. Further research should be directed to search for resistant cultivars and effective postharvest strategies to reduce the toxicological risk and economic losses related to this fungus, which are expected to increase in a climate change scenario.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon Miranda-Apodaca
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Unai Artetxe
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Iratxe Aguado
- Applied Genomics and Bioinformatics Research Group, Department of Genetics, Physical Anthropology and Animal Physiology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Leire Martin-Souto
- Fungal and Bacterial Biomics Research Group, Department of Immunology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Andoni Ramirez-Garcia
- Fungal and Bacterial Biomics Research Group, Department of Immunology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Maite Lacuesta
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), 01006 Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
| | - José María Becerril
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Andone Estonba
- Applied Genomics and Bioinformatics Research Group, Department of Genetics, Physical Anthropology and Animal Physiology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Amaia Ortiz-Barredo
- NEIKER-Basque Institute for Agricultural Research and Development, 01080 Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
| | - Antonio Hernández
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Iratxe Zarraonaindia
- Applied Genomics and Bioinformatics Research Group, Department of Genetics, Physical Anthropology and Animal Physiology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Plaza Euskadi 5, 48009 Bilbao, Spain
| | - Usue Pérez-López
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain
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11
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Tang H, Han W, Fei S, Li Y, Huang J, Dong M, Wang L, Wang W, Zhang Y. Development of Acid Hydrolysis-Based UPLC–MS/MS Method for Determination of Alternaria Toxins and Its Application in the Occurrence Assessment in Solanaceous Vegetables and Their Products. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15030201. [PMID: 36977092 PMCID: PMC10055482 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15030201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In this work, we proposed an acid hydrolysis-based analytical method for the detection of Alternaria toxins (ATs) in solanaceous vegetables and their products with solid-phase extraction (SPE) and ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS/MS). This study was the first to reveal that some compounds in the eggplant matrix bind to altenusin (ALS). Validation under optimal sample preparation conditions showed that the method met the EU criteria, exhibiting good linearity (R2 > 0.99), matrix effects (−66.6–−20.5%), satisfying recovery (72.0–107.4%), acceptable precision (1.5–15.5%), and satisfactory sensitivity (0.05–2 µg/kg for limit of detection, 2–5 µg/kg for limit of quantification). Out of 393 marketed samples, only 47 samples were detected, ranging from 0.54–806 μg/kg. Though the occurrence ratio (2.72%) in solanaceous vegetables could be negligible, the pollution status in solanaceous vegetable products was much more serious, and the incidences were 41.1%. In the 47 contaminated samples, the incidences were 4.26% for alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), 6.38% for alternariol (AOH) and altenuene (ALT), 42.6% for tentoxin (TEN), and 55.3% for tenuazonic acid (TeA).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongxia Tang
- Pesticide Safety Evaluation Research Center, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China
| | - Wei Han
- Pesticide Safety Evaluation Research Center, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China
| | - Shaoxiang Fei
- Pesticide Safety Evaluation Research Center, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China
| | - Yubo Li
- Pesticide Safety Evaluation Research Center, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China
| | - Jiaqing Huang
- Pesticide Safety Evaluation Research Center, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China
| | - Maofeng Dong
- Pesticide Safety Evaluation Research Center, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China
- Key Laboratory for Safety Assessment (Environment) of Agricultural Genetically Modified Organisms, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-21-62203612; Fax: +86-21-62203612
| | - Lei Wang
- School of Resources and Environment, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Weimin Wang
- Pesticide Safety Evaluation Research Center, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- School of Resources and Environment, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
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12
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Emerging Alternaria and Fusarium mycotoxins in tomatoes and derived tomato products from the China market: Occurrence, methods of determination, and risk evaluation. Food Control 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.109464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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13
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Zhang Z, Liu H, Wei Z, Lu M, Pu Y, Pan L, Zhang Z, Zhao J, Hu J. A transfer learning method for spectral model of moldy apples from different origins. Food Control 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2023.109731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
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14
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Tian Y, Abdallah MF, De Boevre M, Audenaert K, Wang C, De Saeger S, Wu A. Deciphering Alternaria metabolic responses in microbial confrontation via an integrated mass spectrometric targeted and non-targeted strategy. Food Chem 2023; 404:134694. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.134694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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15
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Alternaria toxins in tomato products from the Argentinean market. Food Control 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2023.109607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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16
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Bacha SAS, Li Y, Nie J, Xu G, Han L, Farooq S. Comprehensive review on patulin and Alternaria toxins in fruit and derived products. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1139757. [PMID: 37077634 PMCID: PMC10108681 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1139757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by certain fungi, which can contaminate various food commodities, including fruits and their derived products. Patulin and Alternaria toxins are among the most commonly encountered mycotoxins in fruit and their derived products. In this review, the sources, toxicity, and regulations related to these mycotoxins, as well as their detection and mitigation strategies are widely discussed. Patulin is a mycotoxin produced mainly by the fungal genera Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Byssochlamys. Alternaria toxins, produced by fungi in the Alternaria genus, are another common group of mycotoxins found in fruits and fruit products. The most prevalent Alternaria toxins are alternariol (AOH) and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME). These mycotoxins are of concern due to their potential negative effects on human health. Ingesting fruits contaminated with these mycotoxins can cause acute and chronic health problems. Detection of patulin and Alternaria toxins in fruit and their derived products can be challenging due to their low concentrations and the complexity of the food matrices. Common analytical methods, good agricultural practices, and contamination monitoring of these mycotoxins are important for safe consumption of fruits and derived products. And Future research will continue to explore new methods for detecting and managing these mycotoxins, with the ultimate goal of ensuring the safety and quality of fruits and derived product supply.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syed Asim Shah Bacha
- Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Fruit, Research Institute of Pomology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Xingcheng, Liaoning, China
| | - Yinping Li
- Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Fruit, Research Institute of Pomology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Xingcheng, Liaoning, China
- *Correspondence: Jiyun Nie, ; Yinping Li,
| | - Jiyun Nie
- College of Horticulture, Qingdao Agricultural University/Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Fruit (Qingdao), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/National Technology Centre for Whole Process Quality Control of FSEN Horticultural Products (Qingdao)/Qingdao Key Lab of Modern Agriculture Quality and Safety Engineering, Qingdao, China
- *Correspondence: Jiyun Nie, ; Yinping Li,
| | - Guofeng Xu
- Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Fruit, Research Institute of Pomology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Xingcheng, Liaoning, China
| | - Lingxi Han
- College of Horticulture, Qingdao Agricultural University/Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Fruit (Qingdao), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/National Technology Centre for Whole Process Quality Control of FSEN Horticultural Products (Qingdao)/Qingdao Key Lab of Modern Agriculture Quality and Safety Engineering, Qingdao, China
| | - Saqib Farooq
- Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Fruit, Research Institute of Pomology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Xingcheng, Liaoning, China
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17
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Xu W, Zhao YQ, Jia WB, Liao SY, Bouphun T, Zou Y. Reviews of fungi and mycotoxins in Chinese dark tea. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1120659. [PMID: 36910180 PMCID: PMC9992979 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1120659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The fermentation is the main process to form the unique flavor and health benefits of dark tea. Numerous studies have indicated that the microorganisms play a significant part in the fermentation process of dark tea. Dark tea has the quality of "The unique flavor grows over time," but unscientific storage of dark tea might cause infestation of harmful microorganisms, thereby resulting in the remaining of fungi toxins. Mycotoxins are regarded as the main contributor to the quality of dark tea, and its potential mycotoxin risk has attracted people's attention. This study reviews common and potential mycotoxins in dark tea and discusses the possible types of masked mycotoxins in dark tea. A summary of the potential risks of mycotoxins and masked mycotoxins in dark tea is presented, intending to provide a reference for the prevention and risk assessment of harmful fungi in dark tea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Xu
- College of Horticulture, Tea Refining and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yi-Qiao Zhao
- College of Horticulture, Tea Refining and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Wen-Bao Jia
- College of Horticulture, Tea Refining and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Si-Yu Liao
- College of Horticulture, Tea Refining and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Tunyaluk Bouphun
- Faculty of Science and Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna Lampang, Lampang, Thailand
| | - Yao Zou
- College of Horticulture, Tea Refining and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
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18
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Evaluation of Alternaria toxins in fruits, vegetables and their derivatives marketed in China using a QuEChERS method coupled with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry: Analytical methods and occurrence. Food Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.109563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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19
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Woo SY, Lee SY, Jeong TK, Park SM, Auh JH, Shin HS, Chun HS. Natural Occurrence of Alternaria Toxins in Agricultural Products and Processed Foods Marketed in South Korea by LC-MS/MS. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14120824. [PMID: 36548721 PMCID: PMC9786207 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14120824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Revised: 11/20/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Alternaria mycotoxins including alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), altenuene (ALT), altertoxin-I (ATX-I), tentoxin (TEN), and tenuazonic acid (TeA), are ubiquitous contaminants in agricultural products. A method for the simultaneous determination of these six toxins by ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) with solid phase extraction (SPE) was validated in rice, sesame, tomato, and apple juice matrices. The performance of the method was evaluated in terms of linearity (R2 > 0.999), the limit of detection (0.04-1.67 μg/kg), the limit of quantification (0.12-5.06 μg/kg), recovery (80.0-114.7%), and precision (<17.7%). The validated method was applied to monitor 152 marketed food samples in South Korea, as well as to investigate the co-occurrence and correlation between Alternaria toxins. The mean occurrence levels were 2.77 μg/kg for AOH, 4.36 μg/kg for AME, 0.14 μg/kg for ALT, 0.11 μg/kg for ATX-I, 0.43 μg/kg for TEN, and 104.56 μg/kg for TeA. Mean and extreme (95th percentile) daily dietary exposures of South Koreans to Alternaria toxins were estimated to be 22.93 ng/kg b.w./day and 86.07 ng/kg b.w./day, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- So Young Woo
- School of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Yoo Lee
- School of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae Kyun Jeong
- School of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Su Mi Park
- School of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Joong Hyuck Auh
- School of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Han-Seung Shin
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk University-Seoul, Goyang-si 10326, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyang Sook Chun
- School of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
- Correspondence:
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20
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Dasí-Navarro N, Lozano M, Llop S, Esplugues A, Cimbalo A, Font G, Manyes L, Mañes J, Vila-Donat P. Development and Validation of LC-Q-TOF-MS Methodology to Determine Mycotoxin Biomarkers in Human Urine. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:651. [PMID: 36287920 PMCID: PMC9612178 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14100651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination of foodstuffs is a health concern worldwide and monitoring human exposure to mycotoxins is a key concern. Most mycotoxins and their metabolites are excreted in urine, but a reliable detection method is required, considering the low levels present in this biological sample. The aim of this work is to validate a sensitive methodology capable of simultaneously determining ten targeted mycotoxins as well as detecting untargeted ones by using Liquid Chromatography coupled to Quadrupole Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (LC-Q-TOF-MS). The targeted mycotoxins were: enniatin A, B, A1, and B1, beauvericine, aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2, and ochratoxin A. Several extraction procedures such as liquid-liquid extraction, dilute and shoot, and QuEChERS were assessed. Finally, a modified simple QuEChERS extraction method was selected. Creatinine adjustment and matrix-matched calibration curves are required. The limit of detection and limit of quantification values ranged from 0.1 to 1.5 and from 0.3 to 5 ng/mL, respectively. Recoveries achieved were higher than 65% for all mycotoxins. Later, the method was applied to 100 samples of women's urine to confirm the applicability and determine their internal exposure. The untargeted mycotoxins most found were trichothecenes, zearalenones, and ochratoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuria Dasí-Navarro
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - Manuel Lozano
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
- Epidemiology and Environmental Health Joint Research Unit, FISABIO—Universitat Jaume I—Universitat de València, 46020 València, Spain
| | - Sabrina Llop
- Epidemiology and Environmental Health Joint Research Unit, FISABIO—Universitat Jaume I—Universitat de València, 46020 València, Spain
- Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Esplugues
- Epidemiology and Environmental Health Joint Research Unit, FISABIO—Universitat Jaume I—Universitat de València, 46020 València, Spain
- Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Alessandra Cimbalo
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - Guillermina Font
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - Lara Manyes
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - Jordi Mañes
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - Pilar Vila-Donat
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
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21
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Karsauliya K, Yahavi C, Pandey A, Bhateria M, Sonker AK, Pandey H, Sharma M, Singh SP. Co-occurrence of mycotoxins: A review on bioanalytical methods for simultaneous analysis in human biological samples, mixture toxicity and risk assessment strategies. Toxicon 2022; 218:25-39. [PMID: 36049662 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are the toxic chemical substances that are produced by various fungal species and some of these are harmful to humans. Mycotoxins are ubiquitous in nature and humans could be exposed to multiple mycotoxins simultaneously. Unfortunately, exposure to mixed mycotoxins is not very well studied. Various studies have demonstrated the capacity of mycotoxins to show synergistic effect in the presence of other mycotoxins, thus, increasing the risk of toxicity. Hence, it is important to monitor mixed mycotoxins in human biological samples which would serve as a crucial information for risk assessment. Through this review paper, we aim to summarize the mixture toxicity of mycotoxins and the various bio-analytical techniques that are being used for the simultaneous analysis of mixed mycotoxins in human biological samples. Different sample preparation and clean-up techniques employed till date for eliminating the interferences from human biological samples without affecting the analyses of the mycotoxins are also discussed. Further, a brief introduction of risk assessment strategies that have been or could be adopted for multiple mycotoxin risk assessments is also mentioned. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first review that focuses solely on the occurrence of multiple mycotoxins in human biological samples as well as their risk assessment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kajal Karsauliya
- Toxicokinetics Laboratory/Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, Regulatory Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, India; Department of Pharmacy, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali, Rajasthan, 304022, India
| | - C Yahavi
- Toxicokinetics Laboratory/Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, Regulatory Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
| | - Anushka Pandey
- Toxicokinetics Laboratory/Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, Regulatory Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, India
| | - Manisha Bhateria
- Toxicokinetics Laboratory/Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, Regulatory Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, India
| | - Ashish Kumar Sonker
- Toxicokinetics Laboratory/Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, Regulatory Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
| | - Harshita Pandey
- Toxicokinetics Laboratory/Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, Regulatory Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, India
| | - Manu Sharma
- Department of Pharmacy, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali, Rajasthan, 304022, India
| | - Sheelendra Pratap Singh
- Toxicokinetics Laboratory/Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, Regulatory Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India.
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22
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Miao Y, Wang D, Chen Y, Zhu X, Tang X, Zhang J, Zhang L, Chen J. General toxicity and genotoxicity of alternariol: a novel 28-day multi-endpoint assessment in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Mycotoxin Res 2022; 38:231-241. [PMID: 35913592 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-022-00466-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Alternariol (AOH) is one of the toxins of Alternaria, and it has been widely detected in a variety of foods. It has been reported to be cytotoxic, dermally toxic, genotoxic, and potentially carcinogenic in vitro. However, in vivo toxicity data are lacking. This study used a novel in vivo 28-day multi-endpoint (Pig-a assay + micronucleus test + comet assay) genotoxicity evaluation system to evaluate the general toxicity and genotoxicity of AOH. A total of 42 male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly distributed into three AOH-treated groups (5.51, 10.03, and 22.05 µg/kg bw), one AOH high-dose recovery group (AOH-HR, 22.05 µg/kg bw), one positive control group (N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea, 40 mg/kg bw), and two vehicle control groups (corn oil and PBS). Treatments were administered by oral gavage for 28 consecutive days. Histopathological lesions were observed in the liver, kidney, and spleen in all AOH-treated groups. No statistical difference was found in each genotoxicity index within 28 days in the AOH-treated groups compared with those in the corn oil group. On day 42, in the AOH-HR group, the rate of Pig-a mutant phenotype reticulocytes (RETCD59-) significantly increased. On day 56, both RETCD59- and the rate of Pig-a mutant phenotype erythrocytes (RBCCD59-) were significantly reduced. These findings indicated that AOH might cumulatively induce genetic mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeqiu Miao
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.,Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Dongxia Wang
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.,Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Yiyi Chen
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xia Zhu
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.,Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xinyao Tang
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.,Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.,Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Lishi Zhang
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.,Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Jinyao Chen
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China. .,Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
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23
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Mitrović I, Grahovac J, Hrustić J, Jokić A, Dodić J, Mihajlović M, Grahovac M. Utilization of waste glycerol for the production of biocontrol agents nigericin and niphimycin by Streptomyces hygroscopicus: bioprocess development. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2022; 43:3000-3013. [PMID: 33820481 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2021.1913241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Search for more environment-friendly methods for controlling plant diseases that would contribute to the goal of sustainability in agriculture is in focus. In the present study, the potential of Streptomyces hygroscopicus isolated from soil sample in the production of biocontrol agents, nigericin and niphimycin, effective against Alternaria alternata storage apple pathogen was examined. Also, modelling and optimization of medium composition for biocontrol agent biosynthesis was performed. The results showed that the optimum amount of C3H8O3, (NH4)2SO4 and K2HPO4 in the medium for Streptomyces hygroscopicus biosynthesis is 20, 0.25 and 1.46 g/L, respectively. Scale-up and validation of the obtained results performed in the 3 L laboratory-scale bioreactor showed that on the optimized medium at an aeration rate of 0.7 vvm and an agitation speed of 200 rpm, produced nigericin and niphimycin, showed high activity. Under the same conditions, cultivation of S. hygroscopicus was performed in a 7 L laboratory bioreactor in a medium with waste glycerol instead of pure glycerol. Results showed that the methanol extract of S. hygroscopicus cultivation liquid, containing nigericin and niphimycin, was high effective against two Alternaria isolates. This was confirmed in vitro by obtaining large inhibition zone diameters on A. alternata KA10 (47 mm) and T1Jg3 (44.33 mm) isolates. After successful in vitro analysis, in planta testing was performed. It was found that necrosis diameters that were measured on artificially inoculated apple fruits with A. alternata compared to necrosis diameter measured on untreated, control fruits, were 4.47 and 3.56 times smaller.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Mitrović
- Faculty of Technology Novi Sad, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Jovana Grahovac
- Faculty of Technology Novi Sad, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Jovana Hrustić
- Institute of Pesticides and Environmental Protection, Beograd-Zemun, Serbia
| | - Aleksandar Jokić
- Faculty of Technology Novi Sad, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Jelena Dodić
- Faculty of Technology Novi Sad, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Milica Mihajlović
- Institute of Pesticides and Environmental Protection, Beograd-Zemun, Serbia
| | - Mila Grahovac
- Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
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24
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Zhang Z, Liu H, Chen D, Zhang J, Li H, Shen M, Pu Y, Zhang Z, Zhao J, Hu J. SMOTE-based method for balanced spectral nondestructive testing of moldy apple core. Food Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.109100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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25
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Alternaria mycotoxins in food commodities marketed through e-commerce stores in China: Occurrence and risk assessment. Food Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.109125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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26
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Nan M, Xue H, Bi Y. Contamination, Detection and Control of Mycotoxins in Fruits and Vegetables. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:309. [PMID: 35622556 PMCID: PMC9143439 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14050309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Revised: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by pathogenic fungi that colonize fruits and vegetables either during harvesting or during storage. Mycotoxin contamination in fruits and vegetables has been a major problem worldwide, which poses a serious threat to human and animal health through the food chain. This review systematically describes the major mycotoxigenic fungi and the produced mycotoxins in fruits and vegetables, analyzes recent mycotoxin detection technologies including chromatography coupled with detector (i.e., mass, ultraviolet, fluorescence, etc.) technology, electrochemical biosensors technology and immunological techniques, as well as summarizes the degradation and detoxification technologies of mycotoxins in fruits and vegetables, including physical, chemical and biological methods. The future prospect is also proposed to provide an overview and suggestions for future mycotoxin research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mina Nan
- College of Science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China;
- Basic Experiment Teaching Center, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Huali Xue
- College of Science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China;
| | - Yang Bi
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China
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27
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Determination of Alternaria Toxins in Food by SPE and LC-IDMS: Development and In-House Validation of a Candidate Method for Standardisation. SEPARATIONS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/separations9030070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Alternaria toxins (ATs) are frequently found contaminants in foodstuffs (e.g., alternariol), often reaching high concentrations (e.g., tenuazonic acid). They can spoil a wide variety of food categories (e.g., cereals, vegetables, seeds and drinks) and storage at fridge temperatures does not prevent the growth of Alternaria fungi. Therefore, reliable and validated analytical methods are needed to protect human health and to ensure a transparent and fair trade. This paper describes new technical features that improved a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for the analysis of ATs in tomato, wheat and sunflower seeds. This analytical method should be simple to implement in different laboratories across the EU and thus be an attractive candidate for standardisation. The major element for improvement was the use of isotopically labelled internal standards, only recently commercially available, thereby reducing the sample handling and improving the accuracy of the results. In addition, the sample extraction and the solid-phase extraction (SPE) enrichment/clean-up were fine-tuned, whereas a more suitable analytical column (XSelect HSS T3) with improved selectivity was also employed. Overall, this method shows adequate precision (repeatability < 5.7% RSD; intermediate precision < 7.0% RSD) and trueness (recoveries ranging from 74% to 112%). The limits of quantification in wheat (the most analytically demanding matrix) vary between 0.19 and 1.40 µg/kg. These figures were deemed satisfactory by the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) and have formed the basis for a subsequent interlaboratory validation study. The corresponding standard was published by CEN in 2021.
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28
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Evaluation of fungal hazards associated with dried fig processing. Int J Food Microbiol 2022; 365:109541. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2022.109541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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29
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Huang CH, Wang FT, Hsuuw YD, Huang FJ, Chan WH. Non-embryotoxic dosage of alternariol aggravates ochratoxin A-triggered deleterious effects on embryonic development through ROS-dependent apoptotic processes. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2021; 10:1211-1222. [PMID: 34956623 DOI: 10.1093/toxres/tfab112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2021] [Revised: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 10/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Alternariol (AOH) and ochratoxin A (OTA), two mycotoxins found in many foods worldwide, exhibit cytotoxicity and embryotoxicity, triggering apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in several mammalian cells and mouse embryos. The absorption rate of AOH from dietary foodstuff is low, meaning that the amount of AOH obtained from the diet rarely approaches the cytotoxic threshold. Thus, the potential harm of dietary consumption of AOH is generally neglected. However, previous findings from our group and others led us to question whether a low dosage of AOH could aggravate the cytotoxicity of other mycotoxins. In the present study, we examined how low dosages of AOH affected OTA-triggered apoptosis and embryotoxicity and investigated the underlying regulatory mechanism in mouse blastocysts. Our results revealed that non-cytotoxic concentrations of AOH (1 and 2 μM) could enhance OTA (8 μM)-triggered apoptotic processes and embryotoxicity in mouse blastocysts. We also found that AOH can enhance OTA-evoked intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and that this could be prevented by pretreatment with the potent ROS scavenger, N-acetylcysteine. Finally, we observed that this ROS generation acts as a key inducer of caspase-dependent apoptotic processes and subsequent impairments of embryo implantation and pre- and post-implantation embryonic development. In sum, our results show that non-cytotoxic dosages of AOH can aggravate OTA-triggered apoptosis and embryotoxicity through ROS- and caspase-dependent signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Hsun Huang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Taoyuan General Hospital, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Taoyuan City 33004, Taiwan
| | - Fu-Ting Wang
- Rehabilitation and Technical Aid Center, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei City 11217, Taiwan
| | - Yan-Der Hsuuw
- Department of Tropical Agriculture and International Cooperation, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 91201, Taiwan
| | - Fu-Jen Huang
- Department of Tropical Agriculture and International Cooperation, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 91201, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Hsiung Chan
- Department of Bioscience Technology and Center for Nanotechnology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chung Li District, Taoyuan City 32023, Taiwan
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30
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Dos Santos ID, Fontana MEZ, Klein B, Ribeiro SR, Stefanello A, Thewes FR, Schmidt SFP, Copetti MV, Brackmann A, Pizzutti IR, Wagner R. Fungal growth, patulin accumulation and volatile profile in 'Fuji Mishima' apples under controlled atmosphere and dynamic controlled atmosphere. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2021; 39:170-184. [PMID: 34702141 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2021.1987533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to evaluate fungal and patulin contamination, together with its correlation with the volatile compounds (VCs), in 'Fuji Mishima' apples (up to 25% decayed) under controlled atmosphere (CA) and dynamic controlled atmosphere with respiratory quotient (DCA-RQ) of 1.3 combined with different partial pressures of carbon dioxide (0.8, 1.2, 1.6 and 2.0 pCO2). Fruits were stored under the above conditions for 8 months at 0.5 °C plus 7 days shelf life at 20 °C. Toxigenic fungi and patulin accumulation were found in apples from all treatments. Penicillium expansum was the most prevalent species. For all storage conditions, patulin concentrations were above the maximum level allowed in Brazil (50 μg kg-1) with an exception of DCA-RQ1.3 + 0.8 kPa CO2. This condition, with lower pCO2, showed the lowest patulin accumulation, below the legal limit. The CA provided the highest patulin concentration (166 μg kg-1). It was observed that fungal growth could also contribute to changes in the volatile composition. Styrene and 3-methyl-1-butanol are considered P. expansum markers in some apple cultivars and were detected in the samples. However, it was not possible to identify volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that are biomarkers from P. expansum, because there were other fungi species present in all samples. In this study, styrene, n-decanoic acid, toluene, phenol and alpha-farnesene were the compounds that showed the most positive correlation with patulin accumulation. On the other hand, a negative correlation of patulin with acids has been shown, indicating that in treatments with a higher patulin concentration there were less acidic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid D Dos Santos
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Marlos E Z Fontana
- Department of Chemistry, Center of Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Bruna Klein
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Stephanie R Ribeiro
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Andrieli Stefanello
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Fabio R Thewes
- Plant Science Department, Postharvest Research Center, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Suele F P Schmidt
- Plant Science Department, Postharvest Research Center, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Marina V Copetti
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Auri Brackmann
- Plant Science Department, Postharvest Research Center, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Ionara R Pizzutti
- Department of Chemistry, Center of Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Roger Wagner
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
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31
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Huang CH, Wang FT, Chan WH. Alternariol exerts embryotoxic and immunotoxic effects on mouse blastocysts through ROS-mediated apoptotic processes. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2021; 10:719-732. [PMID: 34484663 PMCID: PMC8403814 DOI: 10.1093/toxres/tfab054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2020] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Alternariol (AOH), a mycotoxin belonging to the genus Alternaria, has been shown to induce cytotoxicity, including apoptosis and cell cycle arrest, in several mammalian cell types. However, its effects on early-stage embryonic development require further investigation. Here, we have shown that AOH exerts embryotoxic effects on mouse blastocyst-stage embryos and long-term adverse effects on immunity in one-day-old newborn mice of the next generation. Significant apoptosis and decrease in total cell number, predominantly through loss of inner cell mass (ICM), and to a minor extent, trophectoderm (TE) cells, were observed in AOH-treated blastocysts. Moreover, AOH exerted detrimental effects on pre- and post-implantation embryo development potential and induced a decrease in fetal weight in in vitro development and embryo transfer assays. Injection of pregnant mice with AOH (1, 3 and 5 mg/kg body weight/day) for 4 days resulted in apoptosis of blastocyst-stage embryos and injurious effects on embryonic development from the zygote to blastocyst stage or embryo degradation and a further decrease in fetal weight. Furthermore, AOH exerted a long-term impact on the next generation, triggering a significant increase in total oxidative stress content and expression of genes encoding antioxidant proteins. Lower expression of CXCL1, IL-1β and IL-8 related to innate immunity was detected in liver tissue extracts obtained from one-day-old newborns of AOH-injected pregnant mice (5 mg/kg body weight/day) relative to their non-treated counterparts. In addition, ROS served as an upstream regulator of AOH-triggered apoptotic processes and impairment of embryonic development. Our collective results highlight the potential of AOH as an embryotoxic and immunotoxic risk factor during embryo and infant development stages in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Hsun Huang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Taoyuan General Hospital, Ministry of Health & Welfare, Taoyuan City 33004, Taiwan
| | - Fu-Ting Wang
- Rehabilitation and Technical Aid Center, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei City 11217, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Hsiung Chan
- Department of Bioscience Technology and Center for Nanotechnology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chung Li District, Taoyuan City 32023, Taiwan
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Aichinger G, Del Favero G, Warth B, Marko D. Alternaria toxins-Still emerging? Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2021; 20:4390-4406. [PMID: 34323368 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Alternaria molds are known to cause the contamination of food with their secondary metabolites, a chemically very heterogeneous group of compounds. Yet, after decades of research on the occurrence and the toxicity of Alternaria toxins in academia, no regulation has been implemented yet, thus leaving these potential food contaminants in the status of so-called "emerging mycotoxins". However, research on this topic has been far from static, leading to the European Food Safety Authority repeatedly calling for more data on the occurrence and toxicity of genotoxic metabolites such as alternariol (AOH) and its monomethyl ether (AME). To give an overview on recent developments in the field, this comprehensive review summarizes published data and addresses current challenges arising from the chemical complexity of Alternaria's metabolome, mixture effects and the emergence of novel biological targets like cell membranes or the interaction with different receptors. Besides toxicodynamics, we review recent research on toxicokinetics, including the first in vivo studies which incorporated the rarely investigated-but highly genotoxic-perylene quinones. Furthermore, a particular focus lies on the advances of liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)-based analytical tools for determining a broader spectrum of Alternaria toxins including modified/masked forms and assessing exposure via human biomonitoring (HBM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Aichinger
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria
| | - Giorgia Del Favero
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria
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33
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Bertuzzi T, Rastelli S, Pietri A, Giorni P. Alternaria toxins in tomato products in Northern Italy in the period 2017-2019. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS. PART B, SURVEILLANCE 2021; 14:170-176. [PMID: 34078242 DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2021.1895325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of tenuazonic acid (TeA), alternariol, alternariol monomethyl and tentoxin in tomato-based products was surveyed over the years 2017-2019. A total of 120 samples were collected from retail outlets and tomato-based food producers located in Northern Italy. After extraction and purification through prepacked columns, the mycotoxins were analysed using LC-MS/MS. A widespread contamination of TeA was found in tomato-based products, particularly in concentrated tomato paste. Other Alternaria toxins were not detected. The incidence of TeA was 78.5%, 47.4%, 55.5%, and 76.9% in concentrated tomato paste (maximum value 5955 µg kg-1), tomato sauce, tomato pulp, and ketchup, respectively. The mean level was 243 ± 725 µg kg-1 in concentrated tomato paste and below 30 µg kg-1 in the other tomato products. The contamination varied from year to year. Alternaria spp strains isolated from fresh tomatoes produced mainly TeA. This study provides further Alternaria toxins occurrence data, useful for future risk assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terenzio Bertuzzi
- Department of Animal, Food and Nutrition Science, DIANA, Piacenza, Italy
| | - Silvia Rastelli
- Department of Animal, Food and Nutrition Science, DIANA, Piacenza, Italy
| | - Amedeo Pietri
- Department of Animal, Food and Nutrition Science, DIANA, Piacenza, Italy
| | - Paola Giorni
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production - DIPROVES., Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environmental Science, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Piacenza, Italy
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34
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Liang Y, Wang Y, Wang F, Li J, Wang C, Dong J, Ueda H, Xiao Z, Shen Y, Xu Z, Wang H. An enhanced open sandwich immunoassay by molecular evolution for noncompetitive detection of Alternaria mycotoxin tenuazonic acid. Food Chem 2021; 361:130103. [PMID: 34082388 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Open sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (OS-ELISA), a novel noncompetitive immunoassay format, has shown great potential in rapid detection for small molecules compared with traditional competitive format. Here, an enhanced OS-ELISA towards the mycotoxin tenuazonic acid (TeA) was developed for the first time based on heavy chain variable region (VH) and light chain variable region (VL) from the hybridoma cells (3F10) producing anti-TeA monoclonal antibody (mAb). The established OS-ELISA exhibited a limit of detection of 0.08 ng/mL, and was 13 times more sensitive than mAb-based indirect competitive ELISA (ic-ELISA). The proposed assay was also applied to detect TeA contents in juice, flour and tomato ketchup samples with satisfactory recoveries of 87.6%-111.3%. Finally, the great accuracy of the established OS-ELISA method was validated by the standard ultra-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yifan Liang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Yu Wang
- Guangzhou Institute of Food Inspection, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Feng Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Jiadong Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Chenglong Wang
- Guangzhou Institute of Food Inspection, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Jinhua Dong
- Key Laboratory for Biological Medicine in Shandong Universities, Weifang Key Laboratory for Antibody Medicine, School of Bioscience and Technology, Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261053, China
| | - Hiroshi Ueda
- World Research Hub Initiative, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama 226-8503, Japan
| | - Zhili Xiao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Yudong Shen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Zhenlin Xu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China.
| | - Hong Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China.
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35
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Babič J, Tavčar-Kalcher G, Celar FA, Kos K, Knific T, Jakovac-Strajn B. Occurrence of Alternaria and Other Toxins in Cereal Grains Intended for Animal Feeding Collected in Slovenia: A Three-Year Study. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:304. [PMID: 33923249 PMCID: PMC8145452 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13050304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, the less-studied Alternaria mycotoxins have attracted increasing interest due to the lack of survey data and their ability to cause toxic effects in animals and humans. To fill the gap, the aim of this three-year survey was to investigate the presence and co-occurrence of Alternaria and other mycotoxins in a total of 433 cereal grain samples from Slovenian farms and agricultural cooperatives from 2014 to 2016. Using the multi-mycotoxin method, 14 mycotoxins were determined. In 53% of 433 analysed samples, contamination with at least one mycotoxin was found. Deoxynivalenol (DON) and tenuazonic acid (TeA) were present in 32% and 26% of cereal grain samples, respectively, whereas alternariol (AOH), tentoxin (TEN), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), 3- and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3- and 15-AcDON), and zearalenone (ZEN) were present in fewer than 15% of the samples. Ochratoxin A (OTA) was found in one rye sample, while diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), HT-2 and T-2 toxin, and fumonisins B1 and B2 (FB1 and FB2) were not detected. The highest maximum and median concentrations of Alternaria toxins were determined in spelt in 2016 (TeA, 2277 µg/kg and 203 µg/kg, respectively), and those of Fusarium toxins in wheat in 2015 (DON, 4082 µg/kg and 387 µg/kg, respectively). The co-occurrence of two or more mycotoxins was found in 43% of the positive samples. The correlations between Alternaria toxins were very weak but statistically significant (r: 0.15-0.17, p: 0.0042-0.0165). A well-known correlation between Fusarium toxins DON and ZEN was weak and highly significant (r = 0.28, p < 0.0001).
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Affiliation(s)
- Janja Babič
- Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (J.B.); (T.K.); (B.J.-S.)
| | - Gabrijela Tavčar-Kalcher
- Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (J.B.); (T.K.); (B.J.-S.)
| | - Franci Aco Celar
- Department of Agronomy, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (F.A.C.); (K.K.)
| | - Katarina Kos
- Department of Agronomy, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (F.A.C.); (K.K.)
| | - Tanja Knific
- Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (J.B.); (T.K.); (B.J.-S.)
| | - Breda Jakovac-Strajn
- Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (J.B.); (T.K.); (B.J.-S.)
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36
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Prendes LP, Merín MG, Zachetti VGL, Pereyra A, Ramirez ML, Morata de Ambrosini VI. Impact of antagonistic yeasts from wine grapes on growth and mycotoxin production by Alternaria alternata. J Appl Microbiol 2021; 131:833-843. [PMID: 33420735 DOI: 10.1111/jam.14996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Revised: 11/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Alternaria alternata is a major contaminant of wine grapes, meaning a health risk for wine consumers due to the accumulation of toxic metabolites. To develop a successful biofungicide, the effectiveness of epiphytic wine grape yeasts against A. alternata growth and toxin production was assessed in vitro under temperature and aW conditions that simulate those present in the field. METHODS AND RESULTS The effect of 14 antagonistic yeasts was evaluated on growth and alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) and tenuazonic acid (TA) production by three A. alternata strains in a synthetic medium with composition similar to grape (SN) at three temperatures (15, 25 and 30°C). All Metschnikowia sp. yeast strains evaluated completely prevented A. alternata growth and mycotoxin production at all temperatures in SN medium. Meanwhile, the growth inhibition exerted by Starmerella bacillaris yeast strains was higher at 30°C, followed by 25 and 15°C, being able to show a stimulating or inhibiting effect. Hanseniaspora uvarum yeast strains showed a growth promoting activity higher at 15°C, followed by 25 and 30°C. Even at conditions where A. alternata growth was stimulated by the S. bacillaris and H. uvarum yeasts, high inhibitions of mycotoxin production (AOH, AME and TA) were observed, indicating a complex interaction between growth and mycotoxin production. CONCLUSION There is a significant influence of temperature on the effectiveness of biocontrol against A. alternata growth and mycotoxin production. Metschnikowia sp. strains are good candidates to compose a biofungicide against A. alternata. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Among the different antagonistic yeasts evaluated, only Metschnikowia sp. strains were equally effective reducing A. alternata growth and mycotoxin at different temperatures underlining the importance of considering environmental factors in the selection of the antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- L P Prendes
- Facultad de Ciencias Aplicadas a la Industria, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, San Rafael, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M G Merín
- Facultad de Ciencias Aplicadas a la Industria, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, San Rafael, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - V G L Zachetti
- Instituto de Investigacion en Micología y Micotoxicología CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Río Cuarto, Argentina
| | - A Pereyra
- Instituto de Investigacion en Micología y Micotoxicología CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Río Cuarto, Argentina
| | - M L Ramirez
- Instituto de Investigacion en Micología y Micotoxicología CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Río Cuarto, Argentina
| | - V I Morata de Ambrosini
- Facultad de Ciencias Aplicadas a la Industria, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, San Rafael, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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37
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Recent Advances in Mycotoxin Analysis and Detection of Mycotoxigenic Fungi in Grapes and Derived Products. SUSTAINABILITY 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/su13052537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi that can cause toxic effects in human and animal health. Most of the filamentous fungi that produce these mycotoxins belong to four genera, namely, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Alternaria. Mycotoxigenic fungi, along with mycotoxins, create a constant and serious economic threat for agriculture in many terms, counting product losses due to crop contamination and food spoilage, as well malnutrition when considering nutritional quality degradation. Given the importance of robust and precise diagnostics of mycotoxins and the related producing fungi in the grape food chain, one of the most important agricultural sectors worldwide, the present review initially delivers a comprehensive presentation of mycotoxin reports on grape and derived products, including a wide range of commodities such as fresh grapes, raisins, wine, juices, and other processed products. Next, based on worldwide regulations’ requirements for mycotoxins, and referring to the relative literature, this work presents methodological approaches for mycotoxin determination, and stresses major methods for the detection of fungal species responsible for mycotoxin production. The principle of function and basic technical background on the available analytical and molecular biology techniques developed—including chromatography, mass spectrometry, immunochemical-based assays, biosensors, and molecular assays—is briefly given, and references for their application to grape and derived product testing are highlighted.
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Tölgyesi Á, Farkas T, Bálint M, McDonald TJ, Sharma VK. A Dilute and Shoot Strategy for Determining Alternaria Toxins in Tomato-Based Samples and in Different Flours Using LC-IDMS Separation. Molecules 2021; 26:1017. [PMID: 33671906 PMCID: PMC7918963 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26041017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Revised: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Alternaria toxins are emerging mycotoxins whose regulation and standardization are in progress by the European Commission and the European Committee for Standardization. This paper describes a dilute and shoot approach to determine five Alternaria toxins in selected food samples using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The strategy involves sample extraction with acidified aqueous methanol, followed by a solvent change accomplished via sample evaporation and reconstitution. The quantification is based on isotope dilution, applying all corresponding isotopically labeled internal standards to compensate possible matrix effects of the analysis. The main advantages of the present method over other existing methods includes simple and effective sample preparation, as well as detection with high sensitivity. The five-fold sample dilution can decrease matrix effects, which were evaluated with both external and internal standard methods. The results demonstrated a limit of quantification lower than 1.0 µg/kg for all five analytes for the first time. The newly presented method showed acceptable accuracy (52.7-111%) when analyzing naturally contaminated and spiked standard samples at the described levels. The method was validated for tomato-based and flour samples (wheat, rye, and maize). The absolute recovery ranged from 66.7% to 91.6% (RSD < 10%). The developed method could be an alternative approach for those laboratories that exclude sample cleanup and pre-concentration of state-of-the-art instruments with enhanced sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ádám Tölgyesi
- Bálint Analitika Ltd., Fehérvári út 144, 1116 Budapest, Hungary; (T.F.); (M.B.)
| | - Tamás Farkas
- Bálint Analitika Ltd., Fehérvári út 144, 1116 Budapest, Hungary; (T.F.); (M.B.)
| | - Mária Bálint
- Bálint Analitika Ltd., Fehérvári út 144, 1116 Budapest, Hungary; (T.F.); (M.B.)
| | - Thomas J. McDonald
- Program for the Environment and Sustainability, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Texas A&M University, 212 Adriance Lab Rd., 1266 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, USA;
| | - Virender K. Sharma
- Program for the Environment and Sustainability, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Texas A&M University, 212 Adriance Lab Rd., 1266 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, USA;
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Galván AI, Rodríguez A, Martín A, Serradilla MJ, Martínez-Dorado A, Córdoba MDG. Effect of Temperature during Drying and Storage of Dried Figs on Growth, Gene Expression and Aflatoxin Production. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13020134. [PMID: 33670398 PMCID: PMC7918548 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Dried fig is susceptible to infection by Aspergillus flavus, the major producer of the carcinogenic mycotoxins. This fruit may be contaminated by the fungus throughout the entire chain production, especially during natural sun-drying, post-harvest, industrial processing, storage, and fruit retailing. Correct management of such critical stages is necessary to prevent mould growth and mycotoxin accumulation, with temperature being one of the main factors associated with these problems. The effect of different temperatures (5, 16, 25, 30, and 37 °C) related to dried-fig processing on growth, one of the regulatory genes of aflatoxin pathway (aflR) and mycotoxin production by A. flavus, was assessed. Firstly, growth and aflatoxin production of 11 A. flavus strains were checked before selecting two strains (M30 and M144) for in-depth studies. Findings showed that there were enormous differences in aflatoxin amounts and related-gene expression between the two selected strains. Based on the results, mild temperatures, and changes in temperature during drying and storage of dried figs should be avoided. Drying should be conducted at temperatures >30 °C and close to 37 °C, while industry processing, storage, and retailing of dried figs are advisable to perform at refrigeration temperatures (<10 °C) to avoid mycotoxin production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Isabel Galván
- Junta de Extremadura, Finca La Orden-Valdesequera Research Centre (CICYTEX), Horticulture, 06187 Guadajira, Spain;
| | - Alicia Rodríguez
- Food Quality and Microbiology, School of Agricultural Engineering, University of Extremadura, Avda. de Adolfo Suárez, s/n, 06007 Badajoz, Spain; (A.M.); (A.M.-D.); (M.d.G.C.)
- University Institute for the Research in Agrifood Resources (INURA), University of Extremadura, Avda. de la Investigación s/n, 06006 Badajoz, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-924-289-300 (ext. 86283)
| | - Alberto Martín
- Food Quality and Microbiology, School of Agricultural Engineering, University of Extremadura, Avda. de Adolfo Suárez, s/n, 06007 Badajoz, Spain; (A.M.); (A.M.-D.); (M.d.G.C.)
- University Institute for the Research in Agrifood Resources (INURA), University of Extremadura, Avda. de la Investigación s/n, 06006 Badajoz, Spain
| | - Manuel Joaquín Serradilla
- Junta de Extremadura, Agri-Food Technological Institute of Extremadura (INTAEX-CICYTEX), Department of Postharvest Science Avda, 06007 Badajoz, Spain;
| | - Ana Martínez-Dorado
- Food Quality and Microbiology, School of Agricultural Engineering, University of Extremadura, Avda. de Adolfo Suárez, s/n, 06007 Badajoz, Spain; (A.M.); (A.M.-D.); (M.d.G.C.)
- University Institute for the Research in Agrifood Resources (INURA), University of Extremadura, Avda. de la Investigación s/n, 06006 Badajoz, Spain
| | - María de Guía Córdoba
- Food Quality and Microbiology, School of Agricultural Engineering, University of Extremadura, Avda. de Adolfo Suárez, s/n, 06007 Badajoz, Spain; (A.M.); (A.M.-D.); (M.d.G.C.)
- University Institute for the Research in Agrifood Resources (INURA), University of Extremadura, Avda. de la Investigación s/n, 06006 Badajoz, Spain
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Habschied K, Kanižai Šarić G, Krstanović V, Mastanjević K. Mycotoxins-Biomonitoring and Human Exposure. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:113. [PMID: 33546479 PMCID: PMC7913644 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 01/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungal species that commonly have a toxic effect on human and animal health. Different foodstuff can be contaminated and are considered the major source of human exposure to mycotoxins, but occupational and environmental exposure can also significantly contribute to this problem. This review aims to provide a short overview of the occurrence of toxigenic fungi and regulated mycotoxins in foods and workplaces, following the current literature and data presented in scientific papers. Biomonitoring of mycotoxins in plasma, serum, urine, and blood samples has become a common method for determining the exposure to different mycotoxins. Novel techniques are more and more precise and accurate and are aiming toward the simultaneous determination of multiple mycotoxins in one analysis. Application of liquid chromatography (LC) methodologies, coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) or high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) has become a common and most reliable method for determining the exposure to mycotoxins. Numerous references confirm the importance of mycotoxin biomonitoring to assess the exposure for humans and animals. The objectives of this paper were to review the general approaches to biomonitoring of different mycotoxins and the occurrence of toxigenic fungi and their mycotoxins, using recent literature sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Habschied
- Department of Process Engineering, Faculty of Food Technology Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (V.K.); (K.M.)
| | - Gabriella Kanižai Šarić
- Department of Agroecology and Environment Protection, Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia;
| | - Vinko Krstanović
- Department of Process Engineering, Faculty of Food Technology Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (V.K.); (K.M.)
| | - Krešimir Mastanjević
- Department of Process Engineering, Faculty of Food Technology Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (V.K.); (K.M.)
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Pavicich MA, De Boevre M, Vidal A, Iturmendi F, Mikula H, Warth B, Marko D, De Saeger S, Patriarca A. Fate of free and modified Alternaria mycotoxins during the production of apple concentrates. Food Control 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Aichinger G, Živná N, Varga E, Crudo F, Warth B, Marko D. Microfiltration results in the loss of analytes and affects the in vitro genotoxicity of a complex mixture of Alternaria toxins. Mycotoxin Res 2020; 36:399-408. [PMID: 32794137 PMCID: PMC7536153 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-020-00405-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Alternaria molds produce a variety of chemically diverse secondary metabolites with potentially adverse effects on human health. However, data on occurrence in food and human exposure is inconsistent for some of these mycotoxins. Membrane filtration is a frequent step in many sample preparation procedures for LC-MS-based methods analyzing food contaminants. Yet, little is known about the possibility of adsorptive phenomena that might result in analyte losses. Thus, we treated a complex extract of Alternaria toxins with several types of syringe filters and unraveled the impact on its chemical composition by LC-MS/MS. We observed significant, and in some cases complete, losses of compounds due to filtration. Particularly, two key Alternaria toxins, alternariol (AOH) and its monomethyl ether (AME), were heavily affected. As a comparison with published food surveys indicating a correlation of the type of filtration used with lower incidence reports in food, our results point at a possible underestimation of AME in past exposure assessment. Also, perylene quinones were greatly affected by filtration, underlining the importance to take this into consideration during analytical method development. Furthermore, we applied the comet assay in HT-29 cells to elucidate the impact of filtration on the genotoxicity of the extract. We observed strong coincidences with the loss of epoxide-carrying metabolites and also an intriguing induction of oxidative DNA damage by yet toxicologically uncharacterized Alternaria toxins. In conclusion, we highlight potential issues with sample filtration and call for a critical re-evaluation of previous food occurrence data in the light of the results at hand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Aichinger
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Natálie Živná
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Elisabeth Varga
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Francesco Crudo
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy.
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Mujahid C, Savoy MC, Baslé Q, Woo PM, Ee ECY, Mottier P, Bessaire T. Levels of Alternaria Toxins in Selected Food Commodities Including Green Coffee. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E595. [PMID: 32942568 PMCID: PMC7551213 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12090595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 08/27/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Alternaria toxins are emerging mycotoxins, candidates for regulation by European Authorities. Therefore, highly sensitive, confirmatory, and reliable analytical methodologies are required for their monitoring in food. In that context, an isotope dilution LC-MS/MS method was developed for the analysis of five Alternaria toxins (Altenuene, Alternariol, Alternariol monomethylether, Tentoxin, and Tenuazonic Acid) in a broad range of commodities including cereals and cereal-based products, tomato-based products, tree nuts, vegetable oils, dried fruits, cocoa, green coffee, spices, herbs, and tea. Validation data collected in two different laboratories demonstrated the robustness of the method. Underestimation of Tenuazonic Acid level in dry samples such as cereals was reported when inappropriate extraction solvent mixtures were used as currently done in several published methodologies. An investigation survey performed on 216 food items evidenced large variations of Alternaria toxins levels, in line with data reported in the last EFSA safety assessment. The analysis of 78 green coffee samples collected from 21 producing countries demonstrated that coffee is a negligible source of exposure to Alternaria toxins. Its wide scope of application, adequate sample throughput, and high sensitivity make this method fit for purpose for the regular monitoring of Alternaria toxins in foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Mujahid
- Nestlé Research, Route du Jorat 57, Vers-chez-les-Blanc, 1000 Lausanne, Switzerland; (C.M.); (M.-C.S.); (P.M.)
| | - Marie-Claude Savoy
- Nestlé Research, Route du Jorat 57, Vers-chez-les-Blanc, 1000 Lausanne, Switzerland; (C.M.); (M.-C.S.); (P.M.)
| | - Quentin Baslé
- Nestlé Quality Assurance Center, 29 Quality Road, Singapore 618802, Singapore; (Q.B.); (P.M.W.); (E.C.Y.E.)
| | - Pei Mun Woo
- Nestlé Quality Assurance Center, 29 Quality Road, Singapore 618802, Singapore; (Q.B.); (P.M.W.); (E.C.Y.E.)
| | - Edith Chin Yean Ee
- Nestlé Quality Assurance Center, 29 Quality Road, Singapore 618802, Singapore; (Q.B.); (P.M.W.); (E.C.Y.E.)
| | - Pascal Mottier
- Nestlé Research, Route du Jorat 57, Vers-chez-les-Blanc, 1000 Lausanne, Switzerland; (C.M.); (M.-C.S.); (P.M.)
| | - Thomas Bessaire
- Nestlé Research, Route du Jorat 57, Vers-chez-les-Blanc, 1000 Lausanne, Switzerland; (C.M.); (M.-C.S.); (P.M.)
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Development of a Monoclonal Antibody-Based ELISA for the Detection of Alternaria Mycotoxin Tenuazonic Acid in Food Samples. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-020-01780-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Qiao X, Zhang J, Yang Y, Yin J, Li H, Xing Y, Shao B. Development of a simple and rapid LC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous quantification of five Alternaria mycotoxins in human urine. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2020; 1144:122096. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2020.122096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Revised: 02/15/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Rausch AK, Brockmeyer R, Schwerdtle T. Development and Validation of a QuEChERS-Based Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry Multi-Method for the Determination of 38 Native and Modified Mycotoxins in Cereals. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:4657-4669. [PMID: 32216338 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b07491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Here, a reliable and sensitive method for the determination of 38 (modified) mycotoxins was developed. Using a QuEChERS-based extraction method [acetonitrile/water/formic acid (75:20:5, v/v/v)], followed by two runs of high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry with different conditions, relevant mycotoxins in cereals were analyzed. The method was validated according to the performance criteria defined by the European Commission (EC) in Commission Decision no. 657/2002. Limits of quantification ranged from 0.05 to 150 μg/kg. Good linearity (R2 > 0.99), recovery (61-120%), repeatability (RSDr < 15%), and reproducibility (RSDR < 20%) were obtained for most mycotoxins. However, validation results for Alternaria toxins and fumonisins were unsatisfying. Matrix effects (-69 to +59%) were compensated for using standard addition. Application on reference materials gave correct results while analysis of samples from local retailers revealed contamination, especially with deoxynivalenol, deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside, fumonisins, and zearalenone, in concentrations up to 369, 58, 1002, and 21 μg/kg, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann-Kristin Rausch
- Department of Food Chemistry, Institute of Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, Arthur-Scheunert-Allee 114-116, 14558 Nuthetal, Germany
- Eurofins SOFIA GmbH, Rudower Chaussee 29, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Tanja Schwerdtle
- Department of Food Chemistry, Institute of Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, Arthur-Scheunert-Allee 114-116, 14558 Nuthetal, Germany
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Determination of Alternaria Toxins in Sunflower Oil by Liquid Chromatography Isotope Dilution Tandem Mass Spectrometry. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25071685. [PMID: 32272657 PMCID: PMC7180471 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25071685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Revised: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Alternaria toxins have gained attention as a potential health risk and can be classified as emerging mycotoxins. As a result, they are candidates to be regulated by the European Commission. This paper describes a liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometric (LC-MS/MS) method for analyzing five Alternaria toxins in sunflower oil, which is a rather different type of sample to those matrices investigated in earlier published papers. An optimal sample preparation condition was achieved when samples were dissolved in n-hexane and extracted with methanol/water mixture, followed by sample pre-concentration with solvent evaporation. This study is the first focusing only on this lipophilic matrix and in using all corresponding isotopically labeled internal standards (ISTD) to compensate the matrix effect that strongly influences the LC-MS/MS analysis of toxins. Target compounds were separated on Zorbax Extend C-18 column enabling the analysis at alkaline pH of 8.8 that was necessary to obtain appropriate peak shape of tenuazonic acid and to separate the analytes at baseline. The method was validated according to the EU 2002/657/EC Decision and all the analytical performance characteristics met the requirements. The recovery was between 74% and 122% in fortified sunflower oil samples and the precision varied from 9% to 22%. The method was successfully demonstrated for sunflower seed quality check (QC) samples. Finally, 16 different sunflower oil samples were measured; and tenuazonic acid and tentoxin toxins were detected at levels close to LOQ concentrations.
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Pavicich MA, Cárdenas P, Pose GN, Fernández Pinto V, Patriarca A. From field to process: How storage selects toxigenic Alternaria spp. causing mouldy core in Red Delicious apples. Int J Food Microbiol 2020; 322:108575. [PMID: 32155515 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2020.108575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Revised: 02/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/29/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Apple is a major crop in Argentina where 50% of the production is derived to by-products. Industries process either recently harvested apples or fruit stored for up to 9 months. This crop is susceptible to fungal diseases both external and internal, such as mouldy core (MC). The incidence of fungal pathogens changes during storage, as well as the risk associated with their presence since some contaminants belong to mycotoxigenic genera. The objective of this study was to characterize the fungal contaminants of Red Delicious apple fruit in Argentina evaluating their evolvement from field to process, with main interest on MC causal agents and mycotoxigenic species. A total of 240 apples were analysed; 140, recently harvested and intended for fresh consumption (C), and 100 stored for 9 months in a refrigerated chamber (0-3 °C) and destined to industrialization (I). The 86% of fresh consumption apples showed external fungal lesions, and only 14% were undamaged; MC incidence was 34%. High biodiversity was observed; Penicillium was the predominant genus (54%), followed by Alternaria spp. (41%). Only 3% of industrialization fruit were undamaged, 48% had external lesions and 51% MC. However, biodiversity was lower in these apples. Alternaria spp. was recovered from 60% of apples, mainly causing MC, while Penicillium spp. took second place (34%). All the Alternaria isolates belonged to Section Alternaria with A. tenuissima as the predominant species-group. Alternariol was synthesised by 75% of the isolates, while both alternariol monomethyl-ether and tenuazonic acid by 76%. From the 100 I apples, 93 were contaminated with at least one of these mycotoxins. Alternaria was the main causal agent of MC in Argentinean Red Delicious apples, and fruit affected by this disease might be incorporated into the process line, with a consequent risk of mycotoxin contamination in apple by-products.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Agustina Pavicich
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Laboratorio de Microbiología de Alimentos, Buenos Aires, Argentina; CONICET, Instituto de Micología y Botánica (INMIBO), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Paola Cárdenas
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Laboratorio de Microbiología de Alimentos, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Graciela Noemí Pose
- Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Laboratorio de Micología y Cultivo de Hongos Comestibless, Buenos Aires, Argentina; CONICET, Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (INTECH), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Virginia Fernández Pinto
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Laboratorio de Microbiología de Alimentos, Buenos Aires, Argentina; CONICET, Instituto de Micología y Botánica (INMIBO), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Andrea Patriarca
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Laboratorio de Microbiología de Alimentos, Buenos Aires, Argentina; CONICET, Instituto de Micología y Botánica (INMIBO), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Janić Hajnal E, Pezo L, Orčić D, Šarić L, Plavšić D, Kos J, Mastilović J. Preliminary Survey of Alternaria Toxins Reduction during Fermentation of Whole Wheat Dough. Microorganisms 2020; 8:E303. [PMID: 32098250 PMCID: PMC7074859 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8020303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Revised: 02/15/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the fate of the most common Alternaria toxins found in wheat-tenuazonic acid (TeA), alternariol (AOH), and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) during sourdough processing. For this purpose, spiked whole wheat flour, 3% sourdough starter, 0.5% of baker's yeast, and 105% of water calculated on flour weight as a base were used as raw materials. Spiked whole wheat dough was fermented for 4 h, 8 h, 12 h, 24 h, and 48 h at 25 °C, and at each point the fermented dough samples were taken, frozen, lyophilized, grounded, and stored until further analysis. To study the effect of sourdough processing on TeA, AOH and AME content, the validated method of high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for these mycotoxins was used. Mathematical models of Alternaria toxins reduction were developed in the form of Four Parameter Logistic Regression function. The maximum reduction of TeA, AOH, and AME levels was archived at 48 h of dough fermentation at 25 °C compared with dough after kneading (0 h). Under these conditions, a reduction of the toxin levels of 60.3 %, 41.5%, and 24.1% was observed for TeA, AOH, and AME, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabet Janić Hajnal
- Research Center for Technology of Plant Based Food Products, Institute of Food Technology, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (L.Š.); (D.P.); (J.K.); (J.M.)
| | - Lato Pezo
- Institute of General and Physical Chemistry, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia;
| | - Dejan Orčić
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia;
| | - Ljubiša Šarić
- Research Center for Technology of Plant Based Food Products, Institute of Food Technology, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (L.Š.); (D.P.); (J.K.); (J.M.)
| | - Dragana Plavšić
- Research Center for Technology of Plant Based Food Products, Institute of Food Technology, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (L.Š.); (D.P.); (J.K.); (J.M.)
| | - Jovana Kos
- Research Center for Technology of Plant Based Food Products, Institute of Food Technology, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (L.Š.); (D.P.); (J.K.); (J.M.)
| | - Jasna Mastilović
- Research Center for Technology of Plant Based Food Products, Institute of Food Technology, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (L.Š.); (D.P.); (J.K.); (J.M.)
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