Paeoniflorin protects against concanavalin A-induced hepatitis in mice

A novel bioinformatics strategy to uncover the active ingredients and molecular mechanisms of Bai Shao in the treatment of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

Introduction: As a new discipline, network pharmacology has been widely used to disclose the material basis and mechanism of Traditional Chinese Medicine in recent years. However, numerous researches indicated that the material basis of TCMs identified based on network pharmacology was the mixtures of beneficial and harmful substances rather than the real material basis. In this work, taking the anti-NAFLD (non-alcoholic fatty liver disease) effect of Bai Shao (BS) as a case, we attempted to propose a novel bioinformatics strategy to uncover the material basis and mechanism of TCMs in a precise manner. Methods: In our previous studies, we have done a lot work to explore TCM-induced hepatoprotection. Here, by integrating our previous studies, we developed a novel computational pharmacology method to identify hepatoprotective ingredients from TCMs. Then the developed method was used to discover the material basis and mechanism of Bai Shao against Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease by combining with the techniques of molecular network, microarray data analysis, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics simulation. Finally, literature verification method was utilized to validate the findings. Results: A total of 12 ingredients were found to be associated with the anti-NAFLD effect of BS, including monoterpene glucosides, flavonoids, triterpenes, and phenolic acids. Further analysis found that IL1-β, IL6, and JUN would be the key targets. Interestingly, molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation analysis showed that there indeed existed strong and stable binding affinity between the active ingredients and the key targets. In addition, a total of 23 NAFLD-related KEGG pathways were enriched. The major biological processes involved by these pathways including inflammation, apoptosis, lipid metabolism, and glucose metabolism. Of note, there was a great deal of evidence available in the literature to support the findings mentioned above, indicating that our method was reliable. Discussion: In summary, the contributions of this work can be summarized as two aspects as follows. Firstly, we systematically elucidated the material basis and mechanism of BS against NAFLD from multiple perspectives. These findings further enhanced the theoretical foundation of BS on NAFLD. Secondly, a novel computational pharmacology research strategy was proposed, which would assist network pharmacology to uncover the scientific connotation TCMs in a more precise manner.

Paeoniflorin improves ulcerative colitis via regulation of PI3K‑AKT based on network pharmacology analysis

Paeoniflorin (PF) is the primary component derived from Paeonia lactiflora and white peony root and has been used widely for the treatment of ulcerative colitis (UC) in China. UC primarily manifests as a chronic inflammatory response in the intestine. In the present study, a network pharmacology approach was used to explore the specific effects and underlying mechanisms of action of PF in the treatment of UC. A research strategy based on network pharmacology, combining target prediction, network construction, Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis, and molecular docking simulation was used to predict the targets of PF. A total of 288 potential targets of PF and 599 UC-related targets were identified. A total of 60 therapeutic targets of PF against UC were identified. Of these, 20 core targets were obtained by protein-protein interaction network construction. GO and KEGG pathway analyses showed that PF alleviated UC through EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor resistance, the IL-17 signaling pathway, and the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. Molecular docking simulation showed that AKT1 and EGFR had good binding energy with PF. Animal-based experiments revealed that the administration of PF ameliorated the colonic pathological damage in a dextran sulfate sodium-induced mouse model, resulting in lower levels of proinflammatory cytokines including IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, and higher levels of IL-10 and TGF-β. PF decreased the mRNA and protein expression levels of AKT1, EGFR, mTOR, and PI3K. These findings suggested that PF plays a therapeutic protective role in the treatment of UC by regulating the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway.

Engineering M2 type macrophage-derived exosomes for autoimmune hepatitis immunotherapy via loading siRIPK3

Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a progressive liver disease mediated by the immune system that involves an imbalance in pro-inflammatory and regulatory mechanisms including regulatory T cells (Tregs), T helper 17 (Th17) cells, Th1, macrophages, and many other immune cells. Current steroid therapy for AIH has significant systemic side effects and is poorly tolerated by some individuals. Therefore, there is an urgent need for alternative treatments. Maintaining homeostasis in macrophage differentiation and activation is crucial for regulating immune responses in hepatitis. In this study, we loaded small interfering RNA (siRNA) targeting receptor-interacting protein kinase 3 (RIPK3) into M2-type macrophage-derived exosomes (M2 Exos) to create functionalized exosomes called M2 Exos/siRIPK3. These exosomes demonstrated a natural ability to target the liver in mice, as they were efficiently taken up by hepatic macrophages and showed significant and stable accumulation. M2 Exos/siRIPK3 effectively mitigated immune-mediated hepatitis by suppressing the expression of RIPK3, resulting in a reduced release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in both liver tissues and serum. Additionally, M2 Exos/siRIPK3 exhibited immunomodulatory effects, as its administration resulted in a decreased proportion of hepatic and splenic Th17 cells, along with an increased ratio of Tregs. Overall, this study suggests that loading small molecule drugs onto M2 Exos could be a promising approach for developing immunomodulators that specifically target liver macrophages to treat AIH. This strategy has the potential to provide a safer and more effective alternative to current therapy for AIH patients.

Protective Effect of Ginsenoside CK against Autoimmune Hepatitis Induced by Concanavalin A

Ginsenoside CK, a kind of rare ginsenoside transformed from protopanaxadiol saponins extracted from the genus Panax, has been proven to possess favorable bioactivities such as anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-diabetes, and hepatoprotective effects. The current study is targeted to determine the effect of ginsenoside CK on hepatitis induced by concanavalin A (Con A). Mice were treated with different dosages of ginsenoside CK for 7 days, and Con A (15 mg/kg) was intravenously injected to induce autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) after the last administration. The results demonstrated that pretreatment with ginsenoside CK (40 mg/kg) could obviously ameliorate the increase in serum indicators related to liver function such as AST, ALT, and ALP, and hepatic lesions induced by Con A. Meanwhile, ginsenoside CK suppressed hepatocyte apoptosis, which was observed in pathological data, and immunoblotting results showed that the expression of Bax, Bcl-2, and other proteins was regulated by CK. Furthermore, the release of inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and IL-6 in mice with AIH were lowered by the administration of 40 mg/kg of ginsenoside CK. Furthermore, ginsenoside CK elevated the gene expression of Nrf2 and Sirt1 and augmented downstream target genes such as HO-1. In addition, a significant inhibition effect of the TLR4/NF-κB signal was observed in 40 mg/kg CK-pretreated mice compared with the model group. To sum up, the results indicated that ginsenoside CK has a notable hepatoprotective effect against AIH by activating Sirt1/Nrf2 and suppressing the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Anti-inflammatory and pro-regenerative effects of a monoterpene glycoside on experimental periodontitis in a rat model of diabetes

OBJECTIVE

Paeoniflorin (Pae) is a monoterpene glycoside with immune-regulatory effects. Several studies have already demonstrated the impact of Pae on periodontitis, but its effect on diabetic periodontitis is unclear. In this study, our aim was to test the hypothesis that Pae had a strong anti-inflammatory effect that prevented bone loss in diabetic periodontitis.

METHODS

Thirty male Wistar albino rats were randomly divided into control (healthy, n = 10), periodontitis (PD) + diabetes (DM; n = 10), and PD + DM + Pae (n = 10) groups. Ligature-induced periodontitis was created by placing 4-0 silk ligatures around the lower first molars on both sides of the mandibulae. Experimental DM was created via an injection of 50 mg/kg and streptozotocin (STZ). Hyperglycemia was confirmed by the blood glucose levels of rats (>300 mg/dL). The bone mineral density (BMD), trabecular number, trabecular thickness, and bone loss were measured by micro-CT. The expression levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α were measured in tissue homogenates by ELISA.

RESULTS

The PD + DM + Pae group had significantly less alveolar crest resorption when compared to the PD + DM group. There was also a significant difference between the PD + DM + Pae group compared to PD + DM group in trabecular thickness, BMD, and the number of trabeculae. Pae application led to a statistically significant decrease in IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α levels in diabetic periodontitis.

CONCLUSION

Systemic application of Pae suppressed inflammation caused by PD and DM, leading to reduced bone loss and enhanced bone quality.

Paeoniflorin attenuates polystyrene nanoparticle-induced reduction in reproductive capacity and increase in germline apoptosis through suppressing DNA damage checkpoints in Caenorhabditis elegans

Due to high sensitivity to environmental exposures, Caenorhabditis elegans is helpful for toxicity evaluation and toxicological study of pollutants. Using this animal model, we investigated the reproductive toxicity of 20 nm polystyrene nanoparticle (PS-NP) in the range of μg/L and the following pharmacological intervention of paeoniflorin. After exposure from L1-larvae to young adults, 10-100 μg/L PS-NP could cause the reduction in reproductive capacity reflected by the endpoints of brood size and number of fertilized eggs in uterus. Meanwhile, the enhancements in germline apoptosis analyzed by AO staining and germline DNA damage as shown by alteration in HUS-1::GFP signals were detected in 10-100 μg/L PS-NP exposed nematodes, suggesting the role of DNA damage-induced germline apoptosis in mediating PS-NP toxicity on reproductive capacity. Following the exposure to 100 μg/L PS-NP, posttreatment with 25-100 mg/L paeoniflorin increased the reproductive capacity and inhibited both germline apoptosis and DNA damage. In addition, in 100 μg/L PS-NP exposed nematodes, treatment with 100 mg/L paeoniflorin modulated the expressions of genes governing germline apoptosis as indicated by the decrease in ced-3, ced-4, an egl-1 expressions and the increase in ced-9 expression. After exposure to 100 μg/L PS-NP, treatment with 100 mg/L paeoniflorin also decreased expressions of genes (cep-1, clk-2, hus-1, and mrt-2) governing germline DNA damage. Molecular docking analysis further demonstrated the binding potential of paeoniflorin with three DNA damage checkpoints (CLK-2, HUS-1, and MRT-2). Therefore, our data suggested the toxicity of PS-NP in the range of μg/L on reproductive capacity after exposure from L1-larvae to young adults, which was associated with the enhancement in DNA damage-induced germline apoptosis. More importantly, the PS-NP-induced reproductive toxicity on nematodes could be inhibited by the following paeoniflorin treatment.

Garcinone E Mitigates Oxidative Inflammatory Response and Protects against Experimental Autoimmune Hepatitis via Modulation of Nrf2/HO-1, NF-κB and TNF-α/JNK Axis

Garcinia mangostana L. (Clusiaceae), a popular tropical fruit for its juiciness and sweetness, is an opulent fountain of prenylated and oxygenated xanthones with a vast array of bio-activities. Garcinone E (GE), a xanthone derivative reported from G. mangostana, possesses cytotoxic and aromatase inhibitory activities. The present research endeavors to investigate the hepato-protection efficaciousness of GE on concanavalin-A (Con-A)-instigated hepatitis. Results showed that GE pretreating noticeably diminishes both the serum indices (transaminases, ALP, LDH, and γ-GT) and histopathological lesions of the liver. It counteracted neutrophil and CD4+ infiltration into the liver. GE furthered the Nrf2 genetic expression and its antioxidants' cascade, which resulted in amelioration of Con-A-caused oxidative stress (OS), lipid per-oxidative markers (4-HNE, MDA, PC) reduction, and intensified antioxidants (TAC, SOD, GSH) in the hepatic tissue. Additionally, GE prohibited NF-ĸB (nuclear factor kappa-B) activation and lessened the genetics and levels of downstream cytokines (IL1β and IL6). Moreover, the TNF-α/JNK axis was repressed in GE-treated mice, which was accompanied by attenuation of Con-A-induced apoptosis. These findings demonstrated the protective potential of GE in Con-A-induced hepatitis which may be associated with Nrf2/HO-1 signaling activation and OS suppression, as well as modulation of the NF-κB and TNF-α/JNK/apoptosis signaling pathway. These results suggest the potential use of GE as a novel hepato-protective agent against autoimmune hepatitis.

Paeonia × suffruticosa (Moutan Peony)-A Review of the Chemical Composition, Traditional and Professional Use in Medicine, Position in Cosmetics Industries, and Biotechnological Studies

The aim of this review is to perform a systematic review of scientific papers and an in-depth analysis of the latest research related to Paeonia × suffruticosa Andrews as a valuable plant species, important in pharmacy and cosmetology. P. × suffruticosa bark root-Moutan cortex is a medicinal raw material formerly known from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) but less common in official European medicine. It was introduced for the first time in the European Pharmacopoeia Supplement 9.4 in 2018. In this work, the numerous possible applications of this raw material were depicted based on modern professional pharmacological studies documenting its very valuable medicinal values, including antioxidant, cytoprotective, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, anti-atherosclerotic, anti-diabetic and hepatoprotective activities. The scientific studies indicated that the profile of raw material activity is mainly due to paeonol, paeoniflorin and 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucopyranose. Moreover, the significance of this plant (its different organs) in the production of cosmetics was underlined. P. × suffruticosa finds increasing application in cosmetology due to research on its chronic dermatitis, anti-aging and brightening effects. Furthermore, some biotechnological research has been described aimed at developing effective in vitro micropropagation protocols for P. × suffruticosa.

Paeoniflorin Protects against Acetaminophen-Induced Liver Injury in Mice via JNK Signaling Pathway

BACKGROUND

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI), represented by acetaminophen (APAP), is a common cause of acute liver failure in clinics. Paeoniflorin (PF) has been proven to demonstrate a significant hepatoprotective effect. However, it is still unclear whether it can be a potential agent against hepatotoxicity induced by APAP. This study aimed to explore the preventive and therapeutic effects and mechanisms of PF on APAP-induced liver injury.

METHODS

Different doses of PF (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg) were given to C57BL/6 male mice for five consecutive days. After 12 h of APAP (250 mg/kg i.p.) treatment, blood and liver tissues were collected and isolated for detection.

RESULTS

The results showed that the therapeutic effects of PF on APAP mice were presented in the downregulation of the content of serum indices and significantly improved hepatic tissue edema and inflammatory infiltration. Meanwhile, PF reduces the level of the mitochondrial metabolic enzyme. Ulteriorly, it was found that PF has a downregulating effect on the apoptotic reaction and could inhibit the protein expression of CYP2E1/JNK signaling, which in turn reduces the damage of APAP.

CONCLUSION

Our findings showed that PF acted as a protective agent against APAP-induced hepatotoxicity by inhibiting JNK-related signals, suggesting a novel insight into treating APAP-induced liver injury.

Cucurbitacin E glucoside alleviates concanavalin A-induced hepatitis through enhancing SIRT1/Nrf2/HO-1 and inhibiting NF-ĸB/NLRP3 signaling pathways

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cucurbitacins are highly oxygenated tetracyclic triterpenoids, that represent the major metabolites reported from C. colocynthis (L.) Schrad.. Cucurbitacin E glucoside (CuE) is a tetracyclic triterpene glycoside separated from Cucurbitaceae plants. CuE has potent anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and anti-tumor properties.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The current study aimed at examining the hepatoprotective effect of CuE against concanavalin A (Con A)-produced hepatitis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mice were intravenously administered Con A (15 mg/kg) to induce AIH. CuE was orally administered at two different doses for five days preceding Con A injection.

RESULTS

The results revealed that CuE pretreatment markedly attenuated the serum indices of hepatotoxicity and the severity of hepatic lesions. CuE depressed Con A-provoked increment in CD4⁺ T-cells in hepatic tissue. The antioxidant activity of CuE was evident through its ability to decrease markers of Con A-induced oxidative stress (malondialdehyde, 4-hydroxyenonanal, and protein carbonyl) and intensified the antioxidants in the hepatic tissue (SOD, GSH, and TAC). CuE increased mRNA expression of SIRT1 and Nrf2 as well as its binding capacity. Subsequently, CuE augmented mRNA expression of Nrf2 targeted genes as NQO1, GCL, and HO-1 and recovered its normal level. CuE inhibited the activation of NF-κB/downstream pro-inflammatory mediators signaling. Furthermore, CuE attenuated the mRNA expression of NLRP3 and its associated genes.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, these results demonstrated the remarkable hepatoprotective potential of CuE towards Con A-induced AIH which was mediated via suppression of oxidative stress, enhancing SIRT1/Nrf2/HO-1, and prohibition of the NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling. CuE could be a candidate for hepatitis patients.

Paeoniflorin ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute liver injury by inhibiting oxidative stress and inflammation via SIRT1/FOXO1a/SOD2 signaling in rats

Acute liver injury (ALI) is a poor prognosis and high mortality complication of sepsis. Paeoniflorin (PF) has remarkable anti-inflammatory effects in different disease models. Here, we explored the protective effect and underlying molecular mechanisms of PF against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI. Sprague-Dawley rats received intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of PF for 7 days, 1 h after the last administration, and rats were injected i.p. 10 mg/kg LPS. PF improved liver structure and function, reduced hepatic reactive oxygen species (ROS) and methane dicarboxylic aldehyde (MDA) levels, and increased superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. Western blot analysis suggested that PF significantly inhibited expression of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-18) and inhibited activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. PF or mitochondrial ROS scavenger (mito-TEMPO) significantly improved liver mitochondrial function by scavenging mitochondrial ROS (mROS), restoring mitochondrial membrane potential loss and increasing level of ATP and enzyme activity of complex I and III. In addition, PF increased expression of sirtuin-1 (SIRT1), forkhead box O1 (FOXO1a) and manganese superoxide dismutase (SOD2), and increased FOXO1a nuclear retention. However, the inhibitor of SIRT1 (EX527) abolished the protective effect of PF. Taken together, PF promotes mROS clearance to inhibit mitochondrial damage and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome via SIRT1/FOXO1a/SOD2 signaling.

Paeoniflorin ameliorates airway inflammation and immune response in ovalbumin induced asthmatic mice: From oxidative stress to autophagy

BACKGROUND

Asthma characterized by airway remodeling is a multiple pulmonary disease, which is associated with various physiological processes including inflammation reaction, immune response, oxidative stress and autophagy.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate whether these processes are modulated by the total glucosides of Paeonia lactiflora Pall (TGP), and its active compound paeoniflorin (PF) with anti-inflammatory and immune-regulatory effects could alleviate ovalbumin (OVA)-induced mouse asthma.

METHODS

In vivo, models of mouse asthma were established by intraperitoneally with a mixture of OVA and aluminum hydroxide, plus a single nasal injected with OVA to female C57BL/6 mice. The results were observed with PET imaging, TEM, RT-PCR, western blotting. In vitro, CD4⁺ T cells were isolated and detected with flow cytometry.

RESULTS

TGP, either in its crude or processed form, and PF effectively ameliorated lung injury in mice induced by OVA, regulated immune/inflammatory response by inhibiting the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, thereby decreasing Th2 cell proportion, inhibited oxidative stress by recovering mitochondrial membrane potential and regulating metabolic activity in dose-dependent manner. Moreover, PF could inhibit autophagy by regulating mitochondrial function. In addition, the therapeutic effects of TGP and PF on pulmonary injury in asthmatic mice were not affected by processing.

CONCLUSION

PF may be a valuable agent in ameliorating inflammation and immune response in asthmatic mice, and the possible mechanism involved in this response rang may from oxidative stress to autophagy.

Anti-fibrotic activity of sitagliptin against concanavalin A-induced hepatic fibrosis. Role of Nrf2 activation/NF-κB inhibition

Sitagliptin is known for its anti-diabetic activity though it has other pleiotropic pharmacological actions. Its effect against concanavalin A (Con A)-induced hepatic fibrosis has not been investigated yet. Our target was to test whether sitagliptin can suppress the development of Con A-induced hepatic fibrosis and if so, what are the mechanisms involved? Con A (6 mg/kg) was injected once weekly to male Swiss albino mice for four weeks. Sitagliptin was daily administered concurrently with Con A. Results have shown the potent hepatoprotective activity of sitagliptin against Con A-induced hepatitis and fibrosis. That was evident through the amelioration of hepatotoxicity serum parameters (ALT, AST, ALP, and LDH) and the increase in the level of serum albumin in sitagliptin treated mice. Simultaneously, there was amendment of the Con A-induced hepatic lesions and repression of fibrosis in sitagliptin-treated animals. Hydroxyproline, collagen content and the immuno-expression of the fibrotic markers, TGF-β and α-SMA were depressed upon sitagliptin treatment. Sitagliptin suppressed Con A-induced oxidative stress and increased antioxidants. RT-PCR analysis showed enhancement of mRNA expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and its target genes (GCLc, GCLm, NQO-1, HO-1) by sitagliptin. Furthermore, sitagliptin ameliorated the level and immuno-expression of nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) alongside the immuno-expression of the inflammatory cytokine, TNF-α. Taken together, this study demonstrates the hepatoprotective activity of sitagliptin which may be in part related to enhancement of Nrf2 signaling pathway and inhibition of NF-κB which interact inflammatory response in liver. Sitagliptin might be a new candidate to suppress hepatitis-associated fibrosis.

Anti-inflammatory effects of paeoniflorin caused by regulation of the hif1a/miR-210/caspase1/GSDMD signaling pathway in astrocytes: a novel strategy for hypoxia-induced brain injury in rats

Context: Hypoxia-induced injury is a classic symptom of obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea syndrome (OSAHS), which is a risk factor of various diseases, such as hypertension, heart failure and stroke. However, there is no effective therapy for hypoxia-induced injury or OSAHS due to the elusive mechanism involved.Objective: This study aimed to assess the effects of paeoniflorin on hypoxia-induced injury and explore the underlying mechanism.Materials and methods: Hypoxic models of SD rats and CTX-TNA2 cells were used to assess the effect of paeoniflorin, and the expressions of hif1a, miR-210, caspase1 and GSDMD were detected using western blots and RT-PCR. Plasmid transfection was performed to explore the role of miR-210 in the effect of paeoniflorin.Results: Firstly, we confirmed that hypoxia induced severe neuronal injury and an enhancement of inflammation in the rat brain, with elevated expression of caspase1, IL1b and IL18. In addition, the results showed an activation of astrocytes and an increased level of pyroptosis under hypoxic conditions, which suggested a critical role of pyroptosis in hypoxiainduced injury of the brain. Furthermore, we found that compared with the controls, paeoniflorin treatment improved hypoxia-induced pyroptosis in astrocytes. Moreover, we detected the activation of hif1a/miR-210 signaling in the effects of paeoniflorin on astrocytes. As expected, the expression of hif1a and miR-210 was significantly upregulated in astrocytes when exposed to hypoxia, while paeoniflorin treatment reversed these enhancements. After transfection of miR-210 mimics, the attenuation of pyroptosis induced by paeoniflorin was suppressed, which was accompanied by an increase of ROS levels, as well as LDH release, indicating a critical role of miR-210 in pyroptosis in astrocytes.Conclusions: Our findings demonstrated that paeoniflorin improved hypoxia-induced pyroptosis in astrocytes via depressing hif1a/miR-210/caspase1/GSDMD signaling, providing robust evidence for the treatment of hypoxic injury and OSAHS.HighlightsHypoxia induces severe injury and inflammatory response in the rat brain;Hypoxia enhanced pyroptotic level and led to an activation of astrocytes.;Paeoniflorin alleviates hypoxia-induced pyroptosis in astrocytes;Transfection of miR-210 mimics suppressed the effects of paeoniflorin on hypoxia-induced pyroptosis in astrocytes.

Research progress in use of traditional Chinese medicine monomer for treatment of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

With the improvement of people's living standards and the change of eating habits, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has gradually become one of the most common chronic liver diseases in the world. However, there are no effective drugs for the treatment of NAFLD. Therefore, it is urgent to find safe, efficient, and economical anti-NAFLD drugs. Compared with western medicines that possess fast lipid-lowering effect, traditional Chinese medicines (TCM) have attracted increasing attention for the treatment of NAFLD due to their unique advantages such as multi-targets and multi-channel mechanisms of action. TCM monomers have been proved to treat NAFLD through regulating various pathways, including inflammation, lipid production, insulin sensitivity, mitochondrial dysfunction, autophagy, and intestinal microbiota. In particular, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPAR-α), sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c (SREBP-1c), nuclear transcription factor kappa (NF-κB), phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), sirtuin1 (SIRT1), AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), p53 and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) are considered as important molecular targets for ameliorating NAFLD by TCM monomers. Therefore, by searching PubMed, Web of Science and SciFinder databases, this paper updates and summarizes the experimental and clinical evidence of TCM monomers for the treatment of NAFLD in the past six years (2015-2020), thus providing thoughts and prospects for further exploring the pathogenesis of NAFLD and TCM monomer therapies.

Summary of Natural Products Ameliorate Concanavalin A-Induced Liver Injury: Structures, Sources, Pharmacological Effects, and Mechanisms of Action

Liver diseases represent a threat to human health and are a significant cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide. Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a progressive and chronic hepatic inflammatory disease, which may lead to severe complications. Concanavalin A (Con A)-induced hepatic injury is regarded as an appropriate experimental model for investigating the pathology and mechanisms involved in liver injury mediated by immune cells as well as T cell-related liver disease. Despite the advances in modern medicine, the only available strategies to treat AIH, include the use of steroids either solely or with immunosuppressant drugs. Unfortunately, this currently available treatment is associated with significant side-effects. Therefore, there is an urgent need for safe and effective drugs to replace and/or supplement those in current use. Natural products have been utilized for treating liver disorders and have become a promising therapy for various liver disorders. In this review, the natural compounds and herbal formulations as well as extracts and/or fractions with protection against liver injury caused by Con A and the underlying possible mechanism(s) of action are reviewed. A total of 53 compounds from different structural classes are discussed and over 97 references are cited. The goal of this review is to attract the interest of pharmacologists, natural product researchers, and synthetic chemists for discovering novel drug candidates for treating immune-mediated liver injury.

Total glucosides of paeony: A review of its phytochemistry, role in autoimmune diseases, and mechanisms of action

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Paeoniae Radix Alba (PRA, called baishao in China), the root of Paeonia lactiflora Pall., has shown a rich medicinal value for more than 2000 years. PRA is used in local medicine and traditional medicine for autoimmune diseases associated with inflammation. At present, total glucosides of paeony (TGP), the main active ingredient of PRA, has been developed into a preparation for the treatment of autoimmune diseases, as TGP exhibits the effect of regulating immunity, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic effects.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

TGP was developed and applied to inflammation-related autoimmune diseases in modern clinical practice. Based on its application in traditional prescriptions, this article reviews PRA's botany and phytochemistry (including its extraction process and quality control), and discusses the clinical application and pharmacological research of TGP as an anti-inflammatory drug from the perspective of ethnopharmacology. Additionally, we review modern pharmacological and molecular-target research on TGP and discuss the mechanisms of TGP in treating autoimmune diseases. Through a systematic literature review, we also highlight the clinical efficacy of TGP in the treatment of immune diseases, and provide a reference for the continued scientific development and quality control of TGP so that its wider application and clinical value can be fully realized.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Literature search was conducted through the Web of Science, Baidu Scholar, ScienceDirect, PubMed, CNKI, and WanFang DATA using the keywords "Total glucosides of paeony", "Paeonia lactiflora Pall. ", "Paeonia veitchii Lynch", "Paeoniae Radix Alba or white peony", "Paeoniae Radix Rubra or red peony", "Paeoniflorin", "Albiflorin", "Autoimmune diseases", and their combinations. In addition, information was collected from relevant textbooks, reviews, and documents.

RESULTS

Approximately 15 compounds have been identified in TGP, of which paeoniflorin and albiflorin are the most common constituents. In recent years, studies have found that TGP and its main chemical components are effective in the treatment of autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, oral lichen planus, and Sjogren's syndrome. TGP has a variety of pharmacological effects related to PRA traditional effects, including anti-organ-damage, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, cardiovascular, and nervous-system protection. Previously published reports on TGP treatment of autoimmune diseases have shown that TGP regulates intracellular pathways, such as the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt) signaling pathways. However, there is no standardized preparation method for TGP, and there is insufficient quality control of formulations. Many related pharmacological studies have not tested TGP components, and the validity of such pharmacological results requires further verification.

CONCLUSIONS

Modern pharmacological research on TGP is based on the traditional usage of PRA, and its folk medicinal value in the treatment of autoimmune diseases has now been verified. In particular, TGP has been developed into a formulation used clinically for the treatment of autoimmune diseases. The combination of TGP capsules and chemicals to treat autoimmune diseases has the effect of increasing efficacy and reducing toxicity. Based on further research on its preparation, quality control, and mechanisms of action, TGP is expected to eventually play a greater role in the treatment of autoimmune diseases.

Paeoniflorin, a Natural Product With Multiple Targets in Liver Diseases-A Mini Review

Paeoniflorin is derived from Paeonia suffruticosa Andr., Paeonia lactiflora Pall., or Paeonia veitchii Lynch and has been used in traditional medical applications for more than 2,000 years. Paeoniflorin is a monoterpenoid glycoside with various effects on liver diseases. Recent studies have revealed that paeoniflorin demonstrates a wide range of activities, including hepatic protection, cholestasis alleviation, liver fibrosis attenuation, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease prevention, and hepatocellular carcinoma inhibition involved in multiple pathways. Moreover, anti-inflammation, antioxidation, and immune regulation with the regulation of TLR4-NF-κB, ROCK/NF-κB, HO-1, mitochondria-dependent as well as HMGB1‐TLR4 signaling pathways are correlated with hepatic protection in liver injury and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Antioxidative mechanisms, anti-inflammation, and hepatic transporter regulation involved in NOX4, PI3K/Akt/Nrf2, NF‐κB, NTCP, BSEP, as well as MRP2 signals are mainly relevant to the anticholestatic effect of paeoniflorin. The inhibition of hepatic stellate cell activation and alleviation of extracellular matrix deposition via vast signals such as mTOR/HIF-1α, TGF-β1/Smads, and JAK2/STAT6 are primarily involved in the antifibrotic effect of paeoniflorin. The regulation of macrophages also contributes to the alleviation effect on liver fibrosis. In addition, the reduction of invasion, metastasis, and adhesion and the induction of apoptosis-related targets, including Bax, Bcl-2, and caspase-3, are related to its effect on hepatocellular carcinoma. The literature indicates that paeoniflorin might have potent efficacy in complex liver diseases and demonstrates the profound medicinal value of paeoniflorin.

Anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory effects of paeoniflorin and total glucosides of paeony

As a Traditional Chinese Medicine, Paeonia lactiflora Pallas has been used to treat pain, inflammation and immune disorders for more than 1000 years in China. Total glycoside of paeony (TGP) is extracted from the dried root of Paeonia lactiflora Pallas. Paeoniflorin (Pae) is the major active component of TGP. Our research group has done a lot of work in the pharmacological mechanisms of Pae and found that Pae possessed extensive anti-inflammatory and immune regulatory effects. Pae could inhibit inflammation in the animal models of autoimmune diseases, such as experimental arthritis, psoriatic mice and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, and so on. Pae modulates the functions and activation of immune cells, decreases inflammatory medium production, and restores abnormal signal pathway. Pae could balance the subsets of immune cells through inhibiting abnormal activated cell subsets and restoring regulatory cell subsets. Pae could regulate signaling pathways (GPCR pathway, MAPKs /NF-κB patway, PI3K /Akt /mTOR pathway, JAK2 /STAT3 pathway, TGFβ /Smads, and etc.). TGP is composed of Pae, hydroxyl-paeoniflorin, paeonin, albiflorin and benzoylpaeoniflorin etc. Pae accounts for more than 40% of TGP. Like Pae, TGP has anti-inflammatory and immune regulatory effects. TGP has been widely used to treat autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), psoriasis, allergic contact dermatitis, and etc. in China. Furthermore, TGP has some superior features with immune regulation, gentle effect, many indications and few adverse drug reactions. These findings suggest that TGP may be a promising anti-inflammatory and immune drug with soft regulation and has more superiority in the treatment of AIDs. Currently, TGP is used for the treatment of RA, SLE and other AIDs in more than 1000 hospitals in China, which obtained great social and economic benefits.

Histopathological and biochemical evaluation of paeoniflorin administration in an experimental periodontitis model

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of administered Paeoniflorin (Pae) on periodontal tissues within an experimental periodontitis model. Forty male Wistar rats were used in this study and experimental periodontitis was created in all rats except in the control group (n = 10, first group). In the periodontitis group, experimental periodontitis was created but no other application was performed (n = 10, second group). In the other groups created experimental periodontitis, systemic Pae (n = 10, third group) or saline (n = 10, fourth group) was applied. A biochemical analysis of the gingival vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) levels and a histomorphometric analysis (measurements of the area of alveolar bone, alveolar bone resorption, and attachment loss) were performed. In the Pae group, the area of the alveolar bone was increased, while alveolar bone resorption and attachment loss decreased. Gingival VEGF levels increased in all groups that created experimental periodontitis and the greatest increase seen in the Pae group. Histomorphometric and biochemical analyses in this study suggest that Pae has a curative effect on periodontal tissues. However, additional studies are needed to confirm these results.

The Regulatory Effects of Paeoniflorin and Its Derivative Paeoniflorin-6'-O-Benzene Sulfonate CP-25 on Inflammation and Immune Diseases

The plant extract "total glucosides of peony" (TGP) constitutes a mixture of glycosides that is isolated from the roots of the well-known traditional Chinese herb Paeonia lactiflora Pall. Paeoniflorin (Pae) is the most abundant component and the main biologically active ingredient of TGP. Pharmacologically, Pae exhibits powerful anti-inflammatory and immune regulatory effects in some animal models of autoimmune diseases including Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) and Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE). Recently, we modified Pae with an addition of benzene sulfonate to achieve better bioavailability and higher anti-inflammatory immune regulatory effects. This review summarizes the pharmacological activities of Pae and the novel anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory agent Paeoniflorin-6'-O-benzenesulfonate (CP-25) in various chronic inflammatory and autoimmune disorders. The regulatory effects of Pae and CP-25 make them promising agents for other related diseases, which require extensive investigation in the future.

The Pharmacological Targets and Clinical Evidence of Natural Products With Anti-hepatic Inflammatory Properties

Inflammation contributes heavily to the pathogenesis of liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and even hepatocellular carcinoma. Inflammation is probably a promising target for treatment of liver diseases. The natural products are considered as the potential source of new drug discovery and their pharmacological effects on hepatic inflammation have been widely reported. In this review, the natural products with anti-hepatic inflammatory properties are summarized based on their pharmacological effects and mechanisms, which are related to the suppression on the inflammation mediators including cytokines and chemokines, pattern recognition receptors, the activated transcriptional factors, and the potential regulatory factors. The clinical evidence is also summarized.

Protective effects of a traditional Chinese herbal formula Jiang-Xian HuGan on Concanavalin A-induced mouse hepatitis via NF-κB and Nrf2 signaling pathways

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Jiang-Xian HuGan (JXHG) formulated by five natural products including Freshwater clam (Corbicula fluminea), Curcuma longa L., Ligustrum lucidum, Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. and Paeonia lactiflora Pall., has exhibited a great hepatoprotective effect.

AIM OF THIS STUDY

We investigated the effect of JXHG on concanavalin A (ConA)-induced acute live injury in mice, and to elucidate its underlying molecular mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Jiangkanling Capsule (900 mg/kg), low-dose JXHG (LJXHG, 700 mg/kg), high-dose JXHG (HJXHG, 1400 mg/kg) were administered to mice by oral gavage daily for 20 days prior to a single intravenous injection of ConA (20 mg/kg). Liver injury was evaluated by measuring the serum levels of enzymes and cytokines as well as liver histological analysis. We also measured the hepatic expression of cytokines at mRNA levels and the proteins related to NF-κB and Nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) signaling pathways.

RESULT

Our results showed that JXHG pretreatment significantly alleviated ConA-induced live injury as evidenced by decreased serum levels of glutamic-pyruvic transaminase (ALT) and glutamic oxalacetic transaminase (AST), and reduced hepatocyte apoptosis and mortality. Furthermore, JXHG was able to significantly reduce the serum levels of proinflammatory cytokines, down-regulate the mRNA expression of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ), and up-regulate IL-10 as well as superoxide-dimutase-1 (SOD1), glutathione reductase (GSR) and Glutathione peroxidase 2 (GPX2) mRNA in the liver tissues after Con A injection. In addition, JXHG pretreatment dramatically suppressed the phosphorylation of NF-κB p65 (p65), increased Nrf2 expression, and decreased the expression ratio of cleaved caspase-3/caspase-3 in liver tissues.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that JXHG protects against ConA-induced acute live injury through inhibiting NF-κB mediated inflammatory pathway and promoting Nrf2 mediated anti-oxidative stress signaling pathway.

Pristimerin as a Novel Hepatoprotective Agent Against Experimental Autoimmune Hepatitis

Pristimerin (Pris) is bioactive natural quinonoid triterpene that has anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer activities. Meanwhile, its effect against hepatitis needs to be elucidated. This investigation aimed to evaluate the ability of Pris to protect against autoimmune hepatitis (AIH). A mouse model of AIH was established using single concanavalin A (Con A) intravenous injection. Mice were treated with Pris at two different doses (0.4 and 0.8 mg/kg) for 5 days prior to Con A challenge. Markers of hepatic injury, oxidative, inflammatory, and apoptotic damage were estimated. Results have revealed that Pris pretreatment ameliorated Con A-induced hepatic damage. There was decrease in the elevated serum indices of hepatic damage (ALT, AST, ALP, and LDH) and improvement of the histopathological picture of the liver. Pris effectively decreased Con A-induced neutrophil infiltration into the hepatic tissue as presented by amelioration of the level and immuno-expression of myeloperoxidase (MPO). Additionally, Pris attenuated Con A-induced increase in CD4+ T-cells in hepatic tissue. Lipid peroxidation was significantly depressed simultaneously with enhancement of the antioxidant capacity in Pris pretreated animals. Pris also enhanced nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) mRNA expression and its binding capacity. In addition, Pris increased mRNA expression of heme-oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and restored its normal level. Furthermore, Pris decreased the level and immuno-expression of nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) as well as the downstream inflammatory cascade (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β). Finally, Pris showed inhibitory effect on Con A-induced apoptotic alteration in liver as it decreased the mRNA expression and levels the apoptotic markers (Bax and caspase-3) and increased mRNA expression and level of the anti-apoptotic protein (Bcl2). In conclusion, this study demonstrates the potent hepatoprotective efficacy of Pris against Con A-induced hepatitis which may be related to anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic pathways. Pris could serve as a new candidate for the management of hepatitis.

Protective effects of Huangqin Decoction against ulcerative colitis and associated cancer in mice

Individuals with ulcerative colitis (UC) are at a high risk for developing colorectal cancer (CRC). Huangqin Decoction (HQD), a traditional Chinese medicinal formula chronicled in the Shang Han Lun, is commonly used to treat gastrointestinal symptoms. However, experimental evidence for supporting the clinical practice is lacking. This study used modern biomedical approaches to investigate the protective/preventive effects of HQD in dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced acute/chronic UC and azoxymethane (AOM)/DSS-induced CRC in mice. HQDs were prepared in 4 different ways: HQD-1 and HQD-2 were prepared in boiling water, whereas HQD-3 and HQD-4 were prepared in heated ethanol (70%). For HQD-1 and HQD-3, the 4 constituent herbs were processed together, whereas for HQD-2 and HQD4, these herbs were processed individually and then combined. The mice were administered 9.1 g/kg HQD via oral gavage daily. HQD-1 significantly inhibited DSS-induced acute UC, whereas HQD-3 and HQD-4 exhibited mild ameliorative effects; but HQD-2 had no protective effect and resulted in a higher mortality rate. This higher mortality rate may be due to the greater abundance of baicalein and wogonin in HQD-2 than HQD-1. Furthermore, HQD-1 protected against DSS-induced chronic UC and significantly inhibited AOM/DSS-induced CRC in mice. HQD-1 also inhibited the production of inflammatory cytokines and increased antioxidant capacity both in chronic DSS and AOM/DSS treated mice. Overall, HQD-1 inhibits the development of acute/chronic colitis and prevents colitis-associated CRC, possibly by inhibiting inflammation and preventing oxidative stress induced cellular damage.

Origins, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Analytical Methods and Safety of Cortex Moutan (Paeonia suffruticosa Andrew): A Systematic Review

Cortex Moutan (CM), a well-known traditional Chinese medicine, is commonly used for treating various diseases in China and other eastern Asian countries. Recorded in Pharmacopeias of several countries, CM is now drawing increasing attention and under extensive studies in various fields. Phytochemical studies indicate that CM contains many valuable secondary metabolites, such as monoterpene glycosides and phenols. Ample evidence from pharmacological researches suggest that CM has a wide spectrum of activities, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-tumor, anti-diabetic, cardiovascular protective, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective effects. Moreover, various analytical methods were established for the quality evaluation and safety control of CM. This review synopsizes updated information concerning the origins, phytochemistry, pharmacology, analytical method and safety of CM, aiming to provide favorable references for modern CM research and application. In conclusion, continuing pharmacological investigations concerning CM should be conducted to unravel its pharmacological mechanisms. Further researches are necessary to obtain comprehensive and applicable analytical approach for quality evaluation and establish harmonized criteria of CM.

Identification of NF-κB as Determinant of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Its Inhibition by the Chinese Herbal Remedy Free and Easy Wanderer

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental disorder developing after exposure to traumatic events. Although psychotherapy reveals some therapeutic effectiveness, clinically sustainable cure is still uncertain. Some Chinese herbal formulae are reported to work well clinically against mental diseases in Asian countries, but the safety and their mode of action are still unclear. In this study, we investigated the mechanisms of Chinese remedy free and easy wanderer (FAEW) on PTSD. We used a reverse pharmacology approach combining clinical data to search for mechanisms of PTSD with subsequent in vitro verification and bioinformatics techniques as follows: (1) by analyzing microarray-based transcriptome-wide mRNA expression profiling of PTSD patients; (2) by investigating the effect of FAEW and the antidepressant control drug fluoxetine on the transcription factor NF-κB using reporter cell assays and western blotting; (3) by performing molecular docking and literature data mining based on phytochemical constituents of FAEW. The results suggest an involvement of inflammatory processes mediated through NF-κB in the progression of PTSD. FAEW was non-cytotoxic in vitro and inhibited NF-κB activity and p65 protein expression. FAEW's anti-inflammatory compounds, i.e., paeoniflorin, isoliquiritin, isoliquiritin apioside and ononin were evaluated for binding to IκK and p65-RelA in a molecular docking approach. Paeoniflorin, albiflorin, baicalin, isoliquiritin and liquiritin have been reported to relieve depression in vivo or in clinical trials, which might be the active ingredients for FAEW against PTSD.

Paeoniflorin ameliorates cholestasis via regulating hepatic transporters and suppressing inflammation in ANIT-fed rats

Paeoniflorin has shown the obvious effect on cholestasis according to our previous research. However, its mechanism has not been absolutely explored yet. This study aims at evaluating the potential effect of paeoniflorin on alpha-naphthylisothiocyanate (ANIT) -induced cholestasis by inhibiting nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) and simultaneously regulating hepatocyte transporters. Cholestasis was induced by administration of ANIT. The effect of paeoniflorin on serum indices such as total bilirubin (TBIL), direct bilirubin (DBIL), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), γ-glutamyltranspeptidase (γ-GT), total bile acid (TBA) and histopathology of liver were determined. Liver protein levels of NF-κB, interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and the hepatocyte transporters such as Na⁺/taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide (NTCP), bile salt export pump (BSEP), multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (MRP2) and cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (Cyp7a1) were investigated by western blotting. The results demonstrated that paeoniflorin could decrease serum ALT, AST, ALP, γ-GT, TBIL, DBIL and TBA in ANIT-treated rats. Histological examination revealed that rats treated with paeoniflorin represented fewer neutrophils infiltration, edema and necrosis in liver tissue compared with ANIT rats. Moreover, paeoniflorin significantly reduced the over expressions of NF-κB and IL-1β induced by ANIT in liver tissue. In addition, the relative protein expressions of NTCP, BSEP, MRP2 but not Cyp7a1 were also restored by paeoniflorin. The potential mechanism of paeoniflorin in alleviating ANIT-induced cholestasis seems to be related to reduce the over expressions of NF-κB and hepatocyte transporters such as NTCP, BSEP as well as MRP2.

Paeoniflorin Ameliorates Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis via Inhibition of Dendritic Cell Function and Th17 Cell Differentiation

Paeoniflorin (PF) is a monoterpene glycoside and exhibits multiple effects, including anti-inflammation and immunoregulation. To date, the effect of PF on multiple sclerosis (MS) has not been investigated. In this study, we investigated the effect of PF in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model for MS. After administered with PF, the onset and clinical symptoms of EAE mice were significantly ameliorated, and the number of Th17 cells infiltrated in central nervous system (CNS) and spleen was also dramatically decreased. Instead of inhibiting the differentiation of Th17 cells directly, PF influenced Th17 cells via suppressing the expression of costimulatory molecules and the production of interlukin-6 (IL-6) of dendritic cells (DCs) in vivo and in vitro, which may be attributable to the inhibition of IKK/NF-κB and JNK signaling pathway. When naïve CD4⁺ T cells were co-cultured with PF-treated dendritic cells under Th17-polarizing condition, the percentage of Th17 cells and the phosphorylation of STAT3 were decreased, as well as the mRNA levels of IL-17, RORα, and RORγt. Our study provided insights into the role of PF as a unique therapeutic agent for the treatment of multiple sclerosis and illustrated the underlying mechanism of PF from a new perspective.

Pirfenidone ameliorates concanavalin A-induced hepatitis in mice via modulation of reactive oxygen species/nuclear factor kappa B signalling pathways

Objectives

This study aimed to evaluate the potential protective effects of pirfenidone (PFD) against concanavalin A (Con A)-induced hepatitis in mice.

Methods

Autoimmune model of hepatitis was established using single intravenous injection of Con A. Mice were randomly assigned into four groups as follows: control group; Con A group; and two groups, receiving PFD in two dose levels (200, 300 mg/kg) for 5 days before Con A administration. Extent of hepatitis was studied using biochemical, histopathological and immunohistochemical estimations.

Key findings

Hepatitis was clearly evident through extensive hepatocellular lesions and elevated levels of serum transaminases, alkaline phosphatase and lactate dehydrogenase. Con A induced an imbalance between oxidant and antioxidant status in the hepatic tissue. Furthermore, Con A significantly elevated hepatic nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) expression and inflammatory cytokines levels (tumour necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-6 and nitric oxide). PFD pretreatment potently ameliorated all these pathological changes.

Conclusions

Pirfenidone hepatoprotective activity may be mediated through its antioxidant ability that suppresses NF-κB activation signalling pathways suggesting that PFD may be a new candidate for treatment of acute hepatitis.

Metabolomics Coupled with Multivariate Data and Pathway Analysis on Potential Biomarkers in Cholestasis and Intervention Effect of Paeonia lactiflora Pall

Background: The dried root of Paeonia lactiflora Pall. (PLP) is a classical Chinese herbal medicine that has been used to treat hepatic disease for 1000s of years. Our previous work suggested that PLP can be used to treat hepatitis with severe cholestasis. This study explored the mechanism by which PLP affects ANIT-induced cholestasis in rats using a metabolomics approach.

Methods: The effects of PLP on serum indices (TBIL, DBIL, AST, ALT, ALP, and TBA) and the histopathology of the liver were analyzed. Moreover, UHPLC-Q-TOF was performed to identify the possible effect of PLP on metabolites. The pathway analysis was conducted to illustrate the pathways and network by which PLP treats cholestasis.

Result: High-dose PLP remarkably down-regulated the serum indices and alleviated histological damage to the liver. Metabolomics analyses showed that the therapeutic effect of high-dose PLP is mainly associated with the regulation of several metabolites, such as glycocholic acid, taurocholic acid, glycochenodeoxycholic acid, L(D)-arginine, and L-tryptophan. A pathway analysis showed that the metabolites were related to bile acid secretion and amino acid metabolism. In addition, the significant changes in bile acid transporters also indicated that bile acid metabolism might be involved in the therapeutic effect of PLP on cholestasis. Moreover, a principal component analysis indicated that the metabolites in the high-dose PLP group were closer to those of the control, whereas those of the moderate dose or low-dose PLP group were closer to those of the ANIT group. This finding indicated that metabolites may be responsible for the differences between the effects of low-dose and moderate-dose PLP.

Conclusion: The therapeutic effect of high-dose PLP on cholestasis is possibly related to regulation of bile acid secretion and amino acid metabolism. Moreover, these findings may help better understand the mechanisms of disease and provide a potential therapy for cholestasis.

Methane-rich saline protects against concanavalin A-induced autoimmune hepatitis in mice through anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative pathways

Methane is a common gas which has been reported to play a protective role in organ injury and presents an anti-inflammatory property. However, its effects on Concanavalin A (Con A)-induced autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) remain unknown. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of methane on Con A-induced autoimmune hepatitis in mice and its underlying mechanism. Autoimmune hepatitis was induced by Con A (15 mg/kg) in healthy C57BL/6 mice and methane-rich saline (MS) (20 ml/kg) was intraperitoneally injected 30 min after the challenge with Con A. We found that methane treatment significantly reduced the elevated serum aminotransferase levels and ameliorated liver pathological damage. Furthermore, methane treatment obviously suppressed the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interferon-γ (IFN-γ), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and increased anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 (IL-10). Moreover, we found that the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) were highly increased while the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) were decreased in liver with the injection of Con A, which was reversed by methane. Also, the data demonstrated that the phosphorylated IκB, NF-κB and P38 MAPK in liver were significantly down-regulated by methane. These results suggested that methane protected liver against Con A-induced injury through anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative pathways.

Paeonia lactiflora Pall. protects against ANIT-induced cholestasis by activating Nrf2 via PI3K/Akt signaling pathway

Background

Paeonia lactiflora Pall. (PLP), a traditional Chinese herbal medicine, has been used for hepatic disease treatment over thousands of years. In our previous study, PLP was shown to demonstrate therapeutic effect on hepatitis with severe cholestasis. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antioxidative effect of PLP on alpha-naphthylisothiocyanate (ANIT)-induced cholestasis by activating NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) via phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling pathway.

Materials and methods

Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) was performed to identify the main compounds present in PLP. The mechanism of action of PLP and its therapeutic effect on cholestasis, induced by ANIT, were further investigated. Serum indices such as total bilirubin (TBIL), direct bilirubin (DBIL), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), γ-glutamyl transpeptidase (γ-GT), and total bile acid (TBA) were measured, and histopathology of liver was also performed to determine the efficacy of treatment with PLP. Moreover, in order to illustrate the underlying signaling pathway, liver glutathione (GSH) content and mRNA or protein levels of glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit (GCLc), glutamate-cysteine ligase modulatory subunit (GCLm), Akt, heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), NAD(P)H/quinone oxidoreductase 1 (Nqo1), and Nrf2 were further analyzed. In addition, validation of PLP putative target network was also performed in silico.

Results

Four major compounds including paeoniflorin, albiflorin, oxypaeoniflorin, and benzoylpaeoniflorin were identified by LC-MS analysis in water extract of PLP. Moreover, PLP could remarkably downregulate serum levels of TBIL, DBIL, AST, ALT, ALP, γ-GT, and TBA, and alleviate the histological damage of liver tissue caused by ANIT. It enhanced antioxidative system by activating PI3K/Akt/Nrf2 pathway through increasing Akt, Nrf2, HO-1, Nqo1, GCLc, and GCLm expression. The putative targets network validation also confirmed the important role of PLP in activating Akt expression.

Conclusion

The potential mechanism of PLP in alleviating ANIT-induced cholestasis could to be related to the induction of GSH synthesis by activating Nrf2 through PI3K/Akt-dependent pathway. This indicates that PLP might be a potential therapeutic agent for cholestasis.