Thermal processing effects on the functional properties and microstructure of lentil, chickpea, and pea flours

Effect of different physical pre-treatments on physicochemical and techno-functional properties, and on the antinutritional factors of lentils (Lens culinaris spp)

Lentils have a valuable physicochemical profile, which can be affected by the presence of antinutrients that may impair the benefits arising from their consumption. Different treatments can be used to reduce these undesirable compounds, although they can also affect the general composition and behaviour of the lentils. Thus, the effect of different processing methods on the physicochemical and techno-functional properties, as well as on the antinutritional factors of different lentil varieties was studied. Phytic acid was eliminated during germination, while tannins and trypsin inhibitors are mostly affected by cooking. Functional properties were also altered by processing, these being dependent on the concentration of different nutrients in lentils. All the studied treatments affected the physicochemical profile of lentils and their functional properties. Cooking and germination appear to be the most effective in reducing antinutritional factors and improving the physicochemical profile of the lentils, meeting the current nutritional demands of today's society.

Dry-air roasting impact on physicochemical, functional, antioxidant properties, phenolic profile and Maillard reaction products of flaxseed flour and cake flour

The study investigated and compared physicochemical, functional, antioxidant properties, phenolic profile and Maillard reaction products (MRP) of flaxseed flour (FF) and flaxseed cake flour (FCF) upon dry-air roasting (DaR) of flaxseeds at 140, 160 and 180 °C for 5 and 10 min. This information on FF and FCF is limited and has considerable gaps. The raw FF exhibited higher fat, ash, antioxidant and functional properties while lower protein than the FCF. Upon increasing DaR conditions, the ash and protein increased in FCF and decreased in FF. DaR at 180 °C for 10 min augmented water solubility index, ΔE, MRP, free rutin and syringic acid, bound epicatechin, gallic acid and syringic acid while lowered moisture, L*, b*, hue, chroma, potassium, iron, selenium, emulsion indexes, caffeic acid, flavonoids and free resveratrol in FF and FCF. In conclusion, DaR improves phenolic profile, antioxidant properties, MRP, water solubility and oil absorption capacity of FF and FCF.

Interactions between partially gelatinized starch and nonstarch components in potato flour and their performance in emulsification

To develop natural complex materials as starch-dominated emulsifiers, pregelatinization was conducted on potato flour. The effects of gelatinization degrees (GDs, 0 %-50 %) on the structural characteristics, physicochemical properties, and emulsifying potentials of potato flour were investigated. Increasing GD of potato flour promoted protein aggregation on starch granules surfaces and transformed starch semicrystalline structures into melted networks. The emulsion stabilized with 50 % GD potato flour exhibited excellent storage stability (7 d) and gel-like behavior. With increasing GD from 0 to 50 %, the respective apparent viscosities and elastic moduli of emulsion increased from 21.4 Pa to 1126.7 Pa, and from 0.133 Pa·s to 1176.6 Pa·s, promoting the formation of a stable network structure in the emulsion. Fourier transform infrared spectra from emulsions with a continuous phase of >20 % GD displayed a new peak around 1740 cm-1, suggesting improved covalent interactions between droplets, thereby facilitating emulsion stability. Confocal laser scanning microscopy images indicated that droplets could be anchored in the melted networks and broken starch granules, inhibiting droplets coalescence. These results suggest that pregelatinization is a viable strategy for customizing natural starch-dominated emulsions.

Heat-Induced Gelation of Chickpea and Faba Bean Flour Ingredients

This study aimed to investigate the gelling behavior of faba bean (FB) and chickpea (CP) flour between 10 and 20% (w/w) concentration at pH 3.0, 5.0, and 7.0. Both sources formed at pH 3.0 and 5.0 self-standing gels with 12% (w/w) of flour, while 16% (w/w) of flour was required to obtain a gel at pH 7.0. During gelling between 40 and 70 °C, a sharp increase of the elastic modulus G' was observed in both flours, mainly due to water absorption and swelling of the starch, one of the major constituents in the ingredients. Increasing the temperature at 95 °C, G' increased due to the denaturation of globulins and therefore the exposure of their internal part, which allowed more hydrophobic interactions and the formation of the gel. After cooling, both FB and CP gels displayed a solid-like behavior (tan δ ranging between 0.11 and 0.18) with G' values at pH 3.0 and 5.0 significantly (p < 0.05) higher than those at pH 7.0, due to the lower electrostatic repulsions at pHs far from the isoelectric point. The rheological properties were supported by the water binding capacity values, confirming the better gels' strength described by rheological analysis. These results will enhance our understanding of the role of legume flours in formulating innovative and sustainable food products as alternatives to animal ones.

Structure, functional and physicochemical properties of lotus seed protein under different pH environments

BACKGROUND

The present study investigated the structure, functional and physicochemical properties of lotus seed protein (LSP) under different pH environments. The structures of LSP were characterized by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), zeta potential, particle size distributions, free sulfhydryl and rheological properties. The functional and physicochemical properties of LSP were characterized by color, foaming property, emulsification property, solubility, oil holding capacity, water holding capacity, differential scanning calorimetry analysis and surface hydrophobicity.

RESULTS

LSP was mainly composed of eight subunits (18, 25, 31, 47, 51, 56, 65 and 151 kDa), in which the richest band was 25 kDa. FTIR results showed that LSP had high total contents of α-helix and β-sheet (44.81-46.85%) in acidic environments. Meanwhile, there was more β-structure and random structure in neutral and alkaline environments (pH 7.0 and 9.0). At pH 5.0, LSP had large particle size (1576.98 nm), high emulsion stability index (91.43 min), foaming stability (75.69%) and water holding capacity (2.21 g g-1), but low solubility (35.98%), free sulfhydryl content (1.95 μmol g-1) and surface hydrophobicity (780). DSC analysis showed the denaturation temperatures (82.23 °C) of LSP at pH 5.0 was higher than those (80.10, 80.52 and 71.82 °C) at pH 3.0, 7.0 and 9.0. The analysis of rheological properties showed that LSP gel had high stability and great strength in an alkaline environment.

CONCLUSION

The findings of the present study are anticipated to serve as a valuable reference for the implementation of LSP in the food industry. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Evaluating How Different Drying Techniques Change the Structure and Physicochemical and Flavor Properties of Gastrodia elata

We evaluated the drying characteristics and structure, as well as the physicochemical and flavor properties, of G. elata treated by hot-air drying (HAD), vacuum drying (VD), freeze drying (FD), microwave drying (MD), and microwave vacuum drying (MVD). We found that MD and MVD showed the shortest drying times, while FD and MVD were able to better retain the active ingredients and color of the samples. However, the different drying methods did not change the internal structure of G. elata, and its main components did not fundamentally change. In addition, E-nose and HS-SPME-GC-MS effectively differentiated the volatile components, and 36 compounds were detected by HS-SPME-GC-MS. Of these samples, alcohols and aldehydes were the main substances identified. In particular, MVD samples possessed the most species of organic volatiles, but the FD method effectively eliminated pungent odors from the G. elata. Overall, MVD shows the most obvious advantages, improving drying rate while maintaining the original shape, color, and active components in G. elata. Ultimately, MVD is the preferred method to obtain high-quality dried G. elata, and our drying-method characterizations can be used to investigate similar structural and chemical changes to similar herbs in the future.

Processing to improve the sustainability of chickpea as a functional food ingredient

Chickpea is a field crop that is playing an emerging role in the provision of healthy and sustainable plant-based value-added ingredients for the food and nutraceutical industries. This article reviews the characteristics of chickpea (composition, health properties, and techno-functionality) and chickpea grain that influence their use as whole foods or ingredients in formulated food. It covers the exploitation of traditional and emerging processes for the conversion of chickpea into value-added differentiated food ingredients. The influence of processing on the composition, health-promoting properties, and techno-functionality of chickpea is discussed. Opportunities to tailor chickpea ingredients to facilitate their incorporation in traditional food applications and in the expanding plant-based meat alternative and dairy alternative markets are highlighted. The review includes an assessment of the possible uses of by-products of chickpea processing. Recommendations are provided for future research to build a sustainable industry using chickpea as a value-added ingredient. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effects of germination time on the structure, functionality, flavour attributes, and in vitro digestibility of green Altamura lentils (Lens culinaris Medik.) flour

There has been an increase in the use of adoptable bioprocessing methods for the development of high-quality leguminous ingredients. The potential use of germinated green Altamura lentils as a food ingredient is closely related to the resulting properties. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of three germination times - 0 (C), 24 (G) and 48 (H) hours - on the physicochemical, microstructural, flavour, functional, and nutritional features of lentil flour samples (CF, GF and HF). Lentil flour samples were obtained by grinding both whole green seeds (C) and germinated seeds (G and H), and then sifting them to obtain a particle size < 300 μm. The germinated samples - GF (24 h) and HF (48 h) - exhibited differences (P < 0.05) in the physicochemical and bioactive properties of CF (control). Similarly, compared with those in the control sample, the total starch, amylose and total phenolic contents in the GF and HF samples decreased, while the protein content increased (p < 0.05). A decrease in the presence of intact starch granules was observed via SEM in the germinated samples. The germination time had a significant (P < 0.05) effect on the colour indices, L*, a*, and b* of the samples. Flavour attributes were significantly influenced by the germination time. Overall, a total of 14 (CF) and 17 (GF and HF) aromatic compounds were identified. The technological characteristics of the CF, GF and HF dough samples were studied using a Brabender farinograph. Germination time affects the flour properties, leading to a significant decrease in farinographic parameters such as water absorption (WA), dough development time (DT), and dough stability (DS) and an increase in the degree of dough weakening (DOS). Differential scanning calorimetry was employed to examine the gelatinization transition of the samples. Germination strongly influenced all the thermal properties of the samples. It also had a significant impact on the in vitro starch digestibility, starch fraction and glycaemic index (eGI) of the samples. In particular, the eGI of germinated lentils was lower than that of the CF. In conclusion, the germination time could be a key factor modulating some crucial lentil flour properties.

Effects of extrusion screw speed, feed moisture content, and barrel temperature on the physical, techno-functional, and microstructural quality of texturized lentil protein

Utilizing lentil protein as a novel ingredient for producing texturized vegetable proteins (TVPs) can provide new opportunities for the production of next-generation hybrid meat products. TVPs from lentil protein isolate were manufactured using low-moisture extrusion cooking at different combinations of screw speed (SS), feed moisture content (MC), and barrel temperature (BT) profile. In total, seven different combinations of processing treatments were tested, and the resulting TVPs were characterized for their physical (rehydration ratio, texture profile analysis, color, and bulk density), techno-functional (oil and water holding capacities), and microstructural properties. The processing conditions of higher SS and lower MC resulted in increased values of several textural profile attributes (springiness, cohesiveness, and resilience), increased water holding capacity (WHC), and decreased bulk density. Compared to raw lentil protein, TVPs showed enhanced oil holding capacity, though WHC either decreased or remained constant. The extrusion response parameters (die pressure, torque, and specific mechanical energy) showed positive correlations with several physical properties (texture, WHC, and total color change), revealing their potential for serving as important TVP quality indicators. TVPs produced at SS, MC, and BT of 450 rpm, 30%, and 140°C, respectively, showed relatively better overall physical and techno-functional quality and can be used as meat extenders in hybrid meat patties. Overall, this research evidenced the viability of lentil protein as a potential ingredient for producing low-moisture TVPs.

A Study of Physical, Chemical, and Sensory Characteristics of Novel Legume Dips

There is a consensus among experts and consumers that pulses are a good source of nutrients and fiber. In a traditional hummus recipe, chickpeas are the major ingredient. The present study is aimed at developing new legume dips by exchanging chickpeas (Chd) with dry green (Gld) and red lentils (Rld), dry white beans (Wbd), and dry green peas (Gpd). Presoaking, boiling, proximate composition, pH, energy, color measurement, and sensory evaluation were conducted on the dips using chickpea dip (hummus) as a control. One-way ANOVA was used to determine the differences between the dips. The results revealed significant differences in the proximate composition of legume dips. The protein content of the five samples ranged between 7.46% and 9.19%, while the values varied from 8.59% to 10.93% in fat, 3.88% to 6.54% in crude fiber, 14.48% to 15.51% in carbohydrates, 171.95 to 195.13 in energy, 1.55% to 1.76% in ash, and 63.35% to 66.90% in moisture. These variations could be attributed to the type and composition of each legume, the soaking and boiling process, and the tahini added during the preparation. pH ranged between 4.5 and 4.7. The color measurement indicated that the five legume dips could be considered bright products (high L∗>67), with a positive color valuebluered-green and yellow-. Significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) were observed in the legume dips sensory evaluation, and the red lentil dip was the most acceptable with results comparable to the chickpea dip; it was followed by the green lentil, white bean, and green pea dips. These results highlight the feasibility of commercial production of legume dip that promotes human health and gives consumers more choices.

Impact of Cooking Methods on Phenolic Acid Composition, Antioxidant Activity, and Starch Digestibility of Chinese Triticale Porridges: A Comparative Study between Atmospheric Pressure and High Pressure Boiling

Water boiling under atmospheric pressure (CAP) and water boiling under high pressure (CHP) are two popular domestic cooking methods for Chinese porridge making. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the effects of these two methods on the phenolic acid composition, antioxidant activity, and starch digestibility of triticale porridges. The contents of total free and total bound phenolic acids in the CHP sample were 1.3 and 1.6 times higher than those in the CAP counterpart, respectively, although the DPPH and ABTS values of these two samples were comparable. CAP induced more small pieces of starch than CHP, and the gelatinization enthalpy was 19% higher in the CHP sample than that in the CAP. Both cooking methods increased the starch digestibility, while the CHP sample (58.84) showed a lower GI than the CAP (61.52). These results may promote the application of triticale in health-promoting staple foods.

Physicochemical, functional, and antioxidant properties of black soldier fly larvae protein

This study explores the multifaceted attributes of black soldier fly larvae protein (BSFLP), focusing on its physicochemical, functional, and antioxidant properties. BSFLP is characterized by 16 amino acids, with a predominant random coil secondary structure revealed by circular dichroism spectra. Differential scanning calorimetry indicates a substantial thermal denaturation temperature of 97.63°C. The protein exhibits commendable solubility, emulsification, and foaming properties in alkaline and low-salt environments, albeit with reduced water-holding capacity and foam stability under elevated alkaline and high-temperature conditions. In vitro assessments demonstrate that BSFLP displays robust scavenging proficiency against 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), and hydroxyl radicals, with calculated EC50 values of 1.90 ± 0.57, 0.55 ± 0.01, and 1.14 ± 0.02 mg/mL, respectively, along with notable reducing capabilities. Results from in vivo antioxidant experiments reveal that BSFLP, administered at doses of 300 and 500 mg/kg, significantly enhances the activities of antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase) (p < 0.05) while simultaneously reducing malondialdehyde levels in both serum and tissues of d-galactose-induced oxidative stress in mice. Moreover, the protein effectively attenuates oxidative damage in liver and hippocampal tissues. These findings underscore the potential utility of BSFLP as a natural antioxidant source, with applications spanning the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Black soldier fly larvae protein emerges as an environmentally sustainable reservoir of natural antioxidants, holding significant promise for the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic sectors. Its advantageous amino acid composition, robust thermal resilience, and impressive functional attributes position it as a compelling subject for continued investigation and advancement in various applications.

Underutilized green leafy vegetables: frontier in fortified food development and nutrition

From the ancient period, Green leafy vegetables (GLV) are part of the daily diet and were believed to have several health beneficial properties. Later it has been proved that GLV has outstanding nutritional value and can be used for medicinal benefits. GLV is particularly rich in minerals like iron, calcium, and zinc. These are also rich in vitamins like beta carotene, vitamin E, K, B and vitamin C. In addition, some anti-nutritional elements in GLV can be reduced if it is grown properly and processed properly before consumption. Tropical countries have a wide variety of these green plants such as Red Spinach, Amaranth, Malabar Spinach, Taro Leaf, Fenugreek leaf, Bengal Gram Leaves, Radish Leaves, Mustard Leaves, and many more. This review focuses on listing this wide range of GLVs (in total 54 underutilized GLVs) and their compositions in a comparative manner. GLV also possesses medicinal activities due to its rich bioactive and nutritional potential. Different processing techniques may alter the nutritional and bioactive potential of the GLVs significantly. The GLVs have been considered a food fortification agent, though not explored widely. All of these findings suggest that increasing GLV consumption could provide nutritional requirements necessary for proper growth as well as adequate protection against diseases caused by malnutrition.

Investigation of the nutritional quality of raw and processed Canadian faba bean (Vicia faba L.) flours in comparison to pea and soy using a human in vitro gastrointestinal digestion model

Faba bean is an ancient legume that is regaining interest due to its environmental and nutritional benefits. Very little is known on the protein quality of the new faba bean varieties. In this study, the digestibility and the Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS) of the protein quality of three Canadian faba bean varieties (Fabelle, Malik and Snowbird) were compared to pea and soy using the harmonized in vitro digestion procedure developed by the International Network of Excellence on the Fate of Food in the Gastrointestinal Tract (INFOGEST). The impact of boiling on the nutritional quality of faba bean flours was also ascertained. Protein content in faba bean (28.7-32.5%) was lower than defatted soy (56.6%) but higher than pea (24.2%). Total phenolics and phytate content were higher (p < 0.05) in faba bean (2.1-2.4 mg/g and 11.5-16.4 mg/g respectively) and soy (2.4 mg/g and 19.8 mg/g respectively) comparatively to pea (1.3 mg/g and 8.9 mg/g). Trypsin inhibitor activity was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in soy (15.4 mg/g) comparatively to pea (0.7 mg/g) and faba bean (0.8-1.1 mg/g). The digestibility of free amino acids of raw faba bean flours ranged from 31 to 39% while the digestibility of total amino acids ranged from 38 to 39%. The in vitro Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (IV-DIAAS) of raw faba bean flours ranged from 13 to 16 (when calculated based on free amino acid digestibility) to 32-38 (when calculated based on total amino acid digestibility) and was in a similar range to pea (13-31) and soy (11-40). Boiling modified the protein electrophoretic profile and decreased trypsin inhibitor activity (30-86% reduction), while total phenolics and phytate content were unaffected. The IV-DIAAS significantly decreased in all boiled legumes, possibly due to an increased protein aggregation leading into a lower protein digestibility (18-32% reduction). After boiling, the nutritional quality of faba bean was significantly lower (p < 0.05) than soy, but higher than pea. Our results demonstrate that faba bean has a comparable protein quality than other legumes and could be used in similar food applications.

Quantifying the effects of pre-roasting on structural and functional properties of yellow pea proteins

Roasting could modify the protein structure/conformation, contributing to changes in functional properties. Here we investigated the effects of pre-roasting on the extraction efficiency, structural and functional properties of pea protein concentrates and isolates (PPC and PPI) produced from yellow split peas. The shorter roasting times (150 °C, 10 and 20 min) had little effect on protein yields and could increase the solubility of PPC or PPI by ∼ 12% at pH 7 and enhance the solubility of PPI by ∼ 12% (10-min roasting) and ∼ 24% (20-min roasting) at pH 3. However, a longer duration of pre-roasting (150 °C, 30 min) significantly reduced the extraction efficiency of PPC and PPI by ∼ 30% and ∼ 61%, respectively. Meanwhile, pre-roasting had minor effects on SDS-PAGE profiles and the secondary structures of pea proteins but significantly altered tertiary structures by reducing free sulfhydryl groups, increasing disulfide bonds and surface hydrophobicity. As for the emulsifying properties, pre-roasting improved the emulsion ability index (EAI) of PPC and PPI but decreased the emulsion stability index (ESI) of PPC and had no significant effect on PPI. Moreover, PPC and PPI with shorter pre-roasting duration (10 and 20 min) had endothermic peaks and showed a slight decrease in the denaturation temperature (Td) and the onset temperature (To), respectively. Overall, the study demonstrated that controlled pre-roasting at 150 °C for 10 min and 20 min altered protein structures (mainly tertiary structures), improving the solubility and EAI of pea proteins at pH 7, while retaining their thermal properties in comparison to unroasted samples.

Influence of High-Intensity Ultrasound on Characteristics and Bioaccessibility of Pea Protein in Fiber-Enriched Suspensions

Pea protein is of high interest for the food industry owing to its low allergenicity and high nutritional value. However, it often exhibits poor functionality, such as low solubility. The presence of dietary fiber in food products is beneficial for human health but may decrease the bioaccessibility of nutrients. Ultrasound, as a promising green technology, may influence properties of fibers and proteins and, thus, bioaccessibility. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of high-intensity ultrasound on the characteristics and protein bioaccessibility of protein-fiber suspensions. Suspensions containing different fiber compounds (1 wt.%) and pea protein (5 wt.%) were homogenized using high-intensity ultrasound (amplitude 116 µm, t = 150 s, energy density = 225 kJ/L, P¯ = 325 W). Owing to sonication-induced cavitation, the dispersibility of the protein was enhanced, and the viscosity of solutions containing citrus or apple fiber was increased. FE-SEM revealed the formation of different fiber-protein networks during sonication. Even if viscosity is known to have an impact on the bioaccessibility of nutrients, no restrictions on the digestibility of protein were detected during an in vitro digestion. Thus, protein uptake is probably not affected, and ultrasound can be used to modify the technofunctionality of fibers and proteins without any nutritional disadvantages.

Toward the Development of Potentially Healthy Low-Energy-Density Snacks for Children Based on Pseudocereal and Pulse Flours

The main objective of this study was the development of gluten-free cracker-type snacks with a balanced supply of essential amino acids, a lower glycemic index, and a lower caloric intake that were sensorially acceptable. For this purpose, chickpea flour was replaced by quinoa (10, 20, 30, 40, and 50%) and the fat was partially (75%) replaced by chicory inulin. The flours were characterized in terms of their proximate composition, individual mineral content, particle size distribution, and functional properties. The parameters analyzed for the crackers, once baked, were the water content, water activity, weight, dimensions, color, and texture. A sensory analysis was performed as well, using the formulations containing 50% chickpea flour and 50% quinoa flour (g/100 g flour), with and without inulin, as well as those made with 100% chickpea flour. From the analysis of the raw flours, it can be concluded that snack products developed from them could be a nutritive option for children, in terms of the protein, magnesium, and fiber content. The functional properties revealed that both flours are suitable for producing doughs and baked products. The obtained results indicate that snacks made with 50% quinoa flour (g/100 g flour) and 75% chicory inulin (g/100 g high oleic sunflower oil) could be an interesting alternative for children as, in addition to offering a very interesting nutritional contribution, the energy intake from fat is reduced by 57%.

Effect of thermal, nonthermal, and combined treatments on functional and nutritional properties of chickpeas

Cicer arietinum or chickpea is an important and highly nutritious pulse, a source of complex carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, and minerals, considered non-allergenic, and non-GMO crop. Processing technologies play an important role in modifying some chickpea properties and thus increasing its nutritional and health benefits. Herein is summarized and compared the available data on nutritional and functional aspects caused by thermal, nonthermal, and combinations of treatments for chickpea processing. The study focuses on describing the processing conditions necessary to change chickpea matrices aiming to enhance compound bioavailability, reduce anti-nutritional factors and modify functional characteristics for industrial application in product development. Thermal and nonthermal treatments can modify nutrient composition and bioavailability in chickpea matrices. Thermal treatments, moist or dry, prevent microbial spoilage, increase product palatability and increase protein quality. Nonthermal treatments aim to shorten the processing time and use less energy and water sources. Compared to thermal treatments, they usually preserve organoleptic attributes and bioactive compounds in chickpea matrices. Some treatment combinations can increase the efficacy of single treatments. Combined treatments increase antioxidant concentration, protein digestibility and available starch contents. Finally, despite differences among their effects, single and combined treatments can improve the nutritional and physicochemical properties of chickpea matrices.

Cross-Linked Enzyme Aggregate (CLEA) Preparation from Waste Activated Sludge

Enzymes are used extensively as industrial bio-catalysts in various manufacturing and processing sectors. However, commercial enzymes are expensive in part due to the high cost of the nutrient medium for the biomass culture. Activated sludge (AS) is a waste product of biological wastewater treatment and consists of microbial biomass that degrades organic matter by producing substantial quantities of hydrolytic enzymes. Recovering enzymes from AS therefore offers a potential alternative to conventional production techniques. A carrier-free, cross-linked enzyme aggregate (CLEA) was produced from crude AS enzyme extract for the first time. A major advantage of the CLEA is the combined immobilization, purification, and stabilization of the crude enzymes into a single step, thereby avoiding large amounts of inert carriers in the final enzyme product. The AS CLEA contained a variety of hydrolytic enzymes and demonstrated high potential for the bio-conversion of complex organic substrates.

Techno-Functional and In Vitro Digestibility Properties of Gluten-Free Cookies Made from Raw, Pre-Cooked, and Germinated Chickpea Flours

Chickpea flour, which is produced in various forms, has high protein and fiber content; therefore, it can be a good ingredient for gluten-free cookies. The objective of this study was to investigate and compare the properties of cookies formulated using raw (RCF), cooked (CCF), and germinated (GCF) chickpea flours. The techno-functional properties of these flours were determined, and scanning electron microscope images and mid-infrared spectra were obtained. The rheological properties of cookie doughs were measured along with their mid-infrared spectra. Baked cookies were analyzed for their technological properties as well as their in vitro digestion properties. Sensory analysis was also performed for all the cookies. The most significant difference among the flours was observed in their water retention capacity, and CCF had 119.7% higher water retention capacity compared to RCF. The dough made with CCF had quite different rheological properties from the others. The cookies baked with GCF had the highest baking loss and spread ratio. The CCF-containing cookies had the hardest structure. The cookies made from RCF had a higher resistant starch content followed by the cookies with GCF. All the cookies had similar scores in all aspects tested in the sensory analysis. The use of three different forms of chickpea flour in cookie formulations resulted in products with very different properties; however, their overall acceptability levels were close.

A Study on a Polymeric Foam Based on Pulse Proteins and Cellulose Fibrils

Biofoams are a challenge for scientists in terms of innovation. Incorporation of cellulose fibrils (CF), might help improve the microstructure of foams, thus this study focuses on studying the impact of CF on the foaming properties and rheology of lentil protein (LP) foams at various pH and CF concentrations. Additionally, LP-CF mixtures were transformed into solid foams, and their microstructure, physical properties, and morphology were evaluated. CF concentration significantly impacted on LP-CF foam properties, primarily due to high viscosity values. Increased CF concentration resulted in improved FS values (up to 77 min) at all pH values. This is likely attributed to associative interactions and coacervates formation. Also, foam microstructure could be related to apparent viscosity, suggesting the role of viscosity in preserving the integrity of the wet foam structure during freezing and lyophilization processes. However, elevated viscosity values might negatively impact properties such as foaming capacity and produce denser microstructures. The microstructure and morphology analysis revealed that certain foams exhibited a sponge-like structure with open pores and semi-spherical shapes, supported by CF fibers extending and forming layers. However, the structure itself was irregular. While others exhibited non-uniform, irregular pore size, and shape, along with a denser structure. These findings contribute to understanding the behavior of LP-CF mixtures, although additional investigations on mechanical properties, biodegradability, and hydrophobicity are necessary to reach their full potential for various applications.

Effects of the use of raw or cooked chickpeas and the sausage cooking time on the quality of a lamb-meat, olive-oil emulsion-type sausage

Reformulation of cooked sausages using high-protein plant-based food such as chickpea as meat extenders and vegetable oils to replace animal fat can be a suitable approach to promote the consumption of smaller portions of meat. The pre-processing of chickpea and the sausage cooking intensity can potentially affect the quality of reformulated sausages. In this study, an emulsion-type sausage made with lamb meat, chickpea and olive oil was prepared in triplicate following three different formulations containing the same targeted levels of protein (8.9%), lipids (21.5%), and starch (2.9%): control sausage (CON; control, without chickpea), and raw (RCP) and cooked chickpea (CCP) sausages (both with 7% chickpea). Sausages were cooked at 85 °C for two heating times (40 min or 80 min) and were analysed for weight loss, emulsion stability, colour, texture, lipid oxidation and volatile composition. Compared to CON sausages, the use of raw chickpea reduced the elasticity and significantly increased lipid oxidation during the sausage-making process resulting in major changes in the volatile composition. The use of previously cooked chickpea, however, resulted in the sausages having greater cooking loss, hardness and chewiness than CON sausages, while there was no difference in lipid oxidation, and differences in volatile compounds were scarce. The reformulation with cooked chickpea could provide a sausage with more similarity to the CON sausage. The extended heating time of 80 min at 85 °C did not significantly affect the quality traits in either CON or reformulated sausages except for a higher cooking loss.

Generating Multi-Functional Pulse Ingredients for Processed Meat Products-Scientific Evaluation of Infrared-Treated Lentils

In the last decade, various foods have been reformulated with plant protein ingredients to enhance plant-based food intake in our diet. Pulses are in the forefront as protein-rich sources to aid in providing sufficient daily protein intake and may be used as binders to reduce meat protein in product formulations. Pulses are seen as clean-label ingredients that bring benefits to meat products beyond protein content. Pulse flours may need pre-treatments because their endogenous bioactive components may not always be beneficial to meat products. Infrared (IR) treatment is a highly energy-efficient and environmentally friendly method of heating foods, creating diversity in plant-based ingredient functionality. This review discusses using IR-heating technology to modify the properties of pulses and their usefulness in comminuted meat products, with a major emphasis on lentils. IR heating enhances liquid-binding and emulsifying properties, inactivates oxidative enzymes, reduces antinutritional factors, and protects antioxidative properties of pulses. Meat products benefit from IR-treated pulse ingredients, showing improvements in product yields, oxidative stability, and nutrient availability while maintaining desired texture. IR-treated lentil-based ingredients, in particular, also enhance the raw color stability of beef burgers. Therefore, developing pulse-enriched meat products will be a viable approach toward the sustainable production of meat products.

The Impact of High-Pressure Homogenization and Thermal Processing on the Functional Properties of De-Fatted Chickpea Flour Dispersion

Defatted chickpea flour (DCF), a rich source of protein and starch, is frequently utilized in the food industry. Two crucial methods of modifying food materials are high-pressure homogenization (HPH) and heat treatment (HT). This study investigates the effect of co-treatment (HPH-HT) on the particle size, rheological behavior, and thermal characteristics of DCF suspensions. The results indicate that both HPH and HT can result in a more uniform distribution of particle size in the suspensions. The effect of HPH on G' was observed to be reductionary, whereas HT increased it. Nevertheless, the HPH-HT treatment further amplified G' (notably in high-concentration DCF), which demonstrates that the solid properties of DCF are improved. The apparent viscosity of the suspensions increased with individual and combined treatments, with the HPH-HT treatment of DCF12% exhibiting the most significant increase (from 0.005 to 9.5 Pa·s). The rheological behavior of DCF8% with HPH-HT treatment was found to be comparable to that of DCF12% treated only with HT. In conclusion, HPH-HT treatment shows a synergistic impact of HPH and HT on the rheological properties of DCF suspensions, however, it has limited effect on the particle size distribution and freeze-thaw stability.

Effect of subcritical water flash release processing on buckwheat flour properties

BACKGROUND

Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) is rich in bioactive components. However, many of these components are trapped within cellular structures, making them inaccessible. Buckwheat flour was hydrothermally modified using subcritical water coupled with a flash pressure release (SCWF). The effects of the SCWF parameters (120, 140, and 160 °C and hold times of 0, 15, and 30 min) on the flour's structure, physicochemical, and functional properties were studied relative to the raw flour.

RESULTS

Treatment deepened the flour color with increasing processing temperatures and hold times. Starch content remained unchanged though its granular structure was disrupted. SCWF treatments lowered total phenolic content compared with the raw flour, except for 160 °C-30 min, where total phenolic content increased by 12.7%. The corresponding antioxidant activities were found consistent with phenolic content. Soluble and insoluble dietary fiber amounts were not substantially influenced at 120 and 140 °C, whereas treatments at 160 °C (15 and 30 min hold) decreased soluble dietary fiber while increasing insoluble dietary fiber. Protein content increased 70-109% in some treatments, suggesting greater protein accessibility. Water-holding capacity significantly increased for flour treated at 120 °C, whereas only slight improvements occurred at 140 and 160 °C.

CONCLUSIONS

Subcritical water flash processing can modify the compositional and functional properties of buckwheat flour depending on the choice of reaction conditions. Observed changes were consistent with alteration of the flour's cellular structure and allow some components to become more accessible. The resulting SCWF-modified buckwheat flours provide new food ingredients for potential use in ready-to-eat foods and spreads with improved health benefits. Published 2022. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Enhancing the Techno-Functionality of Pea Flour by Air Injection-Assisted Extrusion at Different Temperatures and Flour Particle Sizes

Industrial applications of pulses in various food products depend on pulse flour techno-functionality. To manipulate the techno-functional properties of yellow pea flour, the effects of flour particle size (small vs. large), extrusion temperature profile (120, 140 and 160 °C at the die) and air injection pressure (0, 150 and 300 kPa) during extrusion cooking were investigated. Extrusion cooking caused the denaturation of proteins and gelatinization of starch in the flour, which induced changes in the techno-functionality of the extruded flour (i.e., increased water solubility, water binding capacity and cold viscosity and decreased emulsion capacity, emulsion stability, and trough and final viscosities). In general, the large particle size flour required less energy input to be extruded and had higher emulsion stability and trough and final viscosities compared to the small particle size flour. Overall, among all of the treatments studied, extrudates produced with air injection at 140 and 160 °C had higher emulsion capacity and emulsion stability, making them relatively better suited food ingredients for emulsified foods (e.g., sausages). The results indicated air injection's potential as a novel extrusion technique combined with modification of flour particle size distribution and extrusion processing conditions to effectively manipulate product techno-functionality and broaden the applications of pulse flours in the food industry.

Nutritional and techno-functional properties of Australian Acacia seed flour: Effects of roasting on chemical composition, physicochemical properties, and in vitro digestibility and intestinal iron absorption

Acacia seed (AS) is rich in protein and iron but contains protease inhibitors that can reduce protein digestibility (PD). The seeds are generally roasted prior to consumption, although no information on the PD of roasted AS is available. This study investigated the effect of roasting time (5, 7 and 9 min at 180 °C) on the chemical composition, physicochemical properties, and in vitro PD and intestinal iron absorption of three wild harvested Australian AS species, Acacia victoriae, A. coriacea and A. cowleana. Roasting A. victoriae and A. coriacea seeds for 7 min significantly increased PD in the seeds by 36 and 61 %, respectively. A 9-min roasting time was required to achieve 75 % reduction in trypsin inhibitor activity in A. coriacea seed, while a shorter roasting time (RT) was sufficient to achieve similar reduction rates in the other two Acacia species. Among the functional properties, water and oil absorption capacities were significantly enhanced as RT increased. The starch granules in 7- and 9-min roasted A. victoriae seed flour detached from the protein matrix while random coil increased in 7-min roasted A. victoriae and 9-min roasted A. coriacea and A. cowleana, thus, contributing to enhanced PD. Although the SDS-PAGE in 7- and 9-min roasted A. cowleana samples showed reductions in the intensity of bands for high molecular weight proteins, PD was not affected by RT. However, intestinal iron absorption was not significantly affected by roasting as compared to raw digesta samples. Compared to commercial roasted Acacia seed, the considerably shorter RT used in this study improved PD in the AS flour with less adverse effects on techno-functional properties.

How Cooking Time Affects In Vitro Starch and Protein Digestibility of Whole Cooked Lentil Seeds versus Isolated Cotyledon Cells

Lentils are sustainable sources of bioencapsulated macronutrients, meaning physical barriers hinder the permeation of digestive enzymes into cotyledon cells, slowing down macronutrient digestion. While lentils are typically consumed as cooked seeds, insights into the effect of cooking time on microstructural and related digestive properties are lacking. Therefore, the effect of cooking time (15, 30, or 60 min) on in vitro amylolysis and proteolysis kinetics of lentil seeds (CL) and an important microstructural fraction, i.e., cotyledon cells isolated thereof (ICC), were studied. For ICC, cooking time had no significant effect on amylolysis kinetics, while small but significant differences in proteolysis were observed (p < 0.05). In contrast, cooking time importantly affected the microstructure obtained upon the mechanical disintegration of whole lentils, resulting in significantly different digestion kinetics. Upon long cooking times (60 min), digestion kinetics approached those of ICC since mechanical disintegration yielded a high fraction of individual cotyledon cells (67 g/100 g dry matter). However, cooked lentils with a short cooking time (15 min) showed significantly slower amylolysis with a lower final extent (~30%), due to the presence of more cell clusters upon disintegration. In conclusion, cooking time can be used to obtain distinct microstructures and digestive functionalities with perspectives for household and industrial preparation.

Milling and differential sieving to diversify flour functionality: A comparison between pulses and cereals

In this study, pulse (pea, lentil) and cereal (barley, oats) seeds were firstly milled into whole flours, which were then sieved into coarse and fine flours. The particle sizes of the three generated flour streams followed a descending order of coarse > whole > fine, consistent with the observation under scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Among the four crops, the three flour streams showed the same rank order of fine > whole > coarse in starch and damaged-starch contents but the opposite order in ash and total dietary fiber contents. Thus, those functional properties closely related to starch occurring in flour, such as L* (brightness), starch gelatinization enthalpy change (ΔH), and gel hardness, followed the same order of fine > whole > coarse. By contrast, protein contents of the three flour streams did not vary in pea and lentil but showed a trend of coarse > whole > fine in barley and oats, which could partially explain generally comparable foaming and emulsifying properties of the three streams of pulse flours as well as an order of coarse > whole > fine in oil-binding capacity (OBC) of cereal flours, respectively. The different particle sizes and chemical compositions of the three flour streams only resulted in a descending order of fine > whole > coarse in the pasting viscosities of the pulse flours but did not lead to such a clear trend in the cereal flours, which could be partly attributable to the different microscopic structures of the pulse and cereal seeds and their corresponding flours. This research clearly demonstrated that particle size, chemical composition, and microscopic structure were important variables determining the specific techno-functional properties of pulse and cereal flours.

Physical properties, antioxidant capacity, and starch digestibility of cookies enriched with steam-exploded wheat bran

Wheat bran-based food is rich in bioactive compounds, and steam explosion enhances the nutritional properties of wheat bran. This study examined the potential utilization of steam-exploded wheat bran (SWB) in cookie formulation. The influence of steam explosion on the chemical compounds in wheat bran and the effects of SWB on the physical properties, antioxidant capacity, and starch digestibility of cookies were investigated. The results showed that steam explosion facilitated the release of reducing sugar, flavonoids, phenolic substances, and amino acid nitrogen in wheat bran, thereby improving its nutritional properties. The reduction of sugar, total flavonoids, total phenolics, and amino acid nitrogen contents of wheat bran after steam explosion increased by 34.22, 183.02, 284.09, and 93.39%, respectively, compared with those of native wheat bran. Substitution of SWB for wheat flour mainly induced higher water, sodium carbonate, and sucrose solvent retention capacities, which were positively related to the spread ratio and hardness of cookies. The cookies with more SWB substitution (30-50%) expressed a higher spread ratio and harder texture than the others. The substitution of SWB caused changes in the antioxidant properties of cookies, which were related to the phenolic content. The cookies with SWB showed a higher DPPH radical scavenging activity (16.30-30.93%) than that of the control (14.74%). SWB might form a matrix barrier to hinder starch digestion, thus reducing the digestibility of cookies. The cookies enriched with 30-50% of the SWB exhibited greater physical properties and antioxidant capacity but lower starch digestibility than those of other cookies. The results will contribute to expanding the application range and improving the quality of bran-rich flour products.

Valorization of Local Legumes and Nuts as Key Components of the Mediterranean Diet

Legumes and nuts are components of high importance in the diet of many countries, mainly those in the Mediterranean region. They are also very versatile and culturally diverse foods found all over the world, acting as a basic protein source in certain countries. Their genetic diversity is needed to sustain the food supply and security for humans and livestock, especially because of the current loss of habitats, species, and genetic diversity worldwide, but also because of the ever present need to feed the increasing human population. Even though both legumes and nuts are considered as high-protein food and environmentally friendly crops, developed countries have lower consumption rates when compared to Asia or Africa. With a view to increasing the consumption of legumes and nuts, the objective of this review is to present the advantages on the use of autochthonous varieties from different countries around the world, thus providing a boost to the local market in the area. The consumption of these varieties could be helped by their use in ready-to-eat foods (RTE), which are now on the rise thanks to today's fast-paced lifestyles and the search for more nutritious and sustainable foods. The versatility of legumes and nuts covers a wide range of possibilities through their use in plant-based dairy analogues, providing alternative-protein and maximal amounts of nutrients and bioactive compounds, potential plant-based flours for bakery and pasta, and added-value traditional RTE meals. For this reason, information about legume and nut nutrition could possibly increase its acceptance with consumers.

Correlation of steam explosion severity with morphological and physicochemical characterization of soybean meal

Steam explosion, a novel effective technology for cereal modification, integrates high-temperature autohydrolysis and structural disruption, which can significantly influence the morphological and physicochemical characterization of the feedstocks. The deep knowledge of the structural changes that are brought about by the treatment severity is connected with the technological demands to improve the processing efficiency and to increase the industrial application of the feedstocks by steam explosion. In this study, the changes in morphological and physicochemical properties of soybean meal induced by steam explosion were investigated. The correlation of steam explosion severity with soybean meal's final quality was also analyzed. The results showed that steam explosion effectively increased the fractal dimension from 1.6553 to 1.8871, the glycinin content from 151.38 to 334.94 mg/g, and the 2,2-diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity from 28.69 to 63.78%. The gray value, color (L* and a* values), and the total phenol and polysaccharide contents of soybean meal were reduced with greater steam explosion severity. Steam explosion severity had a remarkable positive correlation with the fractal dimension and DPPH radical scavenging activity. However, steam explosion severity had no significant correlation with the textural and adsorption properties of the soybean meal. This study focused on the morphological and physicochemical property changes of the soybean meal during a steam explosion process, which could guide the application of steam explosion in food systems.

Development of Fermented Sweet Potato Flour (Ipomoea batatas L.) Supplemented with Mackerel (Scomber scombrus) Meal-Based Biscuits

The fermentation of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) with a strain of Lactobacillus plantarum leads to an increase in its exopolysaccharides (EPS) content which is useful for enhancing the functional properties of flour. The objective of this study was to develop healthy and nutritious meal-based biscuits from fermented sweet potato (FSP) flour supplemented with mackerel flour. Eleven formulations containing wheat flour, FSP flour, nonfermented sweet potato (NFSP) flour, and mackerel flour at different proportions defined following a mixture design were used to prepare biscuits. Physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory analyses of the different biscuits were performed. Biscuits prepared with FSP at 100% scored the lowest lipid ( $10.83\pm 0.97\text{g}/100\text{g}\text{DM}$ ) and the highest sugar ( $67.43\pm 0.64\text{g}/100\text{g}\text{DM}$ ) contents. The incorporation of mackerel flour in the formulation led to a significant ( $p<0.05$ ) increase in the protein and mineral contents of biscuits thus conferring an immune-boosting property to these latters. All the biscuits were of good microbiological quality independent of the formulation. The highest DPPH free radicals scavenging activity (IC50 of 1.90 and 3.41 μg/mL for ethanolic and methanolic extracts, respectively) were observed with biscuits prepared with FSP flour at 100%. The sensorial characteristics of biscuits prepared with equal proportions of wheat and FSP flours were highly appreciated by the panelists with scores close to the ones prepared with wheat flour at 100%. The results of this study demonstrate the potential of FSP flour as a substitute for wheat flour in biscuits preparation. It also suggests biscuits prepared with FSP flour supplemented with mackerel flour as a functional and immune-boosting food.

Effect of steam explosion on nutritional components, physicochemical and rheological properties of brown rice powder

Brown rice powder is underutilized mainly due to its lower starch digestibility and poor processing performance. The present study investigated the potential of steam explosion on the improvement of nutritional and physicochemical characteristic in brown rice powder and rheological property of paste. Compared with native brown rice powder, steam explosion at 0.5 MPa for 7 min increased the water-extractable arabinoxylans (5.77%), reducing sugar content (21.04%), and iodine blue value (30.38%), which indicated steam explosion that destroyed the intact cells of brown rice. Later the crystalline structure of brown rice powder was destroyed into an amorphous structure by steam explosion. Steam explosion enhanced the degree of gelatinization (4.76~351.85%) and solvent retention capacity (SRC) of brown rice powder, compared with native sample. The effect on the intact cells and starch structure of brown rice caused the starch digestibility enhancement remarkable. Viscoelastic profiles confirmed that steam explosion weakened the paste strength and elasticity corresponded with hardness and cohesiveness by increasing the loss factor (tanδ). This work provided important information for brown rice powder modified by steam explosion (0.5 MPa, 7 min) with good nutritional property (nutrients and digestibility) and processability (SRC, textural, and rheological property). Steam exploded brown rice powder (0.5 MPa, 7 min) could serve as a potential ingredient widely used in food products.

Health Beneficial Bioactivities of Faba Bean Gastrointestinal (In Vitro) Digestate in Comparison to Soybean and Pea

Faba beans are a promising emerging plant-based protein source to be used as a quality alternative to peas and soy. In this study, the potential health beneficial activities of three Canadian faba bean varieties (Fabelle, Malik and Snowbird) were investigated after in vitro gastrointestinal digestion and compared to two commonly used legumes (peas and soy). The results revealed that the faba beans had a higher antioxidant activity than peas when assessed with the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and the 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) assays, except for the Fabelle variety. In the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) and the iron chelating assays, the faba beans had a lower antioxidant activity than soy. Interestingly, Fabelle and Snowbird showed a higher antioxidant effect than the peas and soy at the cellular level. The antihypertensive properties of Fabelle and Malik varieties were significantly higher than peas but lower than soy. The in vitro antidiabetic activity was higher for soy, but no differences were found at the cellular level. The faba bean peptides were further fractionated and sequenced by mass spectrometry. Eleven peptides with in silico predicted bioactivities were successfully identified in the faba bean digestate and support validating the health-promoting properties of peptides. The results demonstrate the bioactive potential of faba beans as a health-promoting food ingredient against non-communicable diseases.

An update on nutritional profile, phytochemical compounds, health benefits, and potential applications in the food industry of pulses seed coats: A comprehensive review

Pulses, as a sustainable source of nutrients, are an important choice for human diets, but vast quantities of seed coats generated in pulses processing are usually discarded or used as low-value ruminant feed. It has been demonstrated that pulses seed coats are excellent sources of dietary nutrients and phytochemicals with potential health benefits. With growing interest in the sustainable use of resources and the circular economy, utilization of pulses seed coats to recover these valuable components is a core objective for their valorization and an important step toward agricultural sustainability. This review comprehensively provides a comprehensive insight on the nutritional and phytochemical profiles presented in pulses seed coats and their health benefits obtained from the findings of in vitro and in vivo studies. Furthermore, in the food industry, pulses seed coats can be acted as potential food ingredients with nutritional, antioxidant and antimicrobial characteristics or as the matrix or active components of films for food packaging and edible coatings. A better understanding of pulses seed coats may provide a reference for increasing the overall added value and realizing the pulses' sustainable diets.

Legume Seed Protein Digestibility as Influenced by Traditional and Emerging Physical Processing Technologies

The increased consumption of legume seeds as a strategy for enhancing food security, reducing malnutrition, and improving health outcomes on a global scale remains an ongoing subject of profound research interest. Legume seed proteins are rich in their dietary protein contents. However, coexisting with these proteins in the seed matrix are other components that inhibit protein digestibility. Thus, improving access to legume proteins often depends on the neutralisation of these inhibitors, which are collectively described as antinutrients or antinutritional factors. The determination of protein quality, which typically involves evaluating protein digestibility and essential amino acid content, is assessed using various methods, such as in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestibility, protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score (IV-PDCAAS), and digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS). Since most edible legumes are mainly available in their processed forms, an interrogation of these processing methods, which could be traditional (e.g., cooking, milling, extrusion, germination, and fermentation) or based on emerging technologies (e.g., high-pressure processing (HPP), ultrasound, irradiation, pulsed electric field (PEF), and microwave), is not only critical but also necessary given the capacity of processing methods to influence protein digestibility. Therefore, this timely and important review discusses how each of these processing methods affects legume seed digestibility, examines the potential for improvements, highlights the challenges posed by antinutritional factors, and suggests areas of focus for future research.

Improving bioaccessibility and physicochemical property of blue-grained wholemeal flour by steam explosion

Whole grain contains many health-promoting ingredients, but due to its poor bioaccessibility and processibility, it is not widely accepted by consumers. The steam explosion was exploited to modify the nutritional bioaccessibility and the physicochemical properties of wholemeal flour in this study. In vitro starch digestibility, in vitro protein digestibility of wholemeal flour, total flavonoids content, and total phenolics content of digestive juice were used to evaluate the bioaccessibility, and a significant variation (p < 0.05) was noted. Results showed that steam explosion enhanced the gastric protein digestibility ranged from 5.67 to 6.92% and the intestinal protein digestibility ranged from 16.77 to 49.12%. Steam-exploded wholemeal flour (0.5 MPa, 5 min) had the highest protein digestibility and rapidly digestible starch content. Compared with native flour, steam explosion (0.5 MPa, 5 min) contributed to a 0.72-fold and 0.33-fold increment of total flavonoids content and total phenolics content in digestible juice. Chemical changes of wholemeal flour, induced by steam explosion, caused the changes in the solvent retention capacity, rheological property of wholemeal flour, and altered the falling number (and liquefaction number). An increasing tendency to solid-like behavior and the gel strength of wholemeal flour was significantly enhanced by the steam explosion at 0.5 MPa for 5 min, while the gluten was not weakened. This study indicated that steam-exploded wholemeal flour (0.5 MPa, 5 min) could serve as a potential ingredient with the noticeable bioaccessibility and physicochemical properties in cereal products.

Hybrid Meat Products: Incorporation of White Bean Flour in Lean Pork Burgers

The effect of partial lean pork-meat replacement by white Phaseolus vulgaris L. flour in hybrid burgers was studied. A multivariate regression model was used to test different bean flour levels (BF: 8–15 g/100 g) and water/bean flour ratios (W/BF: 1.2, 1.6, and 1.8 g/g). Process yield, texture profile analysis, color parameters, thermal transitions, and microstructure of the systems were analyzed. Respond Surface Methodology was used to model the response behaviors and optimization. Burgers with BF showed yields higher than 88%. Hardness and cohesiveness decreased as the BF level increased, with a more noticeable effect when the W/BF ratio became larger. Regarding color, the higher the BF and the W/BF ratio in burgers, the higher the L* obtained. The desirability optimization predicted an optimum formulation consisting of 15 g BF/100 g and 1.36 g/g W/BF with similar attributes to a commercial pork burger. The thermal analysis showed an increase in the enthalpy associated with the myosin denaturation and the interactions between meat proteins and BF led to higher temperatures for the starch gelatinization and protein denaturation. The microstructure of BF burgers presented a more stable coarse gel matrix derived from coagulated meat proteins combined with the flour components. The mathematical procedure adequately predicted the hybrid burger quality attributes.

Modification of physicochemical, functional properties, and digestibility of macronutrients in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) flours by different thermally treated whole seeds

The utilization of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is hindered by unpleasant flavors, low macronutrients digestibility, and long cooking time. The pre-thermally treated beans can overcome these limitations. Therefore, the effect of thermal methods (moist-heat and dry-heat) and bean market classes (black, navy, kidney, and pinto) on functional properties and digestibility of bean flours were compared to raw counterparts. Within bean class, moist-heated samples showed increased water-holding capacities of 2.54-2.87 g H₂O/g sample and starch/protein digestibility whereas dry-heated samples showed enhanced flavor profile and increased oil-holding capacities of 1.04-1.14 g oil/g sample. Among bean classes, moist-heated kidney bean flour showed the highest water-holding capacity of 2.87 g H₂O/g sample and starch/protein digestibility while dry-heated pinto bean flour had the highest oil-holding capacity of 1.14 g oil/g sample. The current result may provide a basis for the development of pre-thermally treated legume flours and facilitate their applications.