Effects and mechanisms of Geniposide on rats with adjuvant arthritis

Geniposide for treating atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: a systematic review on its biological characteristics, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and toxicology

In recent years, the prevalence and fatality rates of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease have not only shown a consistent rise that cannot be ignored, but have also become a pressing social health problem that requires urgent attention. While interventional surgery and drug therapy offer significant therapeutic results, they often come with common side effects. Geniposide, an active component extracted from the Chinese medicine Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, shows promise in the management of cardiac conditions. This review comprehensively outlines the underlying pharmacological mechanisms by which geniposide exerts its effects on atherosclerosis. Geniposide exhibits a range of beneficial effects including alleviating inflammation, inhibiting the development of macrophage foam cells, improving lipid metabolism, and preventing platelet aggregation and thrombosis. It also demonstrates mitochondrial preservation, anti-apoptotic effects, and modulation of autophagy. Moreover, geniposide shows potential in improving oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum stress by maintaining the body's antioxidant and oxidative balance. Additionally, this review comprehensively details the biological properties of geniposide, including methods of extraction and purification, as well as its pharmacokinetics and toxicological characteristics. It further discusses the clinical applications of related biopharmaceuticals, emphasizing the potential of geniposide in the prevention and treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases. Furthermore, it highlights the limitations of current research, aiming to provide insights for future studies.

Gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides Ellis) fruit: a critical review of its functional nutrients, processing methods, health-promoting effects, comprehensive application and future tendencies

Gardenia fruit (GF) is the mature fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, boasting a rich array of nutrients and phytochemicals. Over time, GF has been extensively utilized in both food and medicinal contexts. In recent years, numerous studies have delved into the chemical constituents of GF and their associated pharmacological activities, encompassing its phytochemical composition and health-promoting properties. This review aims to provide a critical and comprehensive summary of GF research, covering nutrient content, extraction technologies, and potential health benefits, offering new avenues for future investigations and highlighting its potential as an innovative food resource. Additionally, the review proposes novel industrial applications for GF, such as utilizing gardenia yellow/red/blue pigments in the food industry and incorporating it with other herbs in traditional Chinese medicine. By addressing current challenges in developing GF-related products, this work provides insights for potential applications in the cosmetics, food, and health products industries. Notably, there is a need for the development of more efficient extraction methods to harness the nutritional components of GF fully. Further research is needed to understand the specific molecular mechanisms underlying its bioactivities. Exploring advanced processing techniques to create innovative GF-derived products will show great promise for the future.

Geniposide augments apoptosis in fibroblast-like synoviocytes by restoring hypoxia-enhanced JNK-BNIP3-mediated autophagy

BACKGROUND

As the main effector cells of chronic inflammation and hyperplasia of synovium, fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs) show abnormal proliferation and insufficient apoptosis in the hypoxic microenvironment, which is due to the increase of BNIP3-mediated autophagy. This study aimed to explore the mechanism of geniposide (GE) on hypoxia-induced hyper-proliferative FLSs with a focus on autophagy and the JNK-BNIP3 pathway.

METHODS

The dynamic changes of autophagy, apoptosis, and hypoxia-related proteins in adjuvant arthritis (AA) rats were detected by immunohistochemistry and Western blot. The proliferation, autophagy, apoptosis, and mitochondrial state of FLSs were detected by CCK-8, flow cytometry, immunofluorescence, and transmission electron microscopy, respectively. Western blot, qRT-PCR, and co-immunoprecipitation were used to detect the expression of the JNK-BNIP3 pathway.

RESULTS

The excessive accumulation of BNIP3 in the synovium of AA rats was accompanied by inhibition of apoptosis and an increase in autophagy. GE inhibited the expression of BNIP3, enhanced apoptosis, decreased autophagy, and improved chronic inflammation and hyperplasia of synovium. The amount of autophagy under different oxygen concentrations was the key to mediating the different survival rates of FLSs, and the inhibition of autophagy triggered apoptosis. GE suppressed the proliferation of FLSs and down-regulated autophagy, leading to the accumulation of ROS and the decrease of mitochondrial membrane potential, induced the increase of apoptosis, and suppressed the accumulation of BNIP3 and the hyperphosphorylation of JNK.

CONCLUSION

GE inhibited autophagy by restoring the hypoxia-induced activated JNK-BNIP3 pathway, inducing mitochondrial oxidative damage, augmented apoptosis, and decreased survival rate of FLSs.

Exploration of the anti-inflammatory mechanism of Lanqin oral solution based on the network pharmacology analysis optimized by Q-markers selection

Network pharmacology is widely used to predict the mechanism of traditional Chinese medicines (TCM), but the framework in traditional network pharmacology analysis ignores the relationship between the concentration of components and drug efficacy. Lanqin oral solution (LOS) is a TCM formulation that widely used in the clinical treatment of pharyngitis, but its pharmacodynamic mechanism is still unknown. The present study was designed to elaborate the anti-inflammatory mechanism of LOS based on the quality markers (Q-markers). The efficacy of LOS was correlated with the fingerprint common peaks by chemometrics to select key peaks, and the Q-markers were further confirmed by mass spectrometry. Network pharmacology analysis was performed based on the chosen Q-markers to elaborate the potential pharmacodynamic mechanisms. Four efficacy-related chromatographic peaks were screened by the novel competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (CARS) spectrum-effect relationship analysis and series of other chemometrics methods. Four peaks were further characterized as the Q-markers in the LOS by mass spectrometry, i.e., geniposide, berberine, palmatine and baicalin. The ingredient-target network demonstrated that the LOS showed more impact on the NF-κB signaling pathway to elicit anti-inflammatory ability. Overall, the present study has introduced CARS into the spectrum-effect relationship analysis for the first time, which complemented the commonly applied chemometric methods. The network established based on the screened Q-markers was highly interpretable and successfully achieved the prediction of the anti-inflammatory mechanism of LOS. The proposed workflow provides a systematic method for exploring the mechanism of TCM based on identifying efficacy indicators. More importantly, it offers a reference for clarifying the mechanisms for other TCM formulations.

Natural medicines of targeted rheumatoid arthritis and its action mechanism

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease involving joints, with clinical manifestations of joint inflammation, bone damage and cartilage destruction, joint dysfunction and deformity, and extra-articular organ damage. As an important source of new drug molecules, natural medicines have many advantages, such as a wide range of biological effects and small toxic and side effects. They have become a hot spot for the vast number of researchers to study various diseases and develop therapeutic drugs. In recent years, the research of natural medicines in the treatment of RA has made remarkable achievements. These natural medicines mainly include flavonoids, polyphenols, alkaloids, glycosides and terpenes. Among them, resveratrol, icariin, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, ginsenoside, sinomenine, paeoniflorin, triptolide and paeoniflorin are star natural medicines for the treatment of RA. Its mechanism of treating RA mainly involves these aspects: anti-inflammation, anti-oxidation, immune regulation, pro-apoptosis, inhibition of angiogenesis, inhibition of osteoclastogenesis, inhibition of fibroblast-like synovial cell proliferation, migration and invasion. This review summarizes natural medicines with potential therapeutic effects on RA and briefly discusses their mechanisms of action against RA.

A review of the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of Fructus Gardeniae (Zhi-zi)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Fructus Gardeniae (FG) is the dried fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis (GjE), which belongs to the family Rubiaceae. FG has a long history of use as a herb, and was originally recorded in Sheng Nong's herbal classic. FG has also been widely used as both medicine and food.

AIM OF STUDY

This review aimed to provide a systematic and comprehensive analysis of the current research progress of FG in terms of ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicity, to provide new insights and extensive field of view for subsequent studies.

METHODS

Scientific databases, including CNKI, VIP (Chinese literature), PubMed, Science Direct, Elsevier and Google Scholar (English literatures) were searched to gather data about FG and its main active ingredients such as geniposide and genipin (only regarding toxicity).

RESULTS

Many chemical constituents have been identified from the fruit of GjE, including iridoids, terpenoids, flavonoids, organic acids, volatile oils and others. The constituents of different parts of FG and processed FG are different from those of whole FG. FG extract and its main active constituents have been reported to have pharmacological properties such as hepatoprotective, choleretic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, neuroprotective, anti-diabetic, anti-apoptotic and antitumor activities. However, an increasing number of studies have shown that FG induces multiple organ injury, especially causing hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity, which could increase the risk during clinical use. The available literature shows that geniposide, a major active component of FG and a critical marker for its quality, is associated with the pharmacology and toxicity of FG.

CONCLUSION

Although a large number of studies examining FG have been published, issues remain. In the aspect of FG's pharmacology, the traditional efficacy and modern pharmacological effects of FG should be combined, which to broadens clinical application prospects. In addition, few studies have assessed the toxicity of FG. Toxicity assessment of FG should tackle various aspects, including compatibility, processing and the symptom-based prescription theory, in addition to over-dosage or long-term use, for a reasonable clinical use.

Bioactive compounds and therapeutic role of Brassica oleracea L. seeds in rheumatoid arthritis rats via regulating inflammatory signalling pathways and antagonizing interleukin-1 receptor action

CONTEXT

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, progressive autoimmune disease characterized by aggressive and systematic polyarthritis.

OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed to isolate and identify the phenolic constituents in Brassica oleracea L. (Brassicaceae) seeds methanolic extract and evaluates its effect against rheumatoid arthritis in rats referring to the new therapy; interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The GC/MS profiling of the plant was determined. Arthritis induction was done using complete Freund's adjuvant. Arthritis severity was assessed by percentage of edema and arthritis index. IL-1 receptor type I gene expression, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), oxidative stress markers, protein content, inflammatory mediators, prostaglandin-E2 (PGE2), genetic abnormalities and the histopathological features of ankle joint were evaluated.

RESULTS

For the first time twelve phenolic compounds had been isolated from the seeds extract. Treatment with extract and IL-1RA improved the tested parameters by variable degrees.

CONCLUSIONS

RA is an irreversible disease, where its severity increases with the time of induction. Brassica oleracea L. seeds extract is considered as a promising anti-arthritis agent. IL-1 RA may be considered as an unusual therapeutic agent for RA disease. More studies are needed to consider the seeds extract as a nutraceutical agent and to recommend IL-1RA as a new RA drug.

An Integrated Analysis Reveals Geniposide Extracted From Gardenia jasminoides J.Ellis Regulates Calcium Signaling Pathway Essential for Influenza A Virus Replication

Geniposide, an iridoid glycoside purified from the fruit of Gardenia jasminoides J.Ellis, has been reported to possess pleiotropic activity against different diseases. In particular, geniposide possesses a variety of biological activities and exerts good therapeutic effects in the treatment of several strains of the influenza virus. However, the molecular mechanism for the therapeutic effect has not been well defined. This study aimed to investigate the mechanism of geniposide on influenza A virus (IAV). The potential targets and signaling pathways of geniposide in the IAV infection were predicted using network pharmacology analysis. According to the result of network pharmacology analysis, we validated the calcium signaling pathway induced by IAV and investigated the effect of geniposide extracted from Gardenia jasminoides J.Ellis on this pathway. The primary Gene Ontology (GO) biological processes and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways KEGG enrichment analysis indicated that geniposide has a multi-target and multi-pathway inhibitory effect against influenza, and one of the mechanisms involves calcium signaling pathway. In the current study, geniposide treatment greatly decreased the levels of RNA polymerase in HEK-293T cells infected with IAV. Knocking down CAMKII in IAV-infected HEK-293T cells enhanced virus RNA (vRNA) production. Geniposide treatment increased CAMKII expression after IAV infection. Meanwhile, the CREB and c-Fos expressions were inhibited by geniposide after IAV infection. The experimental validation data showed that the geniposide was able to alleviate extracellular Ca2+ influx, dramatically decreased neuraminidase activity, and suppressed IAV replication in vitro via regulating the calcium signaling pathway. These anti-IAV effects might be related to the disrupted interplay between IAV RNA polymerase and CAMKII and the regulation of the downstream calcium signaling pathway essential for IAV replication. Taken together, the findings reveal a new facet of the mechanism by which geniposide fights IAV in a way that depends on CAMKII replication.

Properties and molecular mechanisms underlying geniposide-mediated therapeutic effects in chronic inflammatory diseases

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Geniposide (GE) is ubiquitous in nearly 40 species of plants, among which Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis has the highest content, and has been used ethnopharmacologically to treat chronic inflammatory diseases. As a traditional Chinese medicine, Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis has a long history of usage in detumescence and sedation, liver protection and cholestasis, hypotension and hemostasis. It is commonly used in the treatment of diabetes, hypertension, jaundice hepatitis, sprain and contusion. As a type of iridoid glycosides extracted from Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis, GE has many pharmacological effects, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenesic, anti-oxidative, etc. AIM OF THE REVIEW: In this article, we reviewed the sources, traditional usage, pharmacokinetics, toxicity and therapeutic effect of GE on chronic inflammatory diseases, and discussed its potential regulatory mechanisms and clinical application.

RESULTS

GE is a common iridoid glycoside in medicinal plants, which has strong activity in the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases. A large number of in vivo and in vitro experiments confirmed that GE has certain therapeutic value for a variety of chronic inflammation disease. Its mechanism of function is mainly based on its anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, neuroprotective properties, as well as regulation of apoptotsis. GE plays a role in the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases by regulating cell proliferation and apoptosis, realizing the dynamic balance of pro/anti-inflammatory factors, improving the state of oxidative stress, and restoring abnormally expressed inflammation-related pathways.

CONCLUSION

According to its extensive pharmacological effects, GE is a promising drug for the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases.

Analysis of the chemical composition changes of Gardeniae Fructus before and after processing based on ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Gardeniae Fructus, the dry fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, has been widely used for the treatment of different diseases. Although four types of processed Gardeniae Fructus products, characterized by differing effects, are available for clinical use, little is known regarding the respective processing mechanisms. In this study, ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry combined with multivariate statistical analysis was applied to characterize the chemical profiles of the differently processed Gardeniae Fructus products and to determine differences in their chemical compositions, thereby enabling us to identify those active compounds associated with the observed clinical effects. A total of 125 compounds were accordingly identified, among which, 56 were established as primary contributors to the significant differences (P < 0.01) between crude and processed Gardeniae Fructus, based on t-test analysis. Furthermore, the potential mechanisms underlying the chemical transformations that occurred during processing were discussed. The findings of this study may not only contribute to the more effective quality control of Gardeniae Fructus but also provide basic information for elucidating the mechanisms underlying the changes in chemical constituents in response to processing, and provide a basis for further investigations of Gardeniae Fructus processing mechanisms.

Polyherbal formula SC-E3 inhibits rheumatoid arthritis activity in a mouse model of type-II collagen-induced arthritis

OBJECTIVE

SC-E3 is a polyherbal formula that contains five medicinal herbs used frequently in traditional herbal medicine. In our previous study, we demonstrated the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of SC-E3. The present study examined the effects of SC-E3 in a mouse model of type-II collagen-induced arthritis (CIA).

METHODS

In vivo, male DBA/1J mice were immunized by intradermal injection of bovine type-II collagen and complete or incomplete Freund's adjuvant, to induce arthritis. SC-E3 was orally administered daily for 23 days. In vitro, bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs) were treated with macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) and receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL) in the absence or presence of SC-E3.

RESULTS

Administrations of SC-E3 were found to have anti-arthritic effects in the joints of CIA mice, as evidenced by reduced paw swelling, bone erosion and deformation, inflammatory cell infiltration, and inflammation in synovial membrane. SC-E3 also reduced serum levels of tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase. Furthermore, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase-positive osteoclast numbers in the joints were significantly lower in SC-E3-treated CIA mice than in CIA mice. In addition, the differentiations of BMMs to multinucleated osteoclasts induced by M-CSF and RANKL stimulation were dose-dependently reduced by SC-E3.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that SC-E3 possesses substantial anti-arthritic activity because it inhibits pro-inflammatory cytokines and osteoclastogenesis, and that SC-E3 has potential therapeutic use for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.

Geniposide in Gardenia jasminoides var. radicans Makino modulates blood pressure via inhibiting WNK pathway mediated by the estrogen receptors

Objectives

To investigate the effects of geniposide in an iridoid found in Gardenia jasminoides var. radicans Makino (GJRM) in spontaneous hypertensive rat (SHR) and explore the possible mechanisms.

Methods

In this study, we detected the content of geniposide in GJRM by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Then, we used acute diuretic experiments to determine whether geniposide has diuretic effect. Moreover, we carried out experiments on SHR to further study the mechanism of hypertension, while real-time PCR, Western blot and immunohistochemistry were used for the experiments in vivo test. Hypotonic model was used for in vitro test.

Key findings

Our data showed that the content of geniposide in the extract of GJRM is 27.54%. Meanwhile, 50 mg/kg geniposide showed the strongest effect on promoting urine volume. Further study indicated that the extract of GJRM and geniposide could significantly reduce blood pressure and promote the excretion of urine and Na+ in SHR. In addition, geniposide significantly inhibited the activation of the with-no-lysine kinase (WNK) signalling pathway and significantly increases the protein expressions of estrogen receptor α (ERα), estrogen receptor β (ERβ) and G protein-coupled receptor 30 (GPR30) in SHR. In hypotonic model, geniposide significantly inhibits the phosphorylation of NKCC and NCC and could be antagonistic to estrogen receptor antagonists.

Conclusions

Collectively, we would suggest that geniposide may potentially be utilized as an adjunct to existing thiazide and thiazide-like diuretics to control hypertension, mainly through inhibiting the activation of the WNK signalling pathway mediated by the estrogen receptor.

Anti-inflammatory effect of stevioside abates Freund's complete adjuvant (FCA)-induced adjuvant arthritis in rats

Adjuvant arthritis is a chronic, autoimmune and inflammatory disorder of the joints. The occurrence of disorder causes a severe damage to the connective tissue eventually leading to progressive physical disability and eventual death. The recent years of evidence suggests the anti-inflammatory properties of stevioside, a diterpene glycoside. However, the effect of stevioside against adjuvant arthritis, a chronic inflammatory disorder is not known. Hence, the present study was designed to study the effect of stevioside against Freund's complete adjuvant induced arthritis model in rats. The acute anti-inflammatory effect of stevioside also studied by employing carrageenan-induced paw oedema model in rats. The biochemical markers, haematological parameters, lipid peroxidation, myeloperoxidase activity, lipoxygenase activity, the levels of PGE2 and pro-inflammatory (TNF-α, IL-6 & IL-1β) and anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) were analysed. The protein expression of NF-κB (p65) COX-2 and iNOS in paw tissues were estimated by western blotting. Stevioside treatment significantly ameliorates the adjuvant induced arthritic scoring, histological alterations, paw volume, elevation of biochemical (AST, ALT, ALP and glucose levels) and haematological (haemoglobin, differential and platelet count) parameters and restored the endogenous anti-oxidant (SOD, CAT, GSH and GST) activities. Treatment with stevioside also significantly prevented the adjuvant induced elevation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β), pro-inflammatory protein expressions (iNOS, COX-2, NF-κB (p65) and pIκB/IκB ratio), prevented the increase in myeloperoxidase activity and significantly restored the anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokine level in paw tissues. Collectively, our findings suggest that stevioside may serve as anti-inflammatory agent and could serve as a potential adjunct therapeutic option in treating adjuvant arthritis.

Herbal compounds for rheumatoid arthritis: Literatures review and cheminformatics prediction

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic disease characterized by autoimmunity, joint inflammation, and cartilage destruction, which affects 0.5-1% of the population. Many compounds from herbal medicines show the potentials to treat RA. On this basis, the compounds with good pharmacokinetic behaviors and drug-likeness properties will be further studied and developed. Therefore, the herbal compounds with anti-RA activities were reviewed in this paper, and the cheminformatics tools were used to predict their drug-likeness properties and pharmacokinetic parameters. A total of 90 herbal compounds were analyzed, which were reported to be effective on RA models through anti-inflammation, chondroprotection, immunoregulation, antiangiogenesis, and antioxidation. Most of the herbal compounds have good drug-likeness properties. Most of the compounds can be an alternative and valuable source for anti-RA drug discovery.

FM0807 decelerates experimental arthritis progression by inhibiting inflammatory responses and joint destruction via modulating NF-κB and MAPK pathways

Background: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic articular synovial inflammatory disease. The precise etiology underlying the pathogenesis of RA remains unknown. We aimed to investigate the inhibitory effect of curcumin analog FM0807 (curcumin salicylate monoester, 2-hydroxy-, 4-[(1E,6E)-7-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-3,5-dioxo-1,6-heptadien-1-yl]-2-methoxyphenyl ester) on experimental RA and investigate its possible mechanisms of action.

Method: Rats with Freund’s complete adjuvant (FCA)-induced arthritis (AIA) were administered aspirin (0.1 mmol.kg⁻¹), curcumin (0.1 mmol.kg⁻¹), FM0807 (0.1, 0.2 mmol.kg⁻¹) and vehicle via gastric gavage, from days 7 to 21, once daily. The hind paw volume and arthritis index (AI) were measured, and radiographic and histological examinations were performed. Twenty-one days later, the animals were killed and left ankle joints were removed to measure protein expression of the elements of the nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway by Western blot analysis. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was employed to measure synovial fluid levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β and IL-10.

Results: Compared with AIA group, FM0807 reduced the AI and swelling of the injected hind paw in a dose-dependent manner, and inhibited increases in inflammatory cell infiltration, pannus formation and cartilage destruction. FM0807 also potently attenuated the increase in the expression of inflammatory factors TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β in synovial fluid, while IL-10 levels were also elevated. FM0807 significantly suppressed phosphorylation of extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2 (ERK1/2), c-Jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) 1/2 (JNK1/2), p38MAPK, inhibitor of NF-κB kinase (IKK), IκB and NF-κB p65 protein, (all P<0.05), which displayed more potential effects compared with those of the aspirin and curcumin groups.

Conclusion: FM0807 exerts its therapeutic effects on RA by inhibiting cartilage degeneration. FM0807 treatment might be an effective therapeutic approach for RA.

Diverse Pharmacological Activities and Potential Medicinal Benefits of Geniposide

Geniposide is a well-known iridoid glycoside compound and is an essential component of a wide variety of traditional phytomedicines, for example, Gardenia jasminoides Elli (Zhizi in Chinese), Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. (Duzhong in Chinese), Rehmannia glutinosa Libosch. (Dihuang in Chinese), and Achyranthes bidentata Bl. (Niuxi in Chinese). It is also the main bioactive component of Gardeniae Fructus, the dried ripe fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis. Increasing pharmacological evidence supports multiple medicinal properties of geniposide including neuroprotective, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antidepressant-like, cardioprotective, antioxidant, immune-regulatory, antithrombotic, and antitumoral effects. It has been proposed that geniposide may be a drug or lead compound for the prophylaxis and treatment of several diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, diabetes and diabetic complications, ischemia and reperfusion injury, and hepatic disorders. The aim of the present review is to give a comprehensive summary and analysis of the pharmacological properties of geniposide, supporting its use as a medicinal agent.

Comparative anti-arthritic investigation of iridoid glycosides and crocetin derivatives from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis in Freund's complete adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats

BACKGROUND

Discovering novel compounds with higher activities is a key aim of natural products research. Gardenia jasminoides Ellis is a herb with anti-inflammatory properties. Iridoid glycosides (mainly geniposide) and crocetin derivatives (crocins) are the two major active constituents in this herb and are considered its active ingredients. However, which components are responsible for the anti-inflammatory properties of gardenia have remained to be investigated.

PURPOSE

Here, we prepared total iridoid glycocides (TIG) and total crocins (TC) from G. jasminoides Ellis, determined their main chemical constituents, and performed animal studies to evaluate their anti-adjuvant arthritis activities, thus, proposing a reasonable mechenism to explain the anti-inflammatory activities of the active components in this herbal remedy.

STUDY DESIGN

TIG and TC were prepared by using HPD-100 macroporous resin, and characterized by UHPLC-DAD-MS and UV-Vis spectrophotometer. Then, freund's complete adjuvant-injected rats underwent drug treatments with TIG (160 mg/kg) and TC (160 mg/kg) for 14 days, and their ankle diameters were measured. Moreover, X-ray radiographs of the adjuvant injected hind paws were evaluated. Finally, histopathological examinations of the ankle joints, spleens and thymus were carried out to evaluate inflammatory reactions, and immunohistochemical measurements were conducted to evaluate TNF-α and TGF-β1 expression in the ankle joint of the rats.

RESULTS

The chemical composition determination of the current study showed that TIG was mainly composed of geniposide and TC was a fraction predominantly with crocin-1, crocin-2 and crocin-3. Calculation of results showed that TIG and TC contained 58.2% total iridoid glycosides and 54.7% total crocins, respectively. Our study suggested TIG and TC treatments markedly decreased paw swelling and ankle diameters of AA rats (both p < 0.05). The radiological analysis showed that administration of TIG and TC ameliorated bone destruction, and reduced the radiological bone destruction scores (TIG p < 0.05, TC p>0.05). Moreover, data from histological assessment demonstrated considerable mitigation of inflammation in the joints (both p < 0.01), spleen and thymus of AA rats treated with TIG and TC. TNF-α and TGF-β1 protein expression according to immunohistochemistry staining also supported the anti-arthritis activities of TIG and TC (TNF-α: TIG p < 0.01 and TC p < 0.05, TGF-β1: TIG p < 0.01 and TC p>0.05).

CONCLUSION

In the current study, fractionation of gardenia prior to further in vivo investigation has for the first time provided reasonable explanation for the anti-inflammatory activity of this herbal remedy. Our study showed that both TIG and TC from gardenia have anti-inflammatory properties. Overall, these experimental findings suggest that gardenia could be regarded as a potential therapeutic target for arthritis. However, as geniposide has a higher content than crocins in this herbal drug, TIG (mainly geniposide) seems to be primarily responsible for the anti-inflammatory properties of gardenia. Taken together, this maiden attempt demonstrated that TIG (mainly geniposide) is more important in evaluating the anti-inflammatory activity of G. jasminoides Ellis.

Immune Tolerance Therapy: A New Method for Treatment of Traumatic Brain Injury

Objective:

Due to the special anatomical structure and pathophysiological mechanism of the central nervous system (CNS), there is a big difference between the repair of brain injury and other systems of the body. More and more evidence shows that targetedly reducing the autoimmune response of brain tissue without affecting the immune function in other parts of the body will be the best optimized treatment for brain injury.

Data Sources:

This review was based on data in articles published in PubMed up to June 5, 2017, with the following keywords: “immune tolerance”, “traumatic brain injury”, and “central nervous system”.

Study Selection:

Original articles and critical reviews on immune tolerance and brain damage were selected for this review. References of the retrieved articles were also screened to search for potentially relevant papers.

Results:

The CNS is isolated from the immune system through the blood-brain barrier. After brain injury, brain antigens are released into the systemic circulation to induce damaging immune responses. Immune tolerance can effectively reduce the brain edema and neurological inflammatory response after brain injury, which is beneficial to the recovery of neurological function. The clinical application prospect and theoretical research value of the treatment of immune tolerance on traumatic brain injury (TBI) is worth attention.

Conclusions:

The establishment of immune tolerance mechanism has a high clinical value in the treatment of TBI. It opens up new opportunities for the treatment of brain damage.

Therapeutic Potential and Effective Components of the Chinese Herb Gardeniae Fructus in the Treatment of Senile Disease

Gardeniae fructus (GF), an evergreen Rubiaceae shrub, is one of the most commonly used Chinese herbs in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and has been used for over a thousand years. It is usually prescribed for the treatment of brain aging, vascular aging, bone and joint aging, and other age-related diseases. It has been demonstrated that several effective compounds of GF, such as geniposide, genipin and crocin, have neuroprotective or related activities which are involved in senile disease treatment. These bioactivities include the mitochondrion dysfunction, antioxidative activity, apoptosis regulation and an anti-inflammatory activity, which related to multiple signaling pathways such as the nuclear factor-κB pathway, AMP-activated protein kinase signaling pathway, and the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. To lay the ground for fully elucidating the potential mechanisms of GF in treating age-related pathologies, we summarized the available research conducted in the last fifteen years about GF and its effective components, which have been studied in vivo and in vitro

Monoterpenes modulating cytokines - A review

Inflammatory response can be driven by cytokine production and is a pivotal target in the management of inflammatory diseases. Monoterpenes have shown that promising profile as agents which reduce the inflammatory process and also modulate the key chemical mediators of inflammation, such as pro and anti-inflammatory cytokines. The main interest focused on monoterpenes were to develop the analgesic and anti-inflammatory drugs. In this review, we summarized current knowledge on monoterpenes that produce anti-inflammatory effects by modulating the release of cytokines, as well as suggesting that which monoterpenoid molecules may be most effective in the treatment of inflammatory disease. Several different inflammatory markers were evaluated as a target of monoterpenes. The proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines were found TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-5, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12 IL-13, IL-17A, IFNγ, TGF-β1 and IFN-γ. Our review found evidence that NF-κB and MAPK signaling are important pathways for the anti-inflammatory action of monoterpenes. We found 24 monoterpenes that modulate the production of cytokines, which appears to be the major pharmacological mechanism these compounds possess in relation to the attenuation of inflammatory response. Despite the compelling evidence supporting the anti-inflammatory effect of monoterpenes, further studies are necessary to fully explore their potential as anti-inflammatory compounds.

Geniposide Suppresses Interleukin-1β-Induced Inflammation and Apoptosis in Rat Chondrocytes via the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB Signaling Pathway

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic degenerative joint disease that is principally characterized by progressive joint dysfunction and cartilage degradation. Inflammation and apoptosis play critical roles in the progression of OA. Geniposide (GPO), one of the principal components of the fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, has been reported to have anti-inflammatory and other pharmacological effects. In this study, we performed in vitro experiments on rat chondrocytes to examine the therapeutic effects of GPO on OA and investigated its effects in vivo in a rat model of OA induced by medial meniscal tear (MMT). The results suggest that GPO can inhibit the expression of INOS, COX-2, and MMP-13 in vitro, and promote the expression of collagen II in rat chondrocytes stimulated with interleukin-1β (IL-1β). In addition, we also found that GPO can inhibit the expression of pro-apoptotic proteins such as Bax, Cyto-c, and C-caspase3 and increase the expression of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2. These changes may be related to GPO-induced inhibition of the IL-1β-induced activation of the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway. In vivo, we also found that GPO can limit the development of OA in a rat model. Taken together, the above results indicate that GPO has potential therapeutic value for treating OA.

Plasma interleukin-38 in patients with rheumatoid arthritis

Previous studies have indicated that interleukin-38 (IL-38) is involved in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The present study aims to assess plasma levels of IL-38 in RA and discuss the potential of IL-38 as a biomarker for RA. Protein concentrations of IL-38 were examined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and the mRNA level of IL-38 was tested by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Plasma IL-38 was first compared in a training cohort, including 130 RA patients and 53 healthy controls, given the optimal cutoff. Then, we validated the levels of IL-38 in a further cohort of 519 patients, including 250 with RA, 63 systemic lupus erythematosus, 62 primary Sjogren's syndrome, 51 gout, 63 osteoarthritis, and 30 psoriatic arthritis, as well as 60 healthy controls. To further discuss the changes in IL-38 after treatment and the relationship with disease activity, we tested IL-38 expression in RA patients from the training cohort under follow-up. In the training cohort, plasma levels of IL-38 were higher in RA patients compared with healthy controls (681.00 [234.45-826.47] versus 152.04 [70.06-246.80] pg/mL, P < 0.001). The IL-38 mRNA level was elevated in RA patients as compared with healthy controls (P < 0.001). Expression of IL-38 was significantly higher in RA patients compared with that in non-RA patients in the validation cohort (all P < 0.001). Treatment significantly reduced IL-38 expression. IL-38 expression was related to parameters of inflammation both at baseline and in the follow-up studies. The area under the curve (AUC) of the receiver-operating characteristic curve showed that IL-38 may be a potential biomarker for RA. At the optimal cutoff value of 341.90 pg/mL, the sensitivity, specificity, and AUC were 72.30%, 90.60%, and 0.840, respectively, in the training cohort. Similar results were noted in the validation cohort. In conclusion, IL-38 expression correlated with RA disease activity, and plasma IL-38 might be a promising diagnostic biomarker for RA.

Antiviral Activity of Fermented Ginseng Extracts against a Broad Range of Influenza Viruses

Ginseng products used as herb nutritional supplements are orally consumed and fermented to ginsenoside compounds by the intestinal microbes. In this study, we investigated antiviral protective effects of fermented ginseng extracts against different strains of influenza viruses in genetically diverse mouse models. Intranasal coinoculation of mice with fermented ginseng extract and influenza virus improved survival rates and conferred protection against H1N1, H3N2, H5N1, and H7N9 strains, with the efficacy dependent on the dose of ginseng samples. Antiviral protection by fermented ginseng extract was observed in different genetic backgrounds of mice and in the deficient conditions of key adaptive immune components (CD4, CD8, B cell, MHCII). The mice that survived primary virus inoculation with fermented ginseng extract developed immunity against the secondary infection with homologous and heterosubtypic viruses. In vitro cell culture experiments showed moderate virus neutralizing activity by fermented ginseng extract, probably by inhibiting hemagglutination and neuraminidase activity. This study suggests that fermented ginseng extracts might provide a means to treat influenza disease regardless of virus strains.

Mangosteen peel extract (Garcinia mangostana L.) as protective agent in glucose-induced mesangial cell as in vitro model of diabetic glomerulosclerosis

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to evaluate the activity of mangosteen peels extract (MPE) as protection agent on induced-glucose mesangial cells (SV40 MES 13 cell line (Glomerular Mesangial Kidney, Mus Musculus)).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

MPE was performed based on maceration method. Cytotoxic assay was performed based on MTS (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium) method, while the level of TGF-β1 (Transforming growth factor-β1) and fibronectin in glucose-induced mesangial cells were assayed and determined using ELISA KIT.

RESULTS

In viability assay, MPE 5 and 20 µg/ml has the highest activity to increase cells proliferation in glucose-induced mesangial cells at 5, 10, and 15 days of incubation in glucose concentration (5 and 25 mM) (P<0.05). In inhibitory activity of TGF-β1 and fibronectin level, MPE 5 µg/ml (glucose-induced 5 mM) show the lowest level compared to positive control and other treatments (P<0.05).

CONCLUSION

MPE can increase cell proliferation in glucose-induced mesangial cells and significantly reduce the level of TGF-β1 and fibronectin. MPE activity has correlates to inhibit the diabetic glomerulosclerosis condition and may increase mesangial cell proliferation.

A Microdialysis in Adjuvant Arthritic Rats for Pharmacokinetics⁻Pharmacodynamics Modeling Study of Geniposide with Determination of Drug Concentration and Efficacy Levels in Dialysate

Microdialysis, a sampling method for pharmacokinetics–pharmacodynamics (PK–PD) modeling in preclinical and clinical studies, is a convenient in vivo sampling technique. Geniposide (GE), an iridoid glycoside compound, is the major active ingredient of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis fruit which has an anti-inflammatory effect. In this study, an articular cavity microdialysis sampling system for adjuvant arthritic (AA) rats was established to study the effect of GE on the release of prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) in AA rats induced by Freund’s complete adjuvant (FCA). An UHPLC-MS/MS method was developed to determine the concentrations of GE and PGE₂ in the dialysate. Through the determination of drug concentrations and PGE₂ efficacy levels in the dialysate, the developed methods were successfully applied to set up concentration–time and effect–time profiles followed by PK–PD modeling of GE’s effect on decreasing PGE₂ release after oral administration of GE. The effect was well described by the developed PK–PD modeling, indicating that GE may play an anti-inflammatory role via decreasing AA-induced elevated PGE₂ levels. In the selection of suitable endogenous small molecules as effect markers, the establishment of AA rat joint-cavity microdialysis is an attractive technique for rational PK–PD studies.

Multi-targeting therapeutic mechanisms of the Chinese herbal medicine QHD in the treatment of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

Beneficial effects of the Chinese herbal medicine Qushi Huayu Decoction (QHD) were observed with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) patients and animal models. The impact of QHD or its active components (geniposide and chlorogenic acid, GC) on NAFLD liver transcriptome and gut microbiota was examined with NAFLD rats. Increased expression for genes required for glutathione production and decreased expression for genes required for lipid synthesis was observed in NAFLD livers treated with QHD and GC. GC treatment decreased serum LPS, which could be explained by reduced mucosal damage in the colon of GC-treated rats. Further, our data suggest an increased abundance of Treg-inducing bacteria that stimulated the Treg activity in GC treated colon, which in turn down-regulated inflammatory signals, improved gut barrier function and consequently reduced hepatic exposure to microbial products. Our study suggests that QHD simultaneously enhanced the hepatic anti-oxidative mechanism, decreased hepatic lipid synthesis, and promoted the regulatory T cell inducing microbiota in the gut.

Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Geniposide on Osteoarthritis by Suppressing the Activation of p38 MAPK Signaling Pathway

It has been suggested that the activation of the p38 mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs) signaling pathway plays a significant role in the progression of OA by leading to the overexpression of proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and signaling enzymes in human osteoarthritis chondrocytes. However, most p38 MAPK inhibitors applied for OA have been thought to be limited due to their potential long-term toxicities. Geniposide (GE), an iridoid glycoside purified from the fruit of the herb, has been widely used in traditional medicine for the treatment of a variety of chronic inflammatory diseases. In this study, we evaluated the inhibition effect of geniposide on the inflammatory progression of the surgically induced osteoarthritis and whether the protective effect of geniposide on OA is related to the inhibition of the p38 MAPK signaling pathway. In vitro, geniposide attenuated the expression of inflammatory cytokines including interleukin-1 (IL-1), tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), and nitric oxide (NO) production as well as matrix metalloproteinase- (MMP-) 13 in chondrocytes isolated from surgically induced rabbit osteoarthritis model. Additionally, geniposide markedly suppressed the expression of IL-1, TNF-α, NO, and MMP-13 in the synovial fluid from the rabbits with osteoarthritis. More importantly, our results clearly demonstrated that the inhibitory effect of geniposide on surgery-induced expression of inflammatory mediators in osteoarthritis was closely associated with the suppression of the p38 MAPK signaling pathways. Our study demonstrates that geniposide may have therapeutic potential to serve as an alternative agent for the p38 MAPK inhibition for the treatment of OA due to its inherent features of biological activities and low toxicity as a traditional Chinese medicine.

Anti-inflammatory Mechanism of Geniposide: Inhibiting the Hyperpermeability of Fibroblast-Like Synoviocytes via the RhoA/p38MAPK/NF-κB/F-Actin Signal Pathway

Geniposide (GE) is the extraction and purification of iridoid glycosides from the Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, which is a promising anti-inflammatory drug, but its mechanism of actions on rheumatoid arthritis (RA) has not been clarified. This study investigated the molecular mechanism behind GE reduced the high permeability of fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs) derived from SD rats with adjuvant arthritis (AA), with the aims of observing the action of GE in AA rats and exploring new therapeutic strategies for RA treatment. The CCK-8 method was used to detect FLSs proliferation. The pro-inflammatory cytokines levels and anti-inflammatory cytokines levels in FLSs were determined by ELISA kits. FLSs permeability assay was performed on Transwell. Immunofluorescence was used to assay the arrangement and morphology of F-actin. The expression of the key molecules related to FLSs permeability (RhoA, p-p38MAPK, NF-κB p-p65 and F-actin) was detected by western blotting. After treatment with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the proliferation and the permeability of the cells increased significantly (all P < 0.05). The expression of RhoA, p-p38MAPK, NF-κB p-p65 and F-actin in FLSs was higher compared with the control group, and F-actin was redistributed, with the formation of additional stress fibers. But, these conditions were moderated after treatment with GE. We demonstrated that the treatment of different concentrations of GE (25, 50, and 100 μg/mL) had a significant inhibitory effect on the proliferation and permeability of FLSs in vitro. Furthermore, the levels of interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-17 secreted by FLSs were decreased in different doses of GE groups, and the levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, TGF-β1) were increased. Under treatment with GE, low expression of RhoA downregulated expression of p-p38MAPK, NF-κB p-p65, and F-actin while compared with control group, and restored the hyperpermeability of FLSs due to LPS treatment. Taken together, GE might play its anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory effects via regulating the relative equilibrium of pro-inflammatory cytokines and anti-inflammatory cytokines. GE attenuated the hyperpermeability of FLSs. The down-regulation of the conduction of RhoA/p38MAPK/NF-κB/F-actin signal may play a critical role in the mechanisms of GE on RA. GE could be an effective therapeutic agent for the treatment of RA.

Therapeutic effect of acetazolamide, an aquaporin 1 inhibitor, on adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats by inhibiting NF-κB signal pathway

OBJECTIVES

Previous studies have shown that aquaporin 1 (AQP1) is up-regulated in synovium and cartilage of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients and that AQP1 may be involved in joint swelling and synovial inflammation. This study was aimed to investigate the potential therapeutic effect of acetazolamide (AZ, an AQP1 inhibitor) on rat adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) and explore its related mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Rat AIA was induced by complete Freund's adjuvant. The effect of AZ on rat AIA was evaluated by secondary hind paw swelling, arthritis index, TNF-α and IL-1β serum levels and histological examination of ankle joint. Proteoglycans expression and mRNA levels of type-II collagen (COII) and aggrecan in cartilage were measured by alcian blue staining and real-time PCR, respectively. The protein levels of AQP1, IκBα, phospho-IκBα (p-IκBα), NF-κB p65 and phospho-NF-κB p65 (p-NF-κB p65) in synovial tissues were detected by western blot.

RESULTS

AZ treatment could inhibit secondary hind paw swelling and arthritis index, reduce serum levels of TNF-α and IL-1β, and ameliorate pathological changes of ankle joint in AIA rats. AZ increased proteoglycans production and mRNA levels of COII and aggrecan in cartilage tissues. Moreover, AZ decreased AQP1 protein level and suppressed the activation of NF-κB pathway in synovium, indicated by inhibiting the degradation and phosphorylation of IκBα and reducing p-NF-κB p65 protein level.

CONCLUSIONS

AZ as an AQP1 inhibitor has a powerful therapeutic effect on rat AIA via inhibiting NF-κB activation, suggesting AQP1 inhibition might be of potential clinical interest in RA treatment.

Immunosuppressive Effect of Geniposide on Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Signalling Pathway and Their Cross-Talk in Fibroblast-Like Synoviocytes of Adjuvant Arthritis Rats

Geniposide (GE), an iridoid glycoside compound derived from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis fruit, is known to have anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory activities. The aim of this study was to investigate the protective mechanism of GE in the regulation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling pathway and the cross-talk among the MAPK signalling pathway in fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) of adjuvant arthritis (AA) rats. AA was induced by injecting with Freund's complete adjuvant. Male SD rats and FLS were subjected to treatment with GE (30, 60 and 120 mg/kg) in vivo from day 14 to 21 after immunization and GE (25, 50 and 100 μg/mL) in vitro, respectively. The proliferation of FLS was assessed by MTT. IL-4, IL-17, IFN-γ, and TGF-β1 were determined by ELISA. Key proteins in the MAPK signalling pathway were detected by Western blot. GE significantly reduced the proliferation of FLS, along with decreased IFN-γ and IL-17 and increased IL-4 and TGF-β1. In addition, GE decreased the expression of p-JNK, p-ERK1/2 and p-p38 in FLS of AA rats. Furthermore, disrupting one MAPK pathway inhibited the activation of other MAPK pathways, suggesting cross-talk among MAPK signalling. In vivo study, it was also observed that GE attenuated histopathologic changes in the synovial tissue of AA rats. Collectively, the mechanisms by which GE exerts anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory effects may be related to the synergistic effect of JNK, ERK1/2 and p38. Targeting MAPK signalling may be a new therapeutic strategy in inflammatory/autoimmune diseases.

Immune Tolerance Effect in Mesenteric Lymph Node Lymphocytes of Geniposide on Adjuvant Arthritis Rats

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic, Th1 cytokine-predominant autoimmune disease result in a chronic and inflammatory disorder. Geniposide (GE), an iridoid glycoside compound that is purified from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, has antiinflammatory and other immunoregulatory effects, but its exact mechanism of actions on RA is unknown. The aim of this study was to elucidate antiinflammation effects of GE on adjuvant arthritis (AA) rats and its possible immune tolerance mechanisms. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were administered with GE (30, 60, and 120 mg/kg) orally from day 17 to 24 after immunization. Lymphocyte proliferation was assessed by MTT. Levels of interleukin-2 (IL-2), IL-4, and transforming growth factor-β1 were tested by ELISA. The expression of β2-AR, GRK2, and β-arrestin-1 and β-arrestin-2 was detected by western blot. Geniposide was found to relieve the secondary hind paw swelling and arthritis scores, along with attenuating histopathologic changes and decreasing IL-2 and increasing IL-4, transforming growth factor-β1 in mesenteric lymph node (MLN) lymphocytes of AA rats. In addition, GE in vivo increased the expression of β2-AR and decreased the expression of GRK2, β-arrestin-1 and β-arrestin-2, and level of cyclic adenosine monophosphate of MLN lymphocytes in AA rats. From these results, we can infer that GE on immune tolerance effects, β2-AR desensitization, and β2-AR-AC-cyclic adenosine monophosphate transmembrane signal transduction of MLN lymphocytes plays crucial roles in antiinflammatory and immunoregulatory pathogeneses of RA. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Investigation on the immunomodulatory activities of Sarcodon imbricatus extracts in a cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced immunosuppressanted mouse model

Aims: Sarcodon imbricatus, an edible fungus, is widely used in Asian medicine because of its significant pharmacological activities. In the present study, we investigated the immunomodulatory effects of polysaccharide-enriched S. imbricatus extracts (SP) in cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced immunosuppressed mice. Results: Astragalus polysaccharide (AP) was used as a positive control. Compared with CTX-induced immunosuppressed mice, thirty-day SP treatment strongly enhanced the organ indexes of spleen and thymus and suppressed hind paw swelling. Both AP and SP increased the serum levels of immunoglobulin (IgA, IgG, and IgM), and suppressed the overproduction of interleukin-2 (IL-2). Moreover, SP reduced methane dicarboxylic aldehyde levels, and increased the total antioxidant capacity, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase in both serum and liver tissues of CTX-induced immunosuppressed mice. Conclusion: S. imbricatus extracts significantly improved immune function in CTX-induced immunosuppressed mice via modulation of oxidative systems.

Geniposide demonstrates anti-inflammatory and antiviral activity against pandemic A/Jiangsu/1/2009 (H1N1) influenza virus infection in vitro and in vivo

BACKGROUND

Influenza A viruses (IAVs) have been a great threat to human health for centuries, without effective control. Geniposide, a main iridoid glycoside compound extracted from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis fruit, possesses various biological activities including anti-inflammation and anti-virus.

METHODS

Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells were infected with pandemic A/Jiangsu/1/2009 (H1N1) influenza virus in vitro. Cytotoxicity and antiviral activity of geniposide were estimated by MTT assay. The influenza respiratory tract infection murine model was established by intranasal instillation of pandemic A/Jiangsu/1/2009 (H1N1) influenza virus. One day after infection, the mice were administered with geniposide (5, 10 or 20 mg/kg/day) or the neuraminidase inhibitor (NAI) peramivir (30 mg/kg/day). Body weight, survival time, viral titre and lung index of the mice were measured. The sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to examine levels of inflammatory cytokines.

RESULTS

The data showed that geniposide had little cytotoxicity on MDCK cells and protected them from pandemic A/Jiangsu/1/2009 (H1N1) influenza virus-induced cell injury. In the infected mice, geniposide treatment significantly restored the body weights, decreased the mortality, alleviated viral titres and virus-induced lung lesions. Geniposide substantially inhibited the virus-induced alveolar wall changes, alveolar haemorrhage and neutrophil-infiltration in lung tissues. Levels of inflammatory mediators, including tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interferon-γ (IFN-γ), interleukin (IL)-4, IL-6 and IL-10 were also markedly altered after treatment with geniposide.

CONCLUSIONS

Our investigation suggested that geniposide effectively inhibited cell damage mediated by pandemic A/Jiangsu/1/2009 (H1N1) influenza virus and mitigated virus-induced acute inflammation.

Overexpression of aquaporin 4 in articular chondrocytes exacerbates the severity of adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats: an in vivo and in vitro study

Background

The dysfunction of articular chondrocytes is a crucial step in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) pathogenesis while its molecular mechanisms are not fully known. This study was aimed to investigate the expression of aquaporin 4 (AQP4) in articular chondrocytes of adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) rats and its involvement in AIA development.

Methods

Thirty rats were divided into normal and AIA group (n = 15). Rat AIA was induced by intradermal injection of complete Freund’s adjuvant and evaluated by secondary paw swelling and histological assessments on knee joint damage. Localization and protein expression of AQP4 in articular cartilage were examined by immunohistochemistry and western blot. In vitro study, AIA articular chondrocytes were cultured and treated with acetazolamide, an AQPs inhibitor. AQP4 protein level, cell proliferation and mRNA levels of type-II collagen (COII) and aggrecan were measured by western blot, MTT assay and real-time PCR, respectively.

Results

The results of immunohistochemistry and western blot indicated that AQP4 showed higher protein levels in cartilage tissues of AIA rats than that of normal rats. Correlation analysis revealed that AQP4 protein level in cartilage tissues of AIA rats remarkably correlated positively with secondary paw swelling on day 26 after AIA induction as well as pathological scores on joint damage. Additionally, acetazolamide treatment effectively decreased AQP4 protein level, increased cell proliferation and mRNA levels of COII and aggrecan, suggesting AQP4 inhibition by acetazolamide could normalize the dysfunction of AIA articular chondrocytes in vitro.

Conclusions

Our data provide certain experimental evidence that AQP4 over-expression in articular chondrocytes aggravated AIA severity and might be a novel target for RA treatment.

Geniposide attenuates ANIT-induced cholestasis through regulation of transporters and enzymes involved in bile acids homeostasis in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Geniposide (GE) is one of the major iridoid glycosides isolated from the fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis that has been used to treat hepatic disorders including cholestasis. However, the underlying mechanisms for GE ameliorating the reduction in bile acids accumulation by α-naphthylisothiocyanate (ANIT) remain unclear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study is to characterize the efficacy of GE in regulation of bile acids uptake, synthesis, metabolism, and transport in ANIT-induced rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sprague-Dawley rats were orally administrated with vehicle, GE (25, 50, and 100mg/kg), and ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) (60mg/kg) once daily for seven days. On the fifth day, a single dose of ANIT (75mg/kg) was administrated via oral gavage. Blood biochemical determination, bile flow rate and liver histopathology were measured to evaluate the protective effect of GE. The mRNA expressions and protein levels of transporters and enzymes involved in bile acids homeostasis were determined by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and western blot to study the underlying mechanism of GE against ANIT-induced rats.

RESULTS

GE (25, 50, and 100mg/kg, po) dose-dependently prevented ANIT-induced changes in serum markers for liver injury. GE treatment reduced basolateral bile acids uptake via repression of OATP2 (P<0.05). Bile acids biosynthesis was decreased through down-regulation of CYP7A1, CYP8B1, and CYP27A1 (P<0.05). GE significantly increased canalicular bile acids secretion via BSEP (P<0.05), subsequently stimulating bile flow during cholestasis. GE also markedly enhanced mRNA level of basolateral transporter OSTβ (P<0.01). Bile acids transported to the plasma were cleared into the urine, resulting in down-regulation of plasma bile acids. However, GE did not alter the mRNA levels of CYP3A2, UGT1A1 and SULT2A1. Furthermore, the gene and protein expression analysis demonstrated activation of FXR, PXR, and SHP after GE administration.

CONCLUSION

GE attenuates ANIT-induced hepatotoxicity and cholestasis in rats, due to regulation enzymes and transporters responsible for bile acids homeostasis.

Chemistry and bioactivity of Gardenia jasminoides

Gardenia jasminoides, grown in multiple regions in China, was commonly used as a natural yellow dye but has been one of the popular traditional Chinese medicines since the discovery of its biological property a few decades ago. It has been reported that G. jasminoides possess multiple biological activities, such as antioxidant properties, hypoglycemic effect, inhibition of inflammation, antidepression activity, and improved sleeping quality. In this review, our aim was to have a comprehensive summary of its phytochemistry including the extraction, isolation, and characterization of volatiles and bioactive molecules in G. jasminoides, focusing on the two major phytochemicals, genipin and crocin, which possess potent medicinal properties. Furthermore, this study attempted to establish a structure–activity relationship between the two major series of molecules with two pharmcophores and their biological activities, which would serve further exploration of the properties of phytocompounds in G. jasminoides as potential functional foods and medicines.

Apoptotic Effect of Geniposide on Fibroblast-Like Synoviocytes in Rats with Adjuvant-Induced Arthritis via Inhibiting ERK Signal Pathway In Vitro

Stimulating fibroblast-like synoviocyte (FLS) apoptosis in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a promising strategy for clinical treatment. Previous studies have confirmed that geniposide shows a certain anti-arthritic effect in vivo. However, whether geniposide can induce RA FLS apoptosis and the underlying mechanisms has not been elucidated. Herein, adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) in rat was induced and FLS was isolated from synovial tissues by tissue explant cultivation method. MTT assay, Hoechst staining, and flow cytometric apoptosis assay were applied to evaluate apoptotic effect of geniposide on AIA FLS. Bcl-2, Bax, and caspase 3 messenger RNA (mRNA) levels, and extracellular-signal-regulated kinases (ERKs) and phosphorylated ERK protein levels were examined by real-time PCR and western blot, respectively. We found that geniposide dose-dependently inhibited AIA FLS proliferation in vitro. AIA FLS treated with geniposide displayed typical apoptotic morphological characteristics including nuclear shrinkage and chromatin condensation. Flow cytometric apoptosis assay indicated that geniposide significantly increased the apoptosis rate of AIA FLS. Additionally, geniposide treatment on AIA FLS decreased Bcl-2 mRNA level and increased Bax and caspase 3 mRNA levels, accompanied by reduced protein levels of phosphorylated-ERK1/2, without affecting total ERK1/2. In conclusion, geniposide effectively induces AIA FLS apoptosis through regulating the apoptosis-related gene expressions and inhibiting ERK signal pathway.

Design, synthesis and preliminary evaluation of the anti-inflammatory of the specific selective targeting druggable enzymome cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) small molecule

CONTEXT

Development of a reliable and selective anti-inflammatory agent of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), induced or up-regulated by inflammatory/injury stimulus such as IL-1β, TNF-α and LPS in the various types of organs, tissues and cells, with low side effects is a long-standing medicinal chemistry problem with significant social implications.

OBJECTIVE

To target druggable enzymome COX-2 by exploiting NSAIDs and genipin (GEP) in anti-inflammatory infection.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The compound aspirin GEP ester (AGE) was designed by computer-assisted screening, synthesized in the esterification of the acylate derivative and the methylate derivative with Et₃N, and evaluated with 20, 40 and 60 mg/kg from days 18 to 24 after immunization in collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) rats by the sequential enzymatic experiments, western-blot analysis and pathological observation methods.

RESULTS

AGE exhibited higher binding affinity with COX-1 and displayed the lowest estimated free energy with COX-2 than other ligands built by hanging NSAIDs with GEP, and was characterized by ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR and HRMS. AGE was competed against COX-2 with molecule-dependent potencies and selectivity (IC₅₀: 0.36 mM; selectivity index: 275) in the sequential enzymatic experiments and decreased the expression of COX-2 in peripheral blood lymphocytes of CIA rats. AGE (40 and 60 mg/kg) could significantly relieve the secondary hind paw swelling and arthritis index, along with observing AGE attenuated histopathological changes of fibroblast like synovial tissue (FLST) and mesenteric lymph node lymphocytes (MLNL) in CIA rats.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

AGE pharmacophore reported herein may be an effective strategy to develop a novel anti-inflammatory agent and potential inhibitor of COX-2.

Treatment of surgical brain injury by immune tolerance induced by intrathymic and hepatic portal vein injection of brain antigens

Surgical brain injury (SBI) defines complications induced by intracranial surgery, such as cerebral edema and other secondary injuries. In our study, intrathymic and hepatic portal vein injection of allogeneic myelin basic protein (MBP) or autogeneic brain cell suspensions were administered to a standard SBI model. Serum pro-inflammatory IL-2, anti-inflammatory IL-4 concentrations and the CD4⁺T/CD8⁺T ratio were measured at 1, 3, 7, 14 and 21 d after surgery to verify the establishment of immune tolerance. Furthermore, we confirmed neuroprotective effects by evaluating neurological scores at 1, 3, 7, 14 and 21 d after SBI. Anti-Fas ligand (FasL) immunohistochemistry and TUNEL assays of brain sections were tested at 21 d after surgery. Intrathymic injections of MBP or autogeneic brain cell suspensions functioned by both suppressing secondary inflammatory reactions and improving prognoses, whereas hepatic portal vein injections of autogeneic brain cell suspensions exerted a better effect than MBP. Intrathymic and hepatic portal vein injections of MBP had equal effects on reducing secondary inflammation and improving prognoses. Otherwise, hepatic portal vein injections of autogeneic brain cell suspensions had better outcomes than intrathymic injections of autogeneic brain cell suspensions. Moreover, the benefit of injecting antigens into the thymus was outweighed by hepatic portal vein injections.

The treatment of rheumatoid arthritis using Chinese medicinal plants: From pharmacology to potential molecular mechanisms

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a common worldwide public health problem. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) achieved some results to some extent in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Especially in China, TCM formulas are used in the clinic because of their advantages. Some of these TCM formulas have been used for thousands of years in ancient China, they pays much attention to strengthening healthy qi, cleaning heat, and wet, activating blood, etc. So TCM in anti-RA drug is considered as a simple and effective method. In addition, TCM are also traditionally used as extracts and many Chinese herbs which are considered to be effective for RA. With the advancement of technologies and research methods, researchers have devoted themselves to exploring new therapeutic materials from troves of TCM. The components of TCM are identified and purified, which include alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids, saponins and so on. However, little or no review works are found in the research literature on the anti-RA drugs from TCM. The present review aims to provide systematically reorganized information on the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry and pharmacology of TCM used traditionally against RA. The information recorded in this review will provide new directions for researchers in the future.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Relevant scientific literatures were collected from Chinese traditional books and Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Several important pharmacology data, clinical observations, animal experiments on effects of anti-RA drugs from TCM and their mechanisms were extracted from a library and electric search (Pubmed, PubChem Compound, Science Direct, Spring Link, Elsevier, Web of Science, CNKI, Wan Fang, Bai du, The Plant List, etc.). We collected information published between 2002 and 2015 on Chinese medicine in the treatment of RA. Information was also acquired from local classic herbal literature, conference papers, government reports, and PhD and MSc dissertations.

RESULTS

This review mainly introduces the current research on anti-RA TCM formulas, extracts and compounds from TCM, pharmacological data and potential mechanisms (inhibit osteoclast proliferation, suppress fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs) growth, decrease the expression of inflammatory cytokines, blocking signal pathways, etc.).

CONCLUSIONS

TCM, as a multi-component and multi-target approach, which is a perfect match with the holistic concept of systems biology, is applicable in the treatment of RA. The synergistic connections of Chinese herbs and mechanisms of related active compounds on RA increase the trust for TCM. TCM as alternative remedies for RA not only has an important position in the world market, but also has an irreplaceable role in the treatment of RA in future.