Edible insects: A food alternative for the sustainable development of the planet

Sustainable Protein Sources: Functional Analysis of Tenebrio molitor Hydrolysates and Attitudes of Consumers in Poland and Spain Toward Insect-Based Foods

This study explores the potential of Tenebrio molitor protein hydrolysates as functional food ingredients, evaluating their bioactivity and consumer acceptance of the incorporation of edible insects into food across Poland and Spain. By aligning technical advancements with consumer preferences, this research bridges the gap between laboratory innovation and market feasibility, contributing to the development of sustainable functional foods. The study optimized the process of enzyme hydrolysis using serine protease from Cucurbita ficifolia, thereby enhancing DPPH scavenging capacity increased from 3.15 ± 0.53 to 8.17 ± 0.62 µM Trolox/mL and ABTS decolorization capacity increased from 4.29 ± 0.01 to 10.29 ± 0.01 µM Trolox/mL after 5 h of hydrolysis. Consumer surveys incorporating the Food Neophobia, Insect Phobia, and Entomophagy Scales revealed demographic and cultural influences on entomophagy acceptance. Among respondents, 27.1% in Poland and 25.7% in Spain had previously consumed insect-based products, while Polish participants showed a higher willingness to adopt insect-enriched foods. The study confirmed that hydrolysis enhances the antioxidant activity of T. molitor protein hydrolysates and that demographic and cultural factors significantly influence consumer acceptance of insect-based foods.

The Commercial Application of Insect Protein in Food Products: A Product Audit Based on Online Resources

Insect protein has received considerable attention as an alternative to conventional animal proteins with its high nutritional contents and eco-friendly credentials. Exploring commercially available insect-protein-enhanced foods, this study aims to profile and compare such products in the ultra-processed category with products protein-enhanced with dairy (e.g., milk and whey) and plants (e.g., pea and rice). A global product audit was conducted drawing from English-language online retail portals to determine the product formats and statistically compare their nutritional contents with products fortified with non-insect proteins. The results show that four categories-flour/powder, pasta/noodle, starch-based snacks (e.g., chips, crackers, and cookies), and energy bars-are involved with food enhanced with insect protein. Flour/powder and pasta/noodles with insects demonstrated comparable protein contents to non-insect equivalents, highlighting insects' potential as effective protein sources. However, insect protein's performances in snacks and energy bars were less favourable, with significantly lower protein contents compared to products enhanced with non-insect sources. This may be attributed to the high fat content of insects, which may also contribute to undesirable flavours in complex foods, limiting their usage. The study highlights the need for industry innovation and scientific collaboration to overcome the challenges to widely applying insects as food ingredients, offering benefits for both the industry and consumers.

Comparison of volatile compound profiles derived from various livestock protein alternatives including edible-insect, and plant-based proteins

In this study, the distinctive chemical fingerprints that contribute to the flavor characteristics of various protein materials, such as insects, plant-based protein, and livestock, were investigated. In edible-insects (Tenebrio molitor and Protaetia brevitarsis), aldehydes and cyclic volatile compounds were the predominant volatile components and had distinct flavor characteristics such as cheesy, sharp, green, floral, and sweet. In contrast, the relatively high levels of pyrazines and furans in plant-based protein materials, such as textured vegetable and pea protein. They included unique flavor properties characterized by sweet, fatty, grassy, creamy, and roasted. The primary volatile chemical group detected in livestock protein materials, such as a pork and a beef, was ketones. The pork sample showed specific flavors, such as alcoholic, green, and fruity, while a beef presented distinctive flavor, including creamy, fruity, and alcoholic. Based on the results, this research provided the understanding of the flavor aspects of diverse protein materials.

Upcycling Milk Industry Byproducts into Tenebrio molitor Larvae: Investigation on Fat, Protein, and Sugar Composition

Edible insects represent a growing sector of the food industry and have a low carbon footprint. Noteworthy, insects can upcycle different leftovers and byproducts into high-quality nutrients. Herein, the larvae of the edible insect Tenebrio molitor (TML) were fed using local milk industry byproducts. Mozzarella whey and whey permeate obtained in cheese production were used to formulate three alternative diets. Both byproducts are rich in sugars, in particular the disaccharide lactose and the monosaccharides glucose and galactose. Two of the three diets did not interfere with biometric data and vitality, while the use of whey permeate alone significantly reduced development. At the end of the trial, the proximate composition of TML was strongly affected, with an increased protein content of up to +7% and a favorable fat composition. The analysis of secondary metabolites revealed the accumulation of different compounds, in particular monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), amino acids, and the disaccharide trehalose, essential for the correct larval development and pupation. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that milk industry byproducts can be upcycled as feed for TML, maintaining an optimal nutrient composition and favorably increasing the protein content.

Consumer Perceptions and Acceptance of Edible Insects in Slovenia

Slovenia, influenced by Slavic, Mediterranean, and Balkan cultures, along with Austro-Hungarian traditions and strong environmental concerns, is an ideal case study for understanding consumer perceptions of edible insects and increasing their acceptance as an alternative protein source. A survey conducted in Slovenian and English with 537 participants examined existing perceptions and acceptance of edible insects as food and livestock feed. Findings show moderate interest in insects, particularly in non-visible, integrated forms, despite most participants not having tried whole insects. Young, educated individuals and those residing in rural areas have tried insects more often than other sociodemographic groups. Men showed more interest in entomophagy compared to women. Crickets, grasshoppers, and locusts were most acceptable, while cockroaches were least favored. Economic factors are crucial, with a preference for insect-based products priced similarly to conventional foods. The majority also support using insects as livestock feed. These results can aid policymakers at regional and national levels, help businesses market these products, and contribute to the literature on consumer responses in different European regions regarding edible insects as a sustainable food source.

Microorganism Contribution to Mass-Reared Edible Insects: Opportunities and Challenges

The interest in edible insects' mass rearing has grown considerably in recent years, thereby highlighting the challenges of domesticating new animal species. Insects are being considered for use in the management of organic by-products from the agro-industry, synthetic by-products from the plastics industry including particular detoxification processes. The processes depend on the insect's digestive system which is based on two components: an enzymatic intrinsic cargo to the insect species and another extrinsic cargo provided by the microbial community colonizing-associated with the insect host. Advances have been made in the identification of the origin of the digestive functions observed in the midgut. It is now evident that the community of microorganisms can adapt, improve, and extend the insect's ability to digest and detoxify its food. Nevertheless, edible insect species such as Hermetia illucens and Tenebrio molitor are surprisingly autonomous, and no obligatory symbiosis with a microorganism has yet been uncovered for digestion. Conversely, the intestinal microbiota of a given species can take on different forms, which are largely influenced by the host's environment and diet. This flexibility offers the potential for the development of novel associations between insects and microorganisms, which could result in the creation of synergies that would optimize or expand value chains for agro-industrial by-products, as well as for contaminants.

Influence of Incubation Temperature and Relative Humidity on the Egg Hatchability Pattern of Two-Spotted (Gryllus bimaculatus) and House (Acheta domesticus) Crickets

This study aimed to determine the influence and optimal conditions of incubation temperature and relative humidity (RH) on the egg hatchability patterns of two-spotted (Gryllus bimaculatus) and house (Acheta domesticus) crickets. Experiment I involved 100 cricket eggs per hatching box for each species, with six replications for each controlled incubation temperature of 23, 25, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, and 33 °C at 70% RH. Experiment II used all the same procedures as Experiment I, except for incubation temperatures of 29, 30, 31, and 32 °C tested with varied RH levels of 65%, 70%, and 75%. In Experiment I, two-spotted crickets (9.47 ± 1.99 days) exhibited faster hatching than house crickets (13.70 ± 2.78 days). Additionally, the onset of hatching decreased with higher incubation temperatures for both types of crickets. In Experiment II, an incubation temperature of 31 °C and 70% RH resulted in a hatching rate of 79.75% for two-spotted crickets, with hatching beginning in 6 days. For house cricket eggs, the optimal conditions of 30 °C and 65-75% RH led to a peak daily hatching rate of 62.00-65.50% and hatching onset in 12 days. Thus, this study established the optimal incubation temperature and RH for egg hatching of two-spotted and house crickets.

Research Progress and Production Status of Edible Insects as Food in China

Based on the background of the exacerbating food shortage in the world, it is particularly important to diversify food resources in every possible direction. Among the choices available, edible insects have become an important alternative source of animal food with their high nutritional and functional (pharmacological) values, partially replacing normally consumed animal and livestock protein food sources. The utilization of edible insects has been an ancient custom since the dawn of civilization, attributed to their rich nutrition, alternate protein source, medicinal values, and presence of diverse secondary metabolites and alkaloids. This review provides an introduction to three key aspects of edible insects as food: freshness, long-term preservation, and medicinal value. It also provides details on the food source and products of edible insect species, their detailed nutritional composition and medicinal values, and their potential in producing alternative protein sources. Additionally, the review also encompasses rearing and producing technologies, resource utilization, and industrial development in China. Simultaneously, the problems and challenges faced in the artificial rearing and production development of edible insects, the production advantages over traditional livestock, and the farming evaluation and prospects of edible insects, as well as the lack of specific legislation on edible insects in China, are discussed. This review will be helpful in scientific knowledge propagation regarding edible insects for the public, guiding consumers to establish a diverse perception of sustainable agriculture and food sources in the world that has, as yet, been thwarted by food insecurity. Moreover, though edible insects could potentially serve as part of a commercial and industrial agri-enterprise that could generate a huge income, artificial rearing technology and edible insect product manufacturing and processing have not received sufficient attention from the government on a policy level, thereby leaving an open space for extensive research on edible insects as an alternate food source as well as an examination of the industrial prospects of edible insect products.

Analysis of Microbial Composition of Edible Insect Products Available for Human Consumption within the United States Using Traditional Microbiological Methods and Whole Genome Sequencing

Edible insects offer a promising protein source for humans, but their food safety risks have not been previously investigated within the United States. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the microbial content of processed edible insect products. A total of eight different types of edible insect products, including diving beetles, silkworms, grasshoppers, Jamaican crickets, mealworms, mole crickets, whole roasted crickets, and 100% pure cricket powder, were purchased from a large online retailer for the analysis. All the products were purchased in August 2022 and examined between August 2022 and November 2022. Traditional microbiological methods were employed to determine microbial counts for each product type using three replicates (total number of samples = 24). This included assessing aerobic bacterial spore, lactic acid bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, total viable counts, and the presence of Salmonella. Additionally, whole genome sequencing was employed to further characterize selected colonies (n = 96). Microbial counts data were statistically analyzed using one-way ANOVA, while sequence data were taxonomically classified using Sepia.Bacilluscereusgroup isolates underwent additional characterization with Btyper3. Product type significantly influenced total viable counts, bacterial spore counts, and lactic acid bacteria counts (P = 0.00391, P = 0.0065, and P < 0.001, respectively), with counts ranging from < 1.70 to 6.01 Log10 CFU/g, <1.70 to 5.25 Log10 CFU/g, and < 1.70 to 4.86 Log10 CFU/g, respectively. Enterobacteriaceae were only detected in mole crickets (<2.30 Log10 CFU/g) and house cricket powder (<2.15 Log10 CFU/g). All samples were negative for Salmonella. Whole genome sequencing revealed the presence of 12 different bacterial genera among the analyzed isolates, with a majority belonging to the Bacillus genus. Some of the isolates of Bacillus cereus group were identified as biovar Emeticus. Overall, although edible insects offer a promising food alternative, the presence of Bacillus cereus group in some products could raise concerns regarding food safety.

Evaluation of the Microbial Quality of Hermetia illucens Larvae for Animal Feed and Human Consumption: Study of Different Type of Rearing Substrates

In the context of climate change and depletion of natural resources, meeting the growing demand for animal feed and human food through sufficient, nutritious, safe, and affordable sources of protein is becoming a priority. The use of Hermetia illucens, the black soldier fly (BSF), has emerged as a strategy to enhance the circularity of the agri-food chain, but its microbiological safety remains a concern. The aim of the present study was to systematically review available data on the microbiological quality of BSF and to investigate the impact of using four different rearing substrates including classic options allowed by the EU regulation (cereals, fruits, vegetables) and options not allowed by EU regulations regarding vegetable agri-food (co-products, food at shelf life, and meat). A total of 13 studies were collected and synthesized, including 910 sample results, while 102 new sample results were collected from the present experiments in three farms. Both datasets combined revealed a high level of contamination of larvae, potentially transmitted through the substrate. The main pathogenic bacteria identified were Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens, Cronobacter spp., Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., and Staphylococcus aureus coagulase-positive, while Campylobacter spp. and Listeria monocytogenes were not detected. Any of these four substrates were excluded for their use in insect rearing; however, safety concerns were confirmed and must be managed by the operators of the sector using microbial inactivation treatment after the harvest of the larvae in order to propose safe products for the market. The results obtained will guide the definition of the control criteria and optimize the following manufacturing steps.

Edible Insects in Slavic Culture: Between Tradition and Disgust

Insects are a conventional food in many cultures worldwide. Why therefore are they treated with aversion by the majority of people in Western countries? The aim of this work is to understand cultural norms and historical practices related to insects that can explain why in the countries of the West it is so difficult to accept them as a foodstuff, and why the disgust that they arouse is more common than in other regions of the world. Insects in Western countries are associated with negative experiences resulting from cultural and religious beliefs, traditions, stories, myths and individual experiences. Although there are species of insect that have positive associations, the high number of negative terms popularized the negative image of these creatures in people's minds, as a result of which the concept of insects as a foodstuff arouses disgust in the culture of the West. Understanding the aversion to insects will contribute to the broader understanding of consumer attitudes, cultural influences on consumption, or potential shifts in food choices. It also can help develop strategies or methods that will assist in changing this reluctance and encourage the utilization of insects as a food source.

Effect of compositions and physical properties on 3D printability of gels from selected commercial edible insects: Role of protein and chitin

Compositions and rheological properties of alternative protein sources, including honey bee pupa, grasshopper, cricket, earthworm, and scorpion, and their relationships with 3D printing behaviors were investigated. Protein was found to be the major composition in all insects, while chitin exhibited the most variation. At optimal moisture contents, honey bee pupa and earthworm gels displayed sufficient fluidity but resulted in unstable printed structures, as observed visually and microstructurally. Grasshopper and scorpion gels possessed weak fluidity but produced more stable printed structures. Cricket gel exhibited the most balanced flow behavior and self-supportability. Protein-to-chitin mass ratio proved to be a main factor affecting the 3D printing behavior of the gels. Possible mechanisms on how compositions and properties affected the printing behavior of the gels were proposed. Suggestions for improving the 3D printability of insect and invertebrate resembling insect gels were provided based on these proposed mechanisms.

Concentration- and Time-Dependent Dietary Exposure to Graphene Oxide and Silver Nanoparticles: Effects on Food Consumption and Assimilation, Digestive Enzyme Activities, and Body Mass in Acheta domesticus

The advancement of nanotechnology poses a real risk of insect exposure to nanoparticles (NPs) that can enter the digestive system through contaminated food or nanopesticides. This study examines whether the exposure of model insect species-Acheta domesticus-to increasing graphene oxide (GO) and silver nanoparticle (AgNP) concentrations (2, 20, and 200 ppm and 4, 40, and 400 ppm, respectively) could change its digestive functions: enzymes' activities, food consumption, and assimilation. We noticed more pronounced alterations following exposure to AgNPs than to GO. They included increased activity of α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and lipase but inhibited protease activity. Prolonged exposure to higher concentrations of AgNPs resulted in a significantly decreased food consumption and changed assimilation compared with the control in adult crickets. A increase in body weight was observed in the insects from the Ag4 group and a decrease in body weight or no effects were observed in crickets from the Ag40 and Ag400 groups (i.e., 4, 40, or 400 ppm of AgNPs, respectively), suggesting that even a moderate disturbance in nutrient and energy availability may affect the body weight of an organism and its overall condition. This study underscores the intricate interplay between NPs and digestive enzymes, emphasizing the need for further investigation to comprehend the underlying mechanisms and consequences of these interactions.

The Potential of Edible Insects as a Safe, Palatable, and Sustainable Food Source in the European Union

Entomophagy describes the practice of eating insects. Insects are considered extremely nutritious in many countries worldwide. However, there is a lethargic uptake of this practice in Europe where consuming insects and insect-based foodstuffs is often regarded with disgust. Such perceptions and concerns are often due to a lack of exposure to and availability of food-grade insects as a food source and are often driven by neophobia and cultural norms. In recent years, due to accelerating climate change, an urgency to develop alternate safe and sustainable food-sources has emerged. There are currently over 2000 species of insects approved by the World Health Organization as safe to eat and suitable for human consumption. This review article provides an updated overview of the potential of edible insects as a safe, palatable, and sustainable food source. Furthermore, legislation, food safety issues, and the nutritional composition of invertebrates including, but not limited, to crickets (Orthoptera) and mealworms (Coleoptera) are also explored within this review. This article also discusses insect farming methods and the potential upscaling of the industry with regard to future prospects for insects as a sustainable food source. Finally, the topics addressed in this article are areas of potential concern to current and future consumers of edible insects.

Insects as Valuable Sources of Protein and Peptides: Production, Functional Properties, and Challenges

As the global population approaches 10 billion by 2050, the critical need to ensure food security becomes increasingly pronounced. In response to the urgent problems posed by global population growth, our study adds to the growing body of knowledge in the field of alternative proteins, entomophagy, insect-based bioactive proteolysates, and peptides. It also provides novel insights with essential outcomes for guaranteeing a safe and sustainable food supply in the face of rising global population demands. These results offer insightful information to researchers and policymakers tackling the intricate relationship between population expansion and food supplies. Unfortunately, conventional agricultural practices are proving insufficient in meeting these demands. Pursuing alternative proteins and eco-friendly food production methods has gained urgency, embracing plant-based proteins, cultivated meat, fermentation, and precision agriculture. In this context, insect farming emerges as a promising strategy to upcycle agri-food waste into nutritious protein and fat, meeting diverse nutritional needs sustainably. A thorough analysis was conducted to evaluate the viability of insect farming, investigate insect nutrition, and review the techniques and functional properties of protein isolation. A review of peptide generation from insects was conducted, covering issues related to hydrolysate production, protein extraction, and peptide identification. The study addresses the nutritional value and global entomophagy habits to elucidate the potential of insects as sources of peptides and protein. This inquiry covers protein and hydrolysate production, highlighting techniques and bioactive peptides. Functional properties of insect proteins' solubility, emulsification, foaming, gelation, water-holding, and oil absorption are investigated. Furthermore, sensory aspects of insect-fortified foods as well as challenges, including Halal and Kosher considerations, are explored across applications. Our review underscores insects' promise as sustainable protein and peptide contributors, offering recommendations for further research to unlock their full potential.

Innovative Applications of Tenebrio molitor Larvae in Food Product Development: A Comprehensive Review

The utilization of alternative and sustainable food sources has garnered significant interest as a means to address the challenges of food security and environmental sustainability. Tenebrio molitor larvae, commonly known as mealworms, have emerged as a promising candidate in this context, as they are a rich source of nutrients and can be reared with relatively low resource input. This review article presents an in-depth analysis of the diverse range of food products developed using T. molitor larvae and the distinctive properties they bestow on these products. The review encompasses an exploration of the nutritional composition of the larvae, emphasizing their rich protein content, balanced amino acid profile, fatty acids with health benefits, vitamins, and minerals. It delves into how these attributes have been harnessed to enhance the nutritional value of a variety of food items, ranging from protein-rich snacks and energy bars to pasta, bakery goods, etc. Each of these applications is discussed with regard to how T. molitor larvae contribute to the nutritional content and sensory characteristics of the final product. Furthermore, this review sheds light on the innovative techniques and processing methods employed to incorporate T. molitor larvae into different food matrices. It addresses challenges related to taste, texture, and appearance that have been encountered and the strategies devised to overcome related problems. Overall, this comprehensive review elucidates the diverse food products that have been developed utilizing T. molitor larvae as a key ingredient. Highlighting the nutritional, sensory, and sustainability aspects of these products, this review offers valuable insights to harness the potential of this alternative protein source to meet the evolving needs of modern food systems.

Balancing the Growth Performance and Nutritional Value of Edible Farm-Raised Sago Palm Weevil (Rhynchophorus ferregineus) Larvae by Feeding Various Plant Supplemented-Sago Palm Trunk Diets

Herein, the effect of supplementing ground sago palm trunk (GSPT) with varying concentrations of plant-based ingredients (PIs), including rice bran (RB), soybean meal (SM), and perilla seed (PS), on the nutritional profile of sago palm weevil larvae (SPWL) was investigated. Increased PS intake induced an increase in α-linolenic acid level and a reduction in the n-6/n-3 ratio in SPWL (p < 0.05). The presence of fatty acids in SPWL was determined predominantly by the fatty acid profile in the feed. The activities of Δ5 + Δ6 desaturases and thioesterase were not different among SPWL fed different diets (p < 0.05); however, PI intake resulted in low suppression of fads2 gene expression. RB, SM, and PS at the appropriate concentrations of 17.5%, 8.8%, and 7.0% in GSPT (F3 diet), respectively, boosted both protein quantity and quality of SPWL, as indicated by higher levels of essential amino acids, particularly lysine, than the FAO protein reference. Therefore, incorporating PIs into a regular diet is a viable method for enhancing the nutritional value and sustainability of farm-raised SPWL as a potential alternative source of high-quality lipid and protein.

Termites as human foods-A comprehensive review

Global food production is anticipated to rise along with the growth of the global population. As a result, creative solutions must be devised to ensure that everyone has access to nutritious, affordable, and safe food. Consequently, including insects in diets has the potential to improve global food and nutrition security. This paper aims to share recent findings by covering edible termites as the main aspect, from their consumption record until consumer acceptance. A total of 53 termite species are reported as edible ones and distributed in 6 biogeographic realms. Generally, termites have a nutrient composition that is suitable for human consumption, and cooked termites are a better dietary choice than their raw counterparts. Besides, increasing customer interest in eating termite-based food can be achieved by making it more palatable and tastier through various cooking processes, that is, boiling, frying, grilling, roasting, smoking, and sun-drying. Moreover, edible termites can also be used as a new source of medication by exhibiting antimicrobial activity. Regarding their advantages, it is strongly encouraged to implement a seminatural rearing system to sustain the supply of edible termites. Overall, this paper makes it evident that termites are an important natural resource for food or medicine. Hence, the long-term objective is to stimulate scientific inquiry into the potential of edible insects as an answer to the problem of global food security.

Evaluation of Roasting and Grilling Effects on Chemical Composition, Volatile Profiles, and Toxicity of Stink Bugs (Tessaratoma papillosa): Implications for Utilization as Functional Food Ingredients

The stink bug (Tessaratoma papillosa) is a highly popular edible insect in Thai traditional cuisine, but little research has investigated the effects of heat treatment on the quality of stink bugs. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the effects of roasting and grilling on the chemical changes and volatile compounds of late nymph and adult stink bugs. In general, all treated samples showed increases in phenolic acid, tocopherols, and amino acid contents and a decrease in the content of fiber compared with raw stink bugs (p < 0.05). Cinnamic acid significantly increased by over 200% in late nymph insects and 30% in adult insects after roasting, whereas syringic acid decreased after cooking (p < 0.05). The most predominant volatile compound found in all samples was 5-methyl-octadecane and it decreased after cooking, while volatile alkane compounds increased after cooking. The processed sample extracts showed higher toxicity on oral cancer KB and cervical cancer Hela cells than on Vero cells. We have demonstrated that different cooking methods affected the chemical components which may result in quality attributes if stink bug is to be used as a functional ingredient/food. It may be helpful to improve the nutritional and functional values of stink bugs during deep processing.

Effects of Insect Consumption on Human Health: A Systematic Review of Human Studies

Insects have been consumed as food in diverse cultures worldwide, gaining recognition as a sustainable and nutritious food source. This systematic review aims to update information on the impact of insect consumption on human health based on human randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and allergenicity assessment studies. Following PRISMA guidelines, studies published in the last 10 years were analyzed. From one-thousand and sixty-three retrieved references, nine RCTs and five allergenicity studies were analyzed. Post-prandial amino acid levels increased after insect protein consumption. In comparison with other protein sources, insect protein showed no significant differences in the area under the curve (AUC) values for essential amino acids but tended to have lower peaks and peak later. In terms of muscle protein synthesis, there were no significant differences between insect protein and other protein sources. Glucose levels did not differ; however, insulin levels were lower after the consumption of insect-based products. The effects on inflammatory markers and microbiota composition were inconclusive and the studies did not show significant effects on appetite regulation. Allergenicity assessments revealed a sensitisation and cross-reactivity between insect allergens and known allergens. A partial reduction of cross-allergenicity was observed via thermal processing. Insect protein is an adequate protein source with promising health benefits; however, further research is needed to fully understand its potential and optimise its inclusion into the human diet.

Sustainable Nonfarm Approaches to Achieve Zero Hunger and Its Unveiled Reality

Millions of people worldwide are deprived of sufficient, safe, and nutritious food required for an everyday and healthy life. The hunger crisis is worsening over time, even though many attempts have been made to minimize it. Increasing world population and competition for natural resources, climate change, natural disasters, urbanization, poverty, and illiteracy are the main causes that need to be addressed to reduce the hunger crisis. Various nonfarm technologies are being used to eradicate hunger but their long-term impact on the environment should also be considered. The real sustainability of several novel technologies being implemented to deal with hunger is an issue to tackle. This paper discusses the potential applications of storage facilities, underutilized crops, waste valorization, food preservation, nutritionally enriched novel food products, and technological advancement in food processing to achieve zero hunger. An attempt has also been made to address the sustainability of various nonfarm technology utilized to minimize the global hunger crisis.

Variability in nutrient composition of the edible long-horned grasshopper (Ruspolia differens) in Uganda and its potential in alleviating food insecurity

Ruspolia differens Serville (Orthoptera: Tettigonidae) is a highly nutritious and luxurious insect delicacy that is consumed as a food source in many African countries. However, the nutrient profile of R. differens in different geographical regions have received limited research interest. Here, we provide comprehensive evidence of geographical impact on the nutrient profile of R. differens and its potential to meet the recommended dietary intake of the population. Our results demonstrated that proximate composition, fatty acids, amino acids, minerals, vitamins, and flavonoid contents of R. differens collected from five districts in Uganda varied considerably. The crude protein (28-45%), crude fat (41-54%), and energy (582-644 Kj/100 g) contents of R. differens exceed that reported from animal origins. The highest crude protein, crude fat, and carbohydrate contents of R. differens were recorded in Kabale, Masaka, and Kampala, respectively. A total of 37 fatty acids were identified with linoleic acid (omega-6 fatty acid) being the most abundant polyunsaturated fatty acid in R. differens from Kabale, Masaka, and Mbarara. All essential amino acids were recorded in R. differens, particularly histidine with values exceeding the daily requirement for adults. Mineral and vitamin content differed significantly across the five districts. The highest quantity of flavonoids was recorded in R. differens from Hoima (484 mg/100 g). Our findings revealed that R. differens could be considered as functional food ingredients capable of supplying essential macro- and micronutrients that are critical in curbing the rising food insecurity and malnutrition in the regions.

Mechanisms underlying the effects of ultrasound-assisted alkaline extraction on the structural properties and in vitro digestibility of Tenebrio molitor larvae protein

Edible insects have been considered as a sustainable and novel protein source to replace animal-derived proteins. The present study aimed to extract Tenebrio molitor larvae proteins (TMP) using ultrasound-assisted alkaline extraction (UAE). Effects of different UAE times (10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 min) on the structural properties and in vitro digestibility of TMP were comparatively investigated with the traditional alkaline extraction method. The results revealed that ultrasonication could effectively alter the secondary/tertiary structures and thermal stability of TMP during UAE. The molecular unfolding and subsequent aggregation of TMP during UAE were mainly attributed to the formation of disulfide bonds and hydrophobic interactions. Moreover, TMP extracted by UAE had higher in vitro digestibility and digestion kinetics than those extracted without ultrasound, and the intermediate UAE time (30 min) was the optimal ultrasound parameter. However, longer UAE times (40 and 50 min) lowered the digestibility of TMP due to severe protein aggregation. The present work provides a potential strategy for the extraction of TMP with higher nutritional values.

The Review of Cooking, Drying, and Green Extraction Methods on General Nutritional Properties of Mealworms and Locusts

The processing of edible insects as an alternative source of nutrition may be a key driver in the development of a sustainable food and feed system. This review will study two industrial types of insects-mealworms and locusts-and summarize evidence related to the impact of processing on their micro- and macronutritional characteristics. The focus will be on their potential use as food for human consumption as opposed to animal feed. Literature has indicated that these two insects have the potential to provide protein and fat qualities comparable to or better than traditional mammalian sources. For example, mealworms-the larval form of the yellow mealworm beetlepossess a higher fat content, while adult locusts are rich in fibers, especially chitin. However, due to the different matrix and nutrient compositions, the processing of mealworms or locusts at a commercial scale needs to be tailored to minimize nutritional loss and maximize cost efficiency. The stages of preprocessing, cooking, drying, and extraction are the most critical control points for nutritional preservation. Thermal cooking applications such as microwave technology have demonstrated promising results, but the generation of heat may contribute to a certain nutritional loss. In an industrial context, drying using freeze dry is the preferred choice due to its uniformity, but it can be costly while increasing lipid peroxidation. During the extraction of nutrients, the use of green emerging technologies such as high hydrostatic pressure, pulsed electric field, and ultrasound may provide an alternative method to enhance nutrient preservation.

Graphical Abstract

Edible Insects an Alternative Nutritional Source of Bioactive Compounds: A Review

Edible insects have the potential to become one of the major future foods. In fact, they can be considered cheap, highly nutritious, and healthy food sources. International agencies, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), have focused their attention on the consumption of edible insects, in particular, regarding their nutritional value and possible biological, toxicological, and allergenic risks, wishing the development of analytical methods to verify the authenticity, quality, and safety of insect-based products. Edible insects are rich in proteins, fats, fiber, vitamins, and minerals but also seem to contain large amounts of polyphenols able to have a key role in specific bioactivities. Therefore, this review is an overview of the potential of edible insects as a source of bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols, that can be a function of diet but also related to insect chemical defense. Currently, insect phenolic compounds have mostly been assayed for their antioxidant bioactivity; however, they also exert other activities, such as anti-inflammatory and anticancer activity, antityrosinase, antigenotoxic, and pancreatic lipase inhibitory activities.

Nutritional Composition, Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Activity of Different Samples of Water Boatmen Eggs (Hemiptera: Corixidae)

The group of aquatic insects collectively called "water boatmen" or "Axayacatl" (Hemiptera: Corixidae) and their eggs, called "Ahuahutle", have been consumed and cultivated since the pre-Hispanic era in Mexico. Nevertheless, food composition databases contain limited information on the nutritional composition of these eggs. This work evaluates the macronutrients and bioactive compounds of water boatmen eggs obtained from three different locations in Mexico. The primary analyses to be determined for the first time were some bioactive compounds in the eggs, such as phenolic compounds, total flavonoids, condensed tannins content, antioxidant activity (DPPH and ABTS), and, additionally, fatty acids and proximal composition. The results showed that the sample from Hidalgo (AMC) presented the highest number of phenolic compounds (855.12 ± 0.52), followed by ALT (125.52 ± 0.05) and, with the lowest amount, AMT (99.92 ± 0.13), all expressed in an mg GAE/g sample. ALT indicated the highest mol TE/g sample concentration for ABTS (25.34 ± 0.472) and DPPH (39.76 ± 0.054), showing a significant difference in the DPPH method with the AMT samples. The three Corixidae egg samples had between 15 to 18 different fatty acid profiles, and there were statistically significant differences (Student's t-test ≤ 0.05) between the means using MSD. The total fats of the three samples were between 12.5 and 15.5 g/100 g dry basis. In addition, Corixidae eggs are excellent protein sources. Thus, water boatmen's eggs can be considered to be a food rich in bioactive compounds.

Consumers' Acceptability and Perception of Edible Insects as an Emerging Protein Source

In recent years in Western Europe, studies on entomophagy have drawn the attention of many researchers interested in identifying parameters that could improve the acceptability of insect consumption in order to introduce insects as a sustainable source of protein into the future diet. Analysing the factors involved in consumer acceptability in the Mediterranean area could help to improve their future acceptance. A cross-sectional study was conducted using an ad-hoc questionnaire in which 1034 consumers participated. The questionnaire responses allowed us to study the areas relevant to acceptance: neophobia, social norms, familiarity, experiences of consumption and knowledge of benefits. Only 13.15% of participants had tried insects. Disgust, lack of custom and food safety were the main reasons for avoiding insect consumption. Consequently, preparations with an appetising appearance need to be offered, with flours being the most accepted format. The 40-59-year-old age group was the one most willing to consume them. To introduce edible insects as food in the future, it is important to inform people about their health, environmental and economic benefits because that could increase their willingness to include them in their diet.

The Motivations for Consumption of Edible Insects: A Systematic Review

The consumption of edible insects (EI) is traditional in many parts of the world, but not in others. In fact, despite globalization and the multiple advantages pointed out about the consumption of EI, there are still many countries where entomophagy is seen with disgust and aversion. This systematic review aimed to examine the motivations that influence the consumption of EI in diverse cultures and understand if there are differences between Western countries (WC) and insect-eating countries (IEC). It further evaluated whether the degree of acceptability was influenced by the form of consumption of the insects (eating whole insects or foods containing insects). This literature review was conducted in November 2021 within three databases, Web of Science, PubMed and Scopus, according to the Preferred Reporting of Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis and using PRISMA directives. From a total of 245 studies, 31 were selected to be included in this review, based on the inclusion criteria defined: only original research articles, from 2010 or beyond, and written in English. The results indicated that the main motivations that determine the consumption of EI are related to gender, age, sustainability, nutritional value, sensory attributes, tradition/culture, food neophobia, disgust and familiarity/past experiences. Moreover, whereas in IEC, there is a greater focus on factors related to sensory attributes, availability, affordability and preferences, in WC, there is a bigger emphasis on determinants such as nutritional value, sustainability, benefits, familiarity/past experience, tradition/culture, food neophobia and disgust. Finally, it was observed that people in WC are more willing to accept food products containing insects rather than the whole insect, which is one of the most promising points to be addressed in the future. Overall, this review highlights that there are numerous factors influencing the consumption of edible insects, and differences between WC and IEC are clear in what concerns the motivations of consumers. Hence, targeting market segments and consumers' characteristics has to be present when designing strategies to incentivize the consumption of EI in WC as a part of a global strategy for sustainability of food systems.

Proteins from Tenebrio molitor: An interesting functional ingredient and a source of ACE inhibitory peptides

The angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory potential of the main protein fractions from Tenebrio molitor larvae (TML) was examined to evaluate their use as a novel antihypertensive functional food. Both fractions contained YAN tripeptide, previously reported as responsible for ACE inhibition. Although YAN has been synthesized and was used as a standard for LC-MS/MS quantification and IC₅₀ against ACE was determined, low yields of YAN from TML did not explain adequately the activity of the whole protein fraction. LC-HRMS/MS investigation led to the identification of other three peptides, which were evaluated in silico, synthesized and tested against ACE. Among them, tetrapeptide NIKY showed the most promising activity (52 µM), highlighting once more the potential of TML and paving the way for exploitation in novel foods.

Edible Insects for Humans and Animals: Nutritional Composition and an Option for Mitigating Environmental Damage

Every day, there is an increase in environmental damage on the planet regarding human action. One of the causes is food production. Edible insects are presented as an option to mitigate the environmental damage generated by the production of conventional food for humans and animals. The objective of this study was to investigate the main nutritional aspects of insects and how they can provide a nutritional and sustainable alternative to the planet. As the main results, the nine orders of insects that are most consumed on the planet are presented: Blattodea, Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Isoptera, Lepidoptera, Odonata, and Orthoptera. Their main macro- and micronutrient aspects as well as their bioavailable and bioaccessibility proteins and essential amino acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, and fiber (chitin) are also explored. Additionally, some of the species that are used for animal food processing and the possible risks that insects can present when used as food are discussed. With this, edible insects are established as a real option to mitigate climate change being an important nutritional source for the development of food for humans and animals.

Insects as Feed for Companion and Exotic Pets: A Current Trend

The objective of this review was to carry out a comprehensive investigation of the benefits of incorporating insects as a pet food ingredient and the implications this can have in determining a market demand for insect-based pet foods. Black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens), mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) and adult house crickets (Acheta domesticus) are currently used in pet food. These insects are widely fed to exotic pets, mainly in whole, live or dehydrated formats. They are also incorporated as meal or fat and are offered to cats and dogs as dry or wet food and treats. Scientific studies about the use of insects for dog and cat feed are scarce. Most studies are in dogs. Research shows that insect nutrients, mainly amino acids, have high digestibility, are beneficial to health, do not have any detrimental effect on the gut microbiota and are accepted by dogs. In several countries, insects are approved for use in pet food and commercialization has spread throughout the world. Pet owners are willing to try foods made with insect meal for their pets. In conclusion, the use of insects in pet food is a reality that is taking on more and more prominence.

Innovative Agrifood Supply Chain in the Post-COVID 19 Era

The world is changing rapidly in the age of Coronavirus [...]

Future foods: Alternative proteins, food architecture, sustainable packaging, and precision nutrition

There are numerous challenges facing the modern food and agriculture industry that urgently need to be addressed, including feeding a growing global population, mitigating and adapting to climate change, decreasing pollution, waste, and biodiversity loss, and ensuring that people remain healthy. At the same time, foods should be safe, affordable, convenient, and delicious. The latest developments in science and technology are being deployed to address these issues. Some of the most important elements within this modern food design approach are encapsulated by the MATCHING model: Meat-reduced; Automation; Technology-driven; Consumer-centric; Healthy; Intelligent; Novel; and Globalization. In this review article, we focus on four key aspects that will be important for the creation of a new generation of healthier and more sustainable foods: emerging raw materials; structural design principles for creating innovative products; developments in eco-friendly packaging; and precision nutrition and customized production of foods. We also highlight some of the most important new developments in science and technology that are being used to create future foods, including food architecture, synthetic biology, nanoscience, and sensory perception.Supplemental data for this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2022.2033683.

Development of a Questionnaire to Assess Knowledge and Perceptions about Edible Insects

Edible insects (EI) have been consumed as traditional foods in many parts of the globe, but in other regions, they are not readily accepted, particularly in Western countries. However, because EI are suggested to constitute a more sustainable protein food as compared with other sources of animal protein, they can be considered a future food that could help mitigate hunger and malnutrition. Additionally, new gastronomic trends are already targeting this area for exploring new potentialities. The objective of this work was to develop and validate a questionnaire to assess consumers’ perceptions and knowledge about EI in seven different domains: D1. Culture and Tradition, D2. Gastronomic Innovation and Gourmet Kitchen, D3. Environment and Sustainability, D4. Economic and Social Aspects, D5. Commercialization and Marketing, D6. Nutritional Aspects and D7. Health Effects. The 64 items were subjected to item analysis and reliability analysis for validation, and factor analysis was also conducted to identify a grouping structure. The results validated all the items of the seven subscales with high values of Cronbach’s alpha (α = 0.732 for D1, α = 0.795 for D2, α = 0.882 for D3, α = 0.742 for D4, α = 0.675 for D5, α = 0.799 for D6 and α = 0.788 for D7). However, by eliminating 17 items, the final values of the alpha increased in all subscales. Factor analysis with extraction by principal component analysis with varimax rotation extracted 14 factors that explained, in total, 65% of the variance, although the first two factors were the most important (35.7% variance explained). In conclusion, the confirmed usefulness of the questionnaire has been hereby validated for assessing consumer perceptions of and knowledge about EI.

Tenebrio molitor as a source of interesting natural compounds, their recovery processes, biological effects, and safety aspects

Nowadays, it is urgent to produce in larger quantities and more sustainably to reduce the gap between food supply and demand. In a circular bioeconomy vision, insects receive great attention as a sustainable alternative to satisfy food and nutritional needs. Among all insects, Tenebrio molitor (TM) is the first insect approved by the European Food Safety Authority as a novel food in specific conditions and uses, testifying its growing relevance and potential. This review holistically presents the possible role of TM in the sustainable and circular solution to the growing needs for food and nutrients. We analyze all high value-added products obtained from TM (powders and extracts, oils and fatty acids, proteins and peptides, and chitin and chitosan), their recovery processes (evaluating the best ones in technical and environmental terms), their nutritional and economical values, and their biological effects. Safety aspects are also mentioned. TM potential is undoubted, but some aspects still need to be discussed, including the health effects of substances and microorganisms in its body, the optimal production conditions (that affect product quality and safety), and TM capacity to convert by-products into new products. Environmental, economic, social, and market feasibility studies are also required to analyze the new value chains. Finally, to unlock the enormous potential of edible insects as a source of nutritious and sustainable food, it will be necessary to overcome the cultural, psychological, and regulatory barriers still present in Western countries.

An Insight into the Level of Information about Sustainability of Edible Insects in a Traditionally Non-Insect-Eating Country: Exploratory Study

Insects have been reported as a possible alternative solution to help feed the growing world population with less stress on the planet, thus contributing to the preservation of the environment and natural ecosystems. However, the consumption of edible insects (EIs), although culturally accepted for some communities, is not readily accepted for others. Hence this work explores the level of information that people in a traditionally non-insect-eating country have about the sustainability issues related with EIs, and also some possible reasons that could motivate their consumption. The study was based on a questionnaire survey and the results were explored by descriptive statistic tools, tree classification analysis, factor analysis and cluster analysis. The results showed that the level of information is still low in general, with most people not manifesting an opinion. However, some aspects are relatively familiar to the participants (88.9% know that the ecological footprint of insects is smaller than other meats and 86.9% know that they efficiently convert organic matter into protein). Factor and cluster analysis showed three classes: cluster 1—people not informed about the facts disclosed through the true statements and also not able to distinguish the false information; cluster 2—people not informed about the facts disclosed through the true statements but who were able to distinguish the false information; and cluster 3—people well informed about the facts disclosed through the true statements but who were marginally unable to distinguish the false information. It was also found that education, sex and professional area are the most relevant sociodemographic factors associated with the level of information, and the highest motivations to consume EIs are their contribution to preserve the environment and natural resources followed by being a more sustainable option (for 64.7% and 53.4% of participants, respectively). Hence it was concluded that, although some work still needs to be done to better inform people about EIs, there is already some conscientiousness that they constitute a good and more sustainable alternative to other types of meat.

The use of alternative food sources to improve health and guarantee access and food intake

To feed and provide Food Security to all people in the world is a big challenge to be achieved with the 2030 Agenda. Undernutrition and obesity are to the opposite of a healthy nutritional status. Both conditions are associated with unbalanced nutrition, absence of food or excess of non-nutritive foods intake. These two nutritional conditions associated with food production are closely related to some goals highlighted by the United Nations in the 2030 Agenda to achieve sustainable world development. In this context, the search for alternative foods whose sustainable production and high nutritional quality guarantee regular access to food for the population must be encouraged. Alternative foods can contribute to Food Security in many ways as they contribute to the local economy and income generation. Popularizing and demystifying the uses of unconventional food plants, ancestral grains, flowers, meliponiculture products, and edible insects as sources of nutrients and non-nutrients is another challenge. Herein, we present an overview of alternative foods - some of them cultivated mostly in Brazil - that can be explored as sources of nutrients to fight hunger and malnutrition, improve food production and the economic growth of nations.

Biological activity and processing technologies of edible insects: a review

The burgeoning global population growth has raised concerns regarding the expected increase in the demand for food, which could be partially tackled by identifying novel food sources. To this end, edible insects have recently attracted research interest. Several technologies for utilizing edible insect-derived proteins have been introduced; however, research into their functional utilization is insufficient. Herein, we reviewed the relevant literature on the importance of insects as food sources, extraction of edible insects, the nutritional value of insects, biological activities of components, and their applications in food industries. We summarized the studies primarily focused on the functional utilization of edible insects, suggesting that for successful incorporation and growth of edible insects in food and pharmaceutical industries, strategies to improve the extraction methods are required to explore the biological activity of edible insects. Furthermore, the awareness of edible insects with a focus on their allergens warrants consideration.

Simultaneous Determination of Furanic Compounds and Acrylamide in Insect-Based Foods by HPLC-QqQ-MS/MS Employing a Functionalized Mesostructured Silica as Sorbent in Solid-Phase Extraction

Insect-based products are novel foods (NF) that merit careful study. For this reason, in this work a method has been developed for the simultaneous analysis of four food processing contaminants (FPC), acrylamide (AA), 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, (HMF), 5-methylfurfural (MF) and furfural (F), in insect-based products (bars, crackers and flours) by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (HPLC-QqQ-MS/MS). The method consisted of a solid-liquid extraction (SLE) with acidified water, followed by solid-phase extraction (SPE), using 100 mg of a sorbent based on mesostructured silica with a large pore functionalized with amino groups (SBA-15-LP-NH2). The analytical method was properly optimized and validated in a representative bar sample of pineapple & coconut with cricket flour (Ins-B-Pine-Coco) showing good accuracy, with recoveries ranging from 70-101% for the four analytes and adequate precision (RSD < 9%). Good linearity (R2 ≥ 0.995) and low method quantification limits for AA (between 1.3-1.4 µg/g), F (between 7.9-8.8 µg/g), MF (between 3.1-6.5 µg/g) and HMF (between 1.5-3.3 µg/g) were also obtained in all samples studied. The proposed method was successfully applied in eleven insect-based foods. Results revealed that insect-based bars can be a good alternative to traditional cereal bars to reduce dietary exposure to HMF; but, in order to reduce the exposure to AA, alternative formulations must be evaluated in the design of innovative insect-based crackers.