From social behaviour to brain synchronization: Review and perspectives in hyperscanning

Multimodal analysis of mother-child interaction using hyperscanning and diffusion maps

The current work aims to reveal mother-child synchronization patterns using several interaction modalities and combining them using the diffusion maps method. Twenty-two Hebrew-speaking toddlers (ages = 33 ± 5.38 months, 17 males) and their mothers (ages = 35 ± 5.79 years) participated in two interaction conditions while data was collected from several modalities, i.e. EEG, joint attention (measured through video coding of looking behavior), and motion analysis. Dimension reduction and data fusion of these modalities were performed using diffusion maps to enable a comprehensive assessment of mother-child synchronization dynamics. This multimodal approach allows better characterization of mother-child interaction and examining the associations between interaction patterns and maternal parenting style and their importance to the child's long-term language abilities.

Eye of the beholder: Neural synchrony of dynamically changing relations between parent praise and child affect

In this study, we aimed to determine the role of parental praise and child affect in the neural processes underlying parent-child interactions, utilizing functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) hyperscanning. We characterized the dynamic changes in interpersonal neural synchrony (INS) between parents and children (4-6 years old, n = 40 dyads) during a cognitively challenging task. We then examined how changes in parent-child INS are influenced by parental feedback and child affect. Parent-child INS showed a quadratic change over time, indicating a decelerated decline during the interaction period. The relationship of parental praise, in the form of positive feedback, to change in INS was contingent upon the child's positive affect during the task. The highest levels of INS were observed when praise was present and child affect was positive. The left temporo-parietal regions of the child and the right dorsolateral prefrontal and right temporo-parietal regions of the parent demonstrated the strongest INS. The dynamic change in INS during the interaction was associated with children's independent performance on a standardized test of visuospatial processing. This research, leveraging fNIRS hyperscanning, elucidates the neural dynamics underlying the interaction between parent praise and child positive affect, thereby contributing to our broader understanding of parent-child dynamics. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: The level of interpersonal neural synchrony between parents and children dynamically varies during a cognitively challenging (tangram) task. The left temporo-parietal regions of the child and the right dorsolateral prefrontal and right temporo-parietal regions of the parent demonstrate the strongest parent-child neural synchrony. The relationship between parental praise (positive feedback) and parent-child neural synchrony is contingent upon child positive affect during the task. Change in parent-child neural synchrony relates to children's performance on an independent visuospatial processing measure.

Visualizing the invisible tie: Linking parent-child neural synchrony to parents' and children's attachment representations

It is a central tenet of attachment theory that individual differences in attachment representations organize behavior during social interactions. Secure attachment representations also facilitate behavioral synchrony, a key component of adaptive parent-child interactions. Yet, the dynamic neural processes underlying these interactions and the potential role of attachment representations remain largely unknown. A growing body of research indicates that interpersonal neural synchrony (INS) could be a potential neurobiological correlate of high interaction and relationship quality. In this study, we examined whether interpersonal neural and behavioral synchrony during parent-child interaction is associated with parent and child attachment representations. In total, 140 parents (74 mothers and 66 fathers) and their children (age 5-6 years; 60 girls and 80 boys) engaged in cooperative versus individual problem-solving. INS in frontal and temporal regions was assessed with functional near-infrared spectroscopy hyperscanning. Attachment representations were ascertained by means of the Adult Attachment Interview in parents and a story-completion task in children, alongside video-coded behavioral synchrony. Findings revealed increased INS during cooperative versus individual problem solving across all dyads (𝛸2(2) = 9.37, p = 0.009). Remarkably, individual differences in attachment representations were associated with INS but not behavioral synchrony (p > 0.159) during cooperation. More specifically, insecure maternal attachment representations were related to higher mother-child INS in frontal regions (𝛸2(3) = 9.18, p = 0.027). Conversely, secure daughter attachment representations were related to higher daughter-parent INS within temporal regions (𝛸2(3) = 12.58, p = 0.006). Our data thus provide further indication for INS as a promising correlate to probe the neurobiological underpinnings of attachment representations in the context of early parent-child interactions. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: We assessed attachment representations using narrative measures and interpersonal neural synchrony (INS) during parent-child problem-solving. Dyads including mothers with insecure attachment representations showed higher INS in left prefrontal regions. Dyads including daughters with secure attachment representations showed higher INS in right temporo-parietal regions. INS is a promising correlate to probe the neurobiological underpinnings of attachment representations in the context of parent-child interactions, especially within the mutual prediction framework.

Embodied hyperscanning for studying social interaction: A scoping review of simultaneous brain and body measurements

We systematically investigated the application of embodied hyperscanning methodologies in social neuroscience research. Hyperscanning enables the simultaneous recording of neurophysiological and physiological signals from multiple participants. We highlight the trend toward integrating Mobile Brain/Body Imaging (MoBI) within the 4E research framework, which emphasizes the interconnectedness of brain, body, and environment. Our analysis revealed a geographic concentration of studies in the Global North, calling for global collaboration and transcultural research to balance the field. The predominant use of Magneto/Electroencephalogram (M/EEG) in these studies suggests a traditional brain-centric perspective in social neuroscience. Future research directions should focus on integrating diverse techniques to capture the dynamic interplay between brain and body functions in real-world contexts. Our review also finds a preference for tasks involving natural settings. Nevertheless, the analysis in hyperscanning studies is often limited to physiological signal synchrony between participants. This suggests a need for more holistic and complex approaches that combine inter-corporeal synchrony with intra-individual measures. We believe that the future of the neuroscience of relationships lies in embracing the complexity of cognition, integrating diverse methods and theories to enrich our grasp of human social behavior in its natural contexts.

Higher emotional synchronization is modulated by relationship quality in romantic relationships and not in close friendships

Emotions are fundamental to social interaction and deeply intertwined with interpersonal dynamics, especially in romantic relationships. Although the neural basis of interaction processes in romance has been widely explored, the underlying emotions and the connection between relationship quality and neural synchronization remain less understood. Our study employed EEG hyperscanning during a non-interactive video-watching paradigm to compare the emotional coordination between romantic couples and close friends. Couples showed significantly greater behavioral and prefrontal alpha synchronization than friends. Notably, couples with low relationship quality required heightened neural synchronization to maintain robust behavioral synchronization. Further support vector machine analysis underscores the crucial role of prefrontal activity in differentiating couples from friends. In summary, our research addresses gaps concerning how intrinsic emotions linked to relationship quality influence neural and behavioral synchronization by investigating a natural non-interactive context, thereby advancing our understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying emotional coordination in romantic relationships.

Applied human neuroscience: Fostering and designing inclusive environments with the 3E-Cognition perspective

The conventional medical paradigm often focuses on deficits and impairments, failing to capture the rich tapestry of experiences and abilities inherent in neurodiversity conditions. In this article, we introduce the 3E-Cognition perspective, offering a paradigm shift by emphasizing the dynamic interplay between the brain, body, and environment in shaping cognitive processes. The perspective fosters a more inclusive and supportive understanding of neurodiversity, with potential applications across various domains such as education, workplace, and healthcare. We begin by introducing the 3E-Cognition principles: embodied, environmentally scaffolded, and enactive. Then, we explore how the 3E-Cognition perspective can be applied to create inclusive environments and experiences for neurodiverse individuals. We provide examples in the realms of education, workplace, and healthcare. In all of these domains, spaces, methodologies, epistemologies, and roles that cater to diverse needs and strengths can be designed using the 3E principles. Finally, we discuss the challenges and benefits of implementing the 3E-Cognition perspective. We focus on the need for technological advancements and research in complex real-world scenarios; we suggest mobile brain/body imaging is a possible solution. We furthermore highlight the importance of recognizing and valuing the diverse manners of experiencing and interacting with the world, the promotion of diverse well-being, and the facilitation of innovation and creativity. Thus, we conclude that the 3E-Cognition perspective offers a groundbreaking approach to understanding and supporting neurodiversity: by embracing the inherent interconnectedness of the brain, body, and environment, we can create a more inclusive and supportive world.

Hyperscanning literature after two decades of neuroscientific research: A scientometric review

Hyperscanning, a neuroimaging approach introduced in 2002 for simultaneously recording the brain activity of multiple participants, has significantly contributed to our understanding of social interactions. Nevertheless, the existing literature requires systematic organization to advance our knowledge. This study, after two decades of hyperscanning research, aims to identify the primary thematic domains and the most influential documents in the field. We conducted a scientometric analysis to examine co-citation patterns quantitatively, using a sample of 548 documents retrieved from Scopus and their 32,022 cited references. Our analysis revealed ten major thematic domains in hyperscanning research, with the most impactful document authored by Czeszumski and colleagues in 2020. Notably, while hyperscanning was initially developed for functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), our findings indicate a substantial influence of research conducted using electroencephalography (EEG) and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). The introduction of fNIRS and advancements in EEG methods have enabled the implementation of more ecologically valid experiments for investigating social interactions. The study also highlights the need for more research that combines multi-brain neural stimulation with neuroimaging techniques to understand the causal role played by interpersonal neural synchrony in social interactions.

Could neurofeedback improve therapist-patient communication? Considering the potential for neuroscience informed examinations of the psychotherapeutic relationship

Empathic communication between a patient and therapist is an essential component of psychotherapy. However, finding objective neural markers of the quality of the psychotherapeutic relationship have been elusive. Here we conceptualize how a neuroscience-informed approach involving real-time neurofeedback, facilitated via existing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG) technologies, could provide objective information for facilitating therapeutic rapport. We propose several neurofeedback-assisted psychotherapy (NF-AP) approaches that could be studied as a way to optimize the experience of the individual patient and therapist across the spectrum of psychotherapeutic treatment. Finally, we consider how the possible strengths of these approaches are balanced by their current limitations and discuss the future prospects of NF-AP.

A practical guide to EEG hyperscanning in joint action research: from motivation to implementation

Developments in cognitive neuroscience have led to the emergence of hyperscanning, the simultaneous measurement of brain activity from multiple people. Hyperscanning is useful for investigating social cognition, including joint action, because of its ability to capture neural processes that occur within and between people as they coordinate actions toward a shared goal. Here, we provide a practical guide for researchers considering using hyperscanning to study joint action and seeking to avoid frequently raised concerns from hyperscanning skeptics. We focus specifically on Electroencephalography (EEG) hyperscanning, which is widely available and optimally suited for capturing fine-grained temporal dynamics of action coordination. Our guidelines cover questions that are likely to arise when planning a hyperscanning project, ranging from whether hyperscanning is appropriate for answering one's research questions to considerations for study design, dependent variable selection, data analysis and visualization. By following clear guidelines that facilitate careful consideration of the theoretical implications of research design choices and other methodological decisions, joint action researchers can mitigate interpretability issues and maximize the benefits of hyperscanning paradigms.

Working memory load impairs tacit coordination but not inter-brain EEG synchronization

Coordinating actions with others is thought to require Theory of Mind (ToM): the ability to take perspective by attributing underlying intentions and beliefs to observed behavior. However, researchers have yet to establish a causal role for specific cognitive processes in coordinated action. Since working memory load impairs ToM in single-participant paradigms, we tested whether load manipulation affects two-person coordination. We used EEG to measure P3, an assessment of working memory encoding, as well as inter-brain synchronization (IBS), which is thought to capture mutual adjustment of behavior and mental states during coordinated action. In a computerized coordination task, dyads were presented with novel abstract images and tried selecting the same image, with selections shown at the end of each trial. High working memory load was implemented by a concurrent n-back task. Compared with a low-load control condition, high load significantly diminished coordination performance and P3 amplitude. A significant relationship between P3 and performance was found. Load did not affect IBS, nor did IBS affect performance. These findings suggest a causal role for working memory in two-person coordination, adding to a growing body of evidence challenging earlier claims that social alignment is domain-specific and does not require executive control in adults.

Interpersonal neural synchronization during social interactions in close relationships: A systematic review and meta-analysis of fNIRS hyperscanning studies

In recent years, researchers have used hyperscanning techniques to explore how brains interact during various human activities. These studies have revealed a phenomenon called interpersonal neural synchronization (INS), but little research has focused on the overall effect of INS in close relationships. To address this gap, this study aims to synthesize and analyze the existing literature on INS during social interactions in close relationships. We conducted a meta-analysis of 17 functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) hyperscanning studies involving 1149 dyads participants, including romantic couples and parent-child dyads. The results revealed robust and consistent INS in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions of the brain and found similar INS patterns in couples and parent-child studies, providing solid empirical evidence for the attachment theory. Moreover, the age of children and brain areas were significant predictors of the effect size in parent-child research. The developmental stage of children and the mismatched development of brain structures might be the crucial factors for the difference in neural performance in social and cognitive behaviors in parent-child dyads.

Social Brain Perspectives on the Social and Evolutionary Neuroscience of Human Language

Human language and social cognition are two key disciplines that have traditionally been studied as separate domains. Nonetheless, an emerging view suggests an alternative perspective. Drawing on the theoretical underpinnings of the social brain hypothesis (thesis of the evolution of brain size and intelligence), the social complexity hypothesis (thesis of the evolution of communication), and empirical research from comparative animal behavior, human social behavior, language acquisition in children, social cognitive neuroscience, and the cognitive neuroscience of language, it is argued that social cognition and language are two significantly interconnected capacities of the human species. Here, evidence in support of this view reviews (1) recent developmental studies on language learning in infants and young children, pointing to the important crucial benefits associated with social stimulation for youngsters, including the quality and quantity of incoming linguistic information, dyadic infant/child-to-parent non-verbal and verbal interactions, and other important social cues integral for facilitating language learning and social bonding; (2) studies of the adult human brain, suggesting a high degree of specialization for sociolinguistic information processing, memory retrieval, and comprehension, suggesting that the function of these neural areas may connect social cognition with language and social bonding; (3) developmental deficits in language and social cognition, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD), illustrating a unique developmental profile, further linking language, social cognition, and social bonding; and (4) neural biomarkers that may help to identify early developmental disorders of language and social cognition. In effect, the social brain and social complexity hypotheses may jointly help to describe how neurotypical children and adults acquire language, why autistic children and adults exhibit simultaneous deficits in language and social cognition, and why nonhuman primates and other organisms with significant computational capacities cannot learn language. But perhaps most critically, the following article argues that this and related research will allow scientists to generate a holistic profile and deeper understanding of the healthy adult social brain while developing more innovative and effective diagnoses, prognoses, and treatments for maladies and deficits also associated with the social brain.

Alpha/beta oscillations reveal cognitive and affective brain states associated with role taking in a dyadic cooperative game

Social cooperation often requires taking different roles in order to reach a shared goal. By defining individual tasks, these roles dictate processing demands of the collaborators. The main aim of the present study was to examine the hypothesis that induced alpha and lower beta oscillations provide insights into affective and cognitive brain states during social cooperation. Toward this end, an experimental game was used in which participants had to navigate a Pacman figure through a maze by sending and receiving information about the correct moving direction. Supporting our hypotheses, individual roles taken by the collaborators during gameplay were associated with significant changes in alpha and lower beta power. Furthermore, effects were similar when participants played the Pacman Game with human or computer partners. Findings are discussed from the perspective of the information-via-desynchronization hypothesis proposing that alpha and lower beta power decreases reflect states of enhanced cortical information representation. Overall, experimental games are a useful tool for extending basic research on brain oscillations to the domain of naturalistic social interaction as emphasized by the second-person neuroscience perspective.

Mobile fNIRS for exploring inter-brain synchrony across generations and time

While still relatively rare, longitudinal hyperscanning studies are exceptionally valuable for documenting changes in inter-brain synchrony, which may in turn underpin how behaviors develop and evolve in social settings. The generalizability and ecological validity of this experimental approach hinges on the selected imaging technique being mobile-a requirement met by functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). fNIRS has most frequently been used to examine the development of inter-brain synchrony and behavior in child-parent dyads. In this position paper, we contend that dedicating attention to longitudinal and intergenerational hyperscanning stands to benefit the fields of social and cognitive neuroscience more broadly. We argue that this approach is particularly relevant for understanding the neural mechanisms underpinning intergenerational social dynamics, and potentially for benchmarking progress in psychological and social interventions, many of which are situated in intergenerational contexts. In line with our position, we highlight areas of intergenerational research that stand to be enhanced by longitudinal hyperscanning with mobile devices, describe challenges that may arise from measuring across generations in the real world, and offer potential solutions.

Quantification of inter-brain coupling: A review of current methods used in haemodynamic and electrophysiological hyperscanning studies

Hyperscanning is a form of neuroimaging experiment where the brains of two or more participants are imaged simultaneously whilst they interact. Within the domain of social neuroscience, hyperscanning is increasingly used to measure inter-brain coupling (IBC) and explore how brain responses change in tandem during social interaction. In addition to cognitive research, some have suggested that quantification of the interplay between interacting participants can be used as a biomarker for a variety of cognitive mechanisms aswell as to investigate mental health and developmental conditions including schizophrenia, social anxiety and autism. However, many different methods have been used to quantify brain coupling and this can lead to questions about comparability across studies and reduce research reproducibility. Here, we review methods for quantifying IBC, and suggest some ways moving forward. Following the PRISMA guidelines, we reviewed 215 hyperscanning studies, across four different brain imaging modalities: functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), functional magnetic resonance (fMRI), electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG). Overall, the review identified a total of 27 different methods used to compute IBC. The most common hyperscanning modality is fNIRS, used by 119 studies, 89 of which adopted wavelet coherence. Based on the results of this literature survey, we first report summary statistics of the hyperscanning field, followed by a brief overview of each signal that is obtained from each neuroimaging modality used in hyperscanning. We then discuss the rationale, assumptions and suitability of each method to different modalities which can be used to investigate IBC. Finally, we discuss issues surrounding the interpretation of each method.

Hyperscanning Studies on Interbrain Synchrony and Child Development: A Narrative Review

Social interactions between parents and children are closely linked with children's development, and interbrain synchrony has been shown to be a neural marker of social interaction. However, to truly capture the essence of social interactions through interbrain synchrony, it is necessary to simultaneously discuss the parental and child brains and adequately record neurological signals during parent-child interactions in interactive tasks. In the current review, we have reviewed three main contents. First, we discuss the correlation between parent-child interbrain synchrony and the development of cognitive (e.g., emotion regulation, attention, and learning) and behavioral abilities (e.g., cooperation, problem-solving) in children. Second, we examine the different neural mechanisms of interbrain synchrony in mother-child and father-child interactions, aiming to highlight the separate roles of mother and father in child development. Last, we have integrated four methods to enhance interbrain synchrony, including communication patterns, nonverbal behavior, music, and multichannel stimulation. A significant correlation exists between parent-child interbrain synchrony and the development of children's cognitive and behavioral abilities. This summary may be useful for expanding researchers' and practitioners' understanding of the ways in which parenting and the parent-child relationship shape children' cognitive and behavioral abilities.

Autonomic synchrony induced by hyperscanning interoception during interpersonal synchronization tasks

According to previous research, people influence each other's emotional states during social interactions via resonance mechanisms and coordinated autonomic rhythms. However, no previous studies tested if the manipulation of the interoceptive focus (focused attention on the breath for a given time interval) in hyperscanning during synchronized tasks may have an impact on autonomic synchrony. Thus, this study aims to assess the psychophysiological synchrony through autonomic measures recording during dyadic linguistic and motor synchronization tasks performed in two distinct interoceptive conditions: the focus and no focus on the breath condition. 26 participants coupled in 13 dyads were recruited. Individuals' autonomic measures [electrodermal: skin conductance level and response (SCL, SCR); cardiovascular indices: heart rate (HR) and HR variability (HRV)] was continuously monitored during the experiment and correlational coefficients were computed to analyze dyads physiological synchrony. Inter-subject analysis revealed higher synchrony for HR, HRV, SCL, and SCR values in the focus compared to no focus condition during the motor synchronization task and in general more for motor than linguistic task. Higher synchrony was also found for HR, SCL, and SCR values during focus than no focus condition in linguistic task. Overall, evidence suggests that the manipulation of the interoceptive focus has an impact on the autonomic synchrony during distinct synchronization tasks and for different autonomic measures. Such findings encourage the use of hyperscanning paradigms to assess the effect of breath awareness practices on autonomic synchrony in ecological and real-time conditions involving synchronization.

Inter-Brain Synchrony Pattern Investigation on Triadic Board Game Play-Based Social Interaction: An fNIRS Study

Recent advances in functional neuroimaging techniques, including methodologies such as fNIRS, have enabled the evaluation of inter-brain synchrony (IBS) induced by interpersonal interactions. However, the social interactions assumed in existing dyadic hyperscanning studies do not sufficiently emulate polyadic social interactions in the real world. Therefore, we devised an experimental paradigm that incorporates the Korean folk board game "Yut-nori" to reproduce social interactions that emulate social activities in the real world. We recruited 72 participants aged 25.2 ± 3.9 years (mean ± standard deviation) and divided them into 24 triads to play Yut-nori, following the standard or modified rules. The participants either competed against an opponent (standard rule) or cooperated with an opponent (modified rule) to achieve a goal efficiently. Three different fNIRS devices were employed to record cortical hemodynamic activations in the prefrontal cortex both individually and simultaneously. Wavelet transform coherence (WTC) analyses were performed to assess prefrontal IBS within a frequency range of 0.05-0.2 Hz. Consequently, we observed that cooperative interactions increased prefrontal IBS across overall frequency bands of interest. In addition, we also found that different purposes for cooperation generated different spectral characteristics of IBS depending on the frequency bands. Moreover, IBS in the frontopolar cortex (FPC) reflected the influence of verbal interactions. The findings of our study suggest that future hyperscanning studies should consider polyadic social interactions to reveal the properties of IBS in real-world interactions.

Why people engage in corrupt collaboration: an observation at the multi-brain level

Recent studies suggest that corrupt collaboration (i.e. acquiring private benefits with joint immoral acts) represents a dilemma between the honesty and reciprocity norms. In this study, we asked pairs of participants (labeled as A and B) to individually toss a coin and report their outcomes; their collective benefit could be maximized by dishonestly reporting (a corrupt behavior). As expected, the likelihood of corrupt behavior was high; this probability was negatively correlated with player A's moral judgment ability but positively correlated with player B's empathic concern (EC). Functional near-infrared spectroscopy data revealed that the brain-to-brain synchronization in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex was associated with fewer corrupt behaviors, and that it mediated the relationship between player A's moral judgment ability and corrupt collaboration. Meanwhile, the right temporal-parietal junction synchronization was associated with more corrupt behaviors, and that it mediated the relationship between player B's EC and corrupt collaboration. The roles of these 2 regions are interpreted according to the influence of the honesty and reciprocity norms on corrupt collaboration. In our opinion, these findings provide insight into the underlying mechanisms and modulating factors of corrupt collaboration.

Learning from others is good, with others is better: the role of social interaction in human acquisition of new knowledge

Learning in humans is highly embedded in social interaction: since the very early stages of our lives, we form memories and acquire knowledge about the world from and with others. Yet, within cognitive science and neuroscience, human learning is mainly studied in isolation. The focus of past research in learning has been either exclusively on the learner or (less often) on the teacher, with the primary aim of determining developmental trajectories and/or effective teaching techniques. In fact, social interaction has rarely been explicitly taken as a variable of interest, despite being the medium through which learning occurs, especially in development, but also in adulthood. Here, we review behavioural and neuroimaging research on social human learning, specifically focusing on cognitive models of how we acquire semantic knowledge from and with others, and include both developmental as well as adult work. We then identify potential cognitive mechanisms that support social learning, and their neural correlates. The aim is to outline key new directions for experiments investigating how knowledge is acquired in its ecological niche, i.e. socially, within the framework of the two-person neuroscience approach. This article is part of the theme issue 'Concepts in interaction: social engagement and inner experiences'.

Multimodal Approach for Characterizing the Quality of Parent-Child Interaction: A Single Synchronization Source May Not Tell the Whole Story

The interaction between the parent and child is essential for the child's cognitive and emotional development and sets the path for future well-being. These interactions, starting from birth, are necessary for providing the sensory stimulation the child needs in the critical time window of brain development. The characterization of parent-child interactions is traditionally performed by human decoding. This approach is considered the leading and most accurate way of characterizing the quality of these interactions. However, the development of computational tools and especially the concept of parent-child synchronization opened up an additional source of data characterizing these interactions in an objective, less human-labor manner. Such sources include brain-to-brain, voice/speech, eye contact, motor, and heart-rate synchronization. However, can a single source synchronization dataset accurately represent parent-child interaction? Will attending to the same stimulation, often resulting in a higher brain-to-brain synchronization, be considered an interactive condition? In this perspective, we will try to convey a new concept of the child-parent interaction synchronization (CHIPS) matrix, which includes the different sources of signals generated during an interaction. Such a model may assist in explaining the source of interaction alterations in the case of child/parent developmental/emotional or sensory deficits and may open up new ways of assessing interventions and changes in parent-child interactions along development. We will discuss this interaction during one of the parent-child joint activities providing opportunities for interaction, i.e., storytelling.

multiSyncPy: A Python package for assessing multivariate coordination dynamics

In order to support the burgeoning field of research into intra- and interpersonal synchrony, we present an open-source software package: multiSyncPy. Multivariate synchrony goes beyond the bivariate case and can be useful for quantifying how groups, teams, and families coordinate their behaviors, or estimating the degree to which multiple modalities from an individual become synchronized. Our package includes state-of-the-art multivariate methods including symbolic entropy, multidimensional recurrence quantification analysis, coherence (with an additional sum-normalized modification), the cluster-phase 'Rho' metric, and a statistical test based on the Kuramoto order parameter. We also include functions for two surrogation techniques to compare the observed coordination dynamics with chance levels and a windowing function to examine time-varying coordination for most of the measures. Taken together, our collation and presentation of these methods make the study of interpersonal synchronization and coordination dynamics applicable to larger, more complex and often more ecologically valid study designs. In this work, we summarize the relevant theoretical background and present illustrative practical examples, lessons learned, as well as guidance for the usage of our package - using synthetic as well as empirical data. Furthermore, we provide a discussion of our work and software and outline interesting further directions and perspectives. multiSyncPy is freely available under the LGPL license at: https://github.com/cslab-hub/multiSyncPy , and also available at the Python package index.

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy is a useful tool for multi-perspective psychobiological study of neurophysiological correlates of parenting behaviour

The quality of the relationship between caregiver and child has long-term effects on the cognitive and socio-emotional development of children. A process involved in human parenting is the bio-behavioural synchrony that occurs between the partners in the relationship during interaction. Through interaction, bio-behavioural synchronicity allows the adaptation of the physiological systems of the parent to those of the child and promotes the positive development and modelling of the child's social brain. The role of bio-behavioural synchrony in building social bonds could be investigated using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). In this paper we have (a) highlighted the importance of the quality of the caregiver-child relationship for the child's cognitive and socio-emotional development, as well as the relevance of infantile stimuli in the activation of parenting behaviour; (b) discussed the tools used in the study of the neurophysiological substrates of the parental response; (c) proposed fNIRS as a particularly suitable tool for the study of parental responses; and (d) underlined the need for a multi-systemic psychobiological approach to understand the mechanisms that regulate caregiver-child interactions and their bio-behavioural synchrony. We propose to adopt a multi-system psychobiological approach to the study of parental behaviour and social interaction.

Playing the mirror game in virtual reality with an autonomous character

Perceptual-motor synchronisation in human groups is crucial in many activities, from musical ensembles to sports teams. To this aim, the mirror game, where partners are asked to imitate each other's movements or gestures, is one of the best available experimental paradigms to study how humans engage in joint tasks and how they tend to synchronise their behaviour. However, to date, virtual reality characters do not engage in motor synchronisation with human users. In this work, we explored to what extent an autonomous virtual character and a human that play the mirror game in virtual reality can synchronise their behaviour. We created a full-body version of the mirror game with an autonomous virtual character, whose movements were driven by a model based on coupled oscillators. Participants engaged in a joint imitation task with a virtual player animated with one of three options: a model that included a small coupling, a model with no coupling, or another human. Behavioural measures and subjective reports suggest that participants were unable to distinguish the condition of small coupling from the engagement with an avatar driven by another human participant.

Recent Trends in Non-invasive Neural Recording Based Brain-to-Brain Synchrony Analysis on Multidisciplinary Human Interactions for Understanding Brain Dynamics: A Systematic Review

The study of brain-to-brain synchrony has a burgeoning application in the brain-computer interface (BCI) research, offering valuable insights into the neural underpinnings of interacting human brains using numerous neural recording technologies. The area allows exploring the commonality of brain dynamics by evaluating the neural synchronization among a group of people performing a specified task. The growing number of publications on brain-to-brain synchrony inspired the authors to conduct a systematic review using the PRISMA protocol so that future researchers can get a comprehensive understanding of the paradigms, methodologies, translational algorithms, and challenges in the area of brain-to-brain synchrony research. This review has gone through a systematic search with a specified search string and selected some articles based on pre-specified eligibility criteria. The findings from the review revealed that most of the articles have followed the social psychology paradigm, while 36% of the selected studies have an application in cognitive neuroscience. The most applied approach to determine neural connectivity is a coherence measure utilizing phase-locking value (PLV) in the EEG studies, followed by wavelet transform coherence (WTC) in all of the fNIRS studies. While most of the experiments have control experiments as a part of their setup, a small number implemented algorithmic control, and only one study had interventional or a stimulus-induced control experiment to limit spurious synchronization. Hence, to the best of the authors' knowledge, this systematic review solely contributes to critically evaluating the scopes and technological advances of brain-to-brain synchrony to allow this discipline to produce more effective research outcomes in the remote future.

Systemic physiology augmented functional near-infrared spectroscopy hyperscanning: a first evaluation investigating entrainment of spontaneous activity of brain and body physiology between subjects

Significance: Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) enables measuring the brain activity of two subjects while they interact, i.e., the hyperscanning approach. Aim: In our exploratory study, we extended classical fNIRS hyperscanning by adding systemic physiological measures to obtain systemic physiology augmented fNIRS (SPA-fNIRS) hyperscanning while blocking and not blocking the visual communication between the subjects. This approach enables access brain-to-brain, brain-to-body, and body-to-body coupling between the subjects simultaneously. Approach: Twenty-four pairs of subjects participated in the experiment. The paradigm consisted of two subjects that sat in front of each other and had their eyes closed for 10 min, followed by a phase of 10 min where they made eye contact. Brain and body activity was measured continuously by SPA-fNIRS. Results: Our study shows that making eye contact for a prolonged time causes significant changes in brain-to-brain, brain-to-body, and body-to-body coupling, indicating that eye contact is followed by entrainment of the physiology between subjects. Subjects that knew each other generally showed a larger trend to change between the two conditions. Conclusions: The main point of this study is to introduce a new framework to investigate brain-to-brain, body-to-body, and brain-to-body coupling through a simple social experimental paradigm. The study revealed that eye contact leads to significant synchronization of spontaneous activity of the brain and body physiology. Our study is the first that employed the SPA-fNIRS approach and showed its usefulness to investigate complex interpersonal physiological changes.

A Two-Person Neuroscience Approach for Social Anxiety: A Paradigm With Interbrain Synchrony and Neurofeedback

Social anxiety disorder has been widely recognised as one of the most commonly diagnosed mental disorders. Individuals with social anxiety disorder experience difficulties during social interactions that are essential in the regular functioning of daily routines; perpetually motivating research into the aetiology, maintenance and treatment methods. Traditionally, social and clinical neuroscience studies incorporated protocols testing one participant at a time. However, it has been recently suggested that such protocols are unable to directly assess social interaction performance, which can be revealed by testing multiple individuals simultaneously. The principle of two-person neuroscience highlights the interpersonal aspect of social interactions that observes behaviour and brain activity from both (or all) constituents of the interaction, rather than analysing on an individual level or an individual observation of a social situation. Therefore, two-person neuroscience could be a promising direction for assessment and intervention of the social anxiety disorder. In this paper, we propose a novel paradigm which integrates two-person neuroscience in a neurofeedback protocol. Neurofeedback and interbrain synchrony, a branch of two-person neuroscience, are discussed in their own capacities for their relationship with social anxiety disorder and relevance to the paradigm. The newly proposed paradigm sets out to assess the social interaction performance using interbrain synchrony between interacting individuals, and to employ a multi-user neurofeedback protocol for intervention of the social anxiety.

Greater Social Competence Is Associated With Higher Interpersonal Neural Synchrony in Adolescents With Autism

Difficulty engaging in reciprocal social interactions is a core characteristic of autism spectrum disorder. The mechanisms supporting effective dynamic real-time social exchanges are not yet well understood. This proof-of-concept hyperscanning electroencephalography study examined neural synchrony as the mechanism supporting interpersonal social interaction in 34 adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (50% female), age 10-16 years, paired with neurotypical confederates of similar age. The degree of brain-to-brain neural synchrony was quantified at temporo-parietal scalp locations as the circular correlation of oscillatory amplitudes in theta, alpha, and beta frequency bands while the participants engaged in a friendly conversation. In line with the hypotheses, interpersonal neural synchrony was significantly greater during the social interaction compared to the baseline. Lower levels of synchrony were associated with increased behavioral symptoms of social difficulties. With regard to sex differences, we found evidence for stronger interpersonal neural synchrony during conversation than baseline in females with autism, but not in male participants, for whom such condition differences did not reach statistical significance. This study established the feasibility of hyperscanning during real-time social interactions as an informative approach to examine social competence in autism, demonstrated that neural coordination of activity between the interacting brains may contribute to social behavior, and offered new insights into sex-related variability in social functioning in individuals with autism spectrum disorders.

Towards a model of language neurobiology in early development

Understanding language neurobiology in early childhood is essential for characterizing the developmental structural and functional changes that lead to the mature adult language network. In the last two decades, the field of language neurodevelopment has received increasing attention, particularly given the rapid advances in the implementation of neuroimaging techniques and analytic approaches that allow detailed investigations into the developing brain across a variety of cognitive domains. These methodological and analytical advances hold the promise of developing early markers of language outcomes that allow diagnosis and clinical interventions at the earliest stages of development. Here, we argue that findings in language neurobiology need to be integrated within an approach that captures the dynamic nature and inherent variability that characterizes the developing brain and the interplay between behavior and (structural and functional) neural patterns. Accordingly, we describe a framework for understanding language neurobiology in early development, which minimally requires an explicit characterization of the following core domains: i) computations underlying language learning mechanisms, ii) developmental patterns of change across neural and behavioral measures, iii) environmental variables that reinforce language learning (e.g., the social context), and iv) brain maturational constraints for optimal neural plasticity, which determine the infant's sensitivity to learning from the environment. We discuss each of these domains in the context of recent behavioral and neuroimaging findings and consider the need for quantitatively modeling two main sources of variation: individual differences or trait-like patterns of variation and within-subject differences or state-like patterns of variation. The goal is to enable models that allow prediction of language outcomes from neural measures that take into account these two types of variation. Finally, we examine how future methodological approaches would benefit from the inclusion of more ecologically valid paradigms that complement and allow generalization of traditional controlled laboratory methods.

A unifying mechanism governing inter-brain neural relationship during social interactions

A key goal of social neuroscience is to understand the inter-brain neural relationship-the relationship between the neural activity of socially interacting individuals. Decades of research investigating this relationship have focused on the similarity in neural activity across brains. Here, we instead asked how neural activity differs between brains, and how that difference evolves alongside activity patterns shared between brains. Applying this framework to bats engaged in spontaneous social interactions revealed two complementary phenomena characterizing the inter-brain neural relationship: fast fluctuations of activity difference across brains unfolding in parallel with slow activity covariation across brains. A model reproduced these observations and generated multiple predictions that we confirmed using experimental data involving pairs of bats and a larger social group of bats. The model suggests that a simple computational mechanism involving positive and negative feedback could explain diverse experimental observations regarding the inter-brain neural relationship.

What has social neuroscience learned from hyperscanning studies of spoken communication? A systematic review

A growing body of literature examining the neurocognitive processes of interpersonal linguistic interaction indicates the emergence of neural alignment as participants engage in oral communication. However, questions have arisen whether the study results can be interpreted beyond observations of cortical functionality and extended to the mutual understanding between communicators. This review presents evidence from electroencephalography (EEG) and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) hyperscanning studies of interbrain synchrony (IBS) in which participants communicated via spoken language. The studies are classified into: knowledge sharing; turn-taking speech co-ordination; cooperation, problem-solving and creativity; and naturalistic discussion paradigms according to the type of interaction specified in each study. Alignment predominantly occurred in the frontal and temporo-parietal areas, which may reflect activation of the mirror and mentalizing systems. We argue that the literature presents a significant contribution to advancing our understanding of IBS and mutual understanding between communicators. We end with suggestions for future research, including analytical approaches and experimental conditions and hypothesize that brain-inspired neural networks are promising techniques for better understanding of IBS through hyperscanning.

Modularity maximization as a flexible and generic framework for brain network exploratory analysis

The modular structure of brain networks supports specialized information processing, complex dynamics, and cost-efficient spatial embedding. Inter-individual variation in modular structure has been linked to differences in performance, disease, and development. There exist many data-driven methods for detecting and comparing modular structure, the most popular of which is modularity maximization. Although modularity maximization is a general framework that can be modified and reparamaterized to address domain-specific research questions, its application to neuroscientific datasets has, thus far, been narrow. Here, we highlight several strategies in which the "out-of-the-box" version of modularity maximization can be extended to address questions specific to neuroscience. First, we present approaches for detecting "space-independent" modules and for applying modularity maximization to signed matrices. Next, we show that the modularity maximization frame is well-suited for detecting task- and condition-specific modules. Finally, we highlight the role of multi-layer models in detecting and tracking modules across time, tasks, subjects, and modalities. In summary, modularity maximization is a flexible and general framework that can be adapted to detect modular structure resulting from a wide range of hypotheses. This article highlights multiple frontiers for future research and applications.

Proximity and touch are associated with neural but not physiological synchrony in naturalistic mother-infant interactions

Caregiver touch plays a vital role in infants' growth and development, but its role as a communicative signal in human parent-infant interactions is surprisingly poorly understood. Here, we assessed whether touch and proximity in caregiver-infant dyads are related to neural and physiological synchrony. We simultaneously measured brain activity and respiratory sinus arrhythmia of 4-6-month-old infants and their mothers (N=69 dyads) in distal and proximal joint watching conditions as well as in an interactive face-to-face condition. Neural synchrony was higher during the proximal than during the distal joint watching conditions, and even higher during the face-to-face interaction. Physiological synchrony was highest during the face-to-face interaction and lower in both joint watching conditions, irrespective of proximity. Maternal affectionate touch during the face-to-face interaction was positively related to neural but not physiological synchrony. This is the first evidence that touch mediates mutual attunement of brain activities, but not cardio-respiratory rhythms in caregiver-infant dyads during naturalistic interactions. Our results also suggest that neural synchrony serves as a biological pathway of how social touch plays into infant development and how this pathway could be utilized to support infant learning and social bonding.

Is there collaboration specific neurophysiological activation during collaborative task activity? An analysis of brain responses using electroencephalography and hyperscanning

Collaboration between two individuals is thought to be associated with the synchrony of two different brain activities. Indeed, prefrontal cortical activation and alpha frequency band modulation has been widely reported, but little is known about interbrain synchrony (IBS) changes occurring during social interaction such as collaboration or competition. In this study, we assess the dynamic of IBS variation in order to provide novel insights into the frequency band modulation underlying collaboration. To address this question, we used electroencephalography (EEG) to simultaneously record the brain activity of two individuals playing a computer-based game facing four different conditions: collaboration, competition, single participation, and passive observation. The computer-based game consisted of a fast button response task. Using data recorded in sensor space, we calculated an IBS value for each frequency band using both wavelet coherence transform and phase-locking value and performed single-subject analysis to compare each condition. We found significant IBS in frontal electrodes only present during collaboration associated with alpha frequency band modulation. In addition, we observed significant IBS in the theta frequency band for both collaboration and competition conditions, along with a significant single-subject cortical activity. Competition is distinguishable through single-subject activity in several regions and frequency bands of the brain. Performance is correlated with single-subject frontal activation during collaboration in the alpha and beta frequency band.

Probing associations between interbrain synchronization and interpersonal action coordination during guitar playing

Playing music in an ensemble is a highly coordinated human action involving musicians' brain-body interactions at different levels of physical and cortical organization in time and space. It has been suggested that interbrain phase synchronization plays an essential role in musical interaction. In this study, we aimed to explore associations between interbrain synchronization and interpersonal action coordination, using electroencephalographic recordings of the brain activity of guitarists playing in a duet as well as the acoustic recordings of their music. By applying phase synchronization algorithms to the musicians' brain activities and the sounds produced during guitar playing, we show that synchronous brain activity is strongly related to instrument sounds and behavioral play-onset synchrony, as indicated by phase alignment in relation to the time differences in play onsets and an angular-linear correlation between phase and time differences across trials and guitarist pairs. Interestingly, this correlation was especially strong in the first part of the music piece, when the guitarists seem to adjust their coordinated play onsets and brain rhythms actively. This suggests that the methods capturing intra- and interbrain synchronization and its relations to coordinated playing provide crucial information about the underlying mechanisms of interpersonal action coordination.

Using the Ecological Validity Model to adapt parent-involved interventions for children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in the Latinx community: A conceptual review

BACKGROUND

Parent involvement in interventions for children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) provides parents with education about ASD diagnosis and treatment, improves parent-child interactions, and offers access to cost-effective resources. The Latinx population represents the fastest growing minority population in the United States and a growing percentage of children seeking ASD intervention services.

AIMS

Identify factors that impact Latinx parent involvement in interventions for children with ASD as an example of cultural considerations for diverse families and communities.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

In this conceptual overview, we synthesize literature on cultural considerations for intervention design/adaptation for Latinx families and parent involvement in interventions for children with ASD through the lens of the Ecological Validity Model.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

Frameworks such as the Ecological Validity Model can be used when creating or adapting interventions for specific cultural groups. Parent-involved interventions for children with ASD in the Latinx community should consider language of intervention delivery, family make-up, community support, disability knowledge of the family, the therapeutic alliance, and methods of implementation.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Incorporating cultural components into parent-involved interventions will best support intervention implementation and dissemination in diverse communities. Research is needed into the process and outcomes of intervention programs in order to increase understanding of how specific cultural dimensions impact participation in and efficacy of parent-involved interventions for Latinx families of children with ASD.

A hierarchical model for interpersonal verbal communication

The ability to use language makes us human. For decades, researchers have been racking their minds to understand the relation between language and the human brain. Nevertheless, most previous neuroscientific research has investigated this issue from a ‘single-brain’ perspective, thus neglecting the nature of interpersonal communication through language. With the development of modern hyperscanning techniques, researchers have begun probing the neurocognitive processes underlying interpersonal verbal communication and have examined the involvement of interpersonal neural synchronization (INS) in communication. However, in most cases, the neurocognitive processes underlying INS are obscure. To tentatively address this issue, we propose herein a hierarchical model based on the findings from a growing amount of hyperscanning research. We suggest that three levels of neurocognitive processes are primarily involved in interpersonal verbal communication and are closely associated with distinctive patterns of INS. Different levels of these processes modulate each other bidirectionally. Furthermore, we argued that two processes (shared representation and interpersonal predictive coding) might coexist and work together at each level to facilitate successful interpersonal verbal communication. We hope this model will inspire further innovative research in several directions within the fields of social and cognitive neuroscience.

Windowed multiscale synchrony: modeling time-varying and scale-localized interpersonal coordination dynamics

Social interactions are pervasive in human life with varying forms of interpersonal coordination emerging and spanning different modalities (e.g. behaviors, speech/language, and neurophysiology). However, during social interactions, as in any dynamical system, patterns of coordination form and dissipate at different scales. Historically, researchers have used aggregate measures to capture coordination over time. While those measures (e.g. mean relative phase, cross-correlation, coherence) have provided a wealth of information about coordination in social settings, some evidence suggests that multiscale coordination may change over the time course of a typical empirical observation. To address this gap, we demonstrate an underutilized method, windowed multiscale synchrony, that moves beyond quantifying aggregate measures of coordination by focusing on how the relative strength of coordination changes over time and the scales that comprise social interaction. This method involves using a wavelet transform to decompose time series into component frequencies (i.e. scales), preserving temporal information and then quantifying phase synchronization at each of these scales. We apply this method to both simulated and empirical interpersonal physiological and neuromechanical data. We anticipate that demonstrating this method will stimulate new insights on the mechanisms and functions of synchrony in interpersonal contexts using neurophysiological and behavioral measures.

Interactive brains, social minds: Neural and physiological mechanisms of interpersonal action coordination

It is now widely accepted that inter-brain synchronization is an important and inevitable mechanism of interpersonal action coordination and social interaction behavior. This review of the current literature focuses first on the forward model for interpersonal action coordination and functional system theory for biological systems, two broadly similar concepts for adaptive system behavior. Further, we review interacting-brain and/or hyper-brain dynamics studies, to show the interplay between intra- and inter-brain connectivity resulting in hyper-brain network structure and network topology dynamics, and consider the functioning of interacting brains as a superordinate system. The concept of a superordinate system, or superorganism, is then evaluated with respect to neuronal and physiological systems group dynamics, which show further accompanying mechanisms of interpersonal interaction. We note that fundamental problems need to be resolved to better understand the neural mechanisms of interpersonal action coordination.

Neural synchrony in mother-child conversation: Exploring the role of conversation patterns

Conversations are an essential form of communication in daily family life. Specific patterns of caregiver–child conversations have been linked to children’s socio-cognitive development and child-relationship quality beyond the immediate family environment. Recently, interpersonal neural synchronization has been proposed as a neural mechanism supporting conversation. Here, we present a functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) hyperscanning study looking at the temporal dynamics of neural synchrony during mother–child conversation. Preschoolers (20 boys and 20 girls, M age 5;07 years) and their mothers (M age 36.37 years) were tested simultaneously with fNIRS hyperscanning while engaging in a free verbal conversation lasting for 4 min. Neural synchrony (using wavelet transform coherence analysis) was assessed over time. Furthermore, each conversational turn was coded for conversation patterns comprising turn-taking, relevance, contingency and intrusiveness. Results from linear mixed-effects modeling revealed that turn-taking, but not relevance, contingency or intrusiveness predicted neural synchronization during the conversation over time. Results are discussed to point out possible variables affecting parent–child conversation quality and the potential functional role of interpersonal neural synchronization for parent–child conversation.

A Guide to Parent-Child fNIRS Hyperscanning Data Processing and Analysis

The use of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) hyperscanning during naturalistic interactions in parent–child dyads has substantially advanced our understanding of the neurobiological underpinnings of human social interaction. However, despite the rise of developmental hyperscanning studies over the last years, analysis procedures have not yet been standardized and are often individually developed by each research team. This article offers a guide on parent–child fNIRS hyperscanning data analysis in MATLAB and R. We provide an example dataset of 20 dyads assessed during a cooperative versus individual problem-solving task, with brain signal acquired using 16 channels located over bilateral frontal and temporo-parietal areas. We use MATLAB toolboxes Homer2 and SPM for fNIRS to preprocess the acquired brain signal data and suggest a standardized procedure. Next, we calculate interpersonal neural synchrony between dyads using Wavelet Transform Coherence (WTC) and illustrate how to run a random pair analysis to control for spurious correlations in the signal. We then use RStudio to estimate Generalized Linear Mixed Models (GLMM) to account for the bounded distribution of coherence values for interpersonal neural synchrony analyses. With this guide, we hope to offer advice for future parent–child fNIRS hyperscanning investigations and to enhance replicability within the field.

A Methodological Framework for Assessing Social Presence in Music Interactions in Virtual Reality

Virtual reality (VR) brings radical new possibilities to the empirical study of social music cognition and interaction. In the present article, we consider the role of VR as a research tool, based on its potential to create a sense of "social presence": the illusory feeling of being, and socially interacting, inside a virtual environment. This makes VR promising for bridging ecological validity ("research in the wild") and experimental control ("research in the lab") in empirical music research. A critical assumption however is the actual ability of VR to simulate real-life social interactions, either via human-embodied avatars or computer-controlled agents. The mediation of social musical interactions via VR is particularly challenging due to their embodied, complex, and emotionally delicate nature. In this article, we introduce a methodological framework to operationalize social presence by a combination of factors across interrelated layers, relating to the performance output, embodied co-regulation, and subjective experiences. This framework provides the basis for the proposal of a pragmatic approach to determine the level of social presence in virtual musical interactions, by comparing the outcomes across the multiple layers with the outcomes of corresponding real-life musical interactions. We applied and tested this pragmatic approach via a case-study of piano duet performances of the piece Piano Phase composed by Steve Reich. This case-study indicated that a piano duet performed in VR, in which the real-time interaction between pianists is mediated by embodied avatars, might lead to a strong feeling of social presence, as reflected in the measures of performance output, embodied co-regulation, and subjective experience. In contrast, although a piano duet in VR between an actual pianist and a computer-controlled agent led to a relatively successful performance output, it was inadequate in terms of both embodied co-regulation and subjective experience.

Brain hemodynamic response in Examiner-Examinee dyads during spatial short-term memory task: an fNIRS study

The Corsi Block-Tapping test (CBT) is a measure of spatial working memory (WM) in clinical practice, requiring an examinee to reproduce sequences of cubes tapped by an examiner. CBT implies complementary behaviors in the examiners and the examinees, as they have to attend a precise turn taking. Previous studies demonstrated that the Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) is activated during CBT, but scarce evidence is available on the neural correlates of CBT in the real setting. We assessed PFC activity in dyads of examiner–examinee participants while completing the real version of CBT, during conditions of increasing and exceeding workload. This procedure allowed to investigate whether brain activity in the dyads is coordinated. Results in the examinees showed that PFC activity was higher when the workload approached or reached participants’ spatial WM span, and lower during workload conditions that were largely below or above their span. Interestingly, findings in the examiners paralleled the ones in the examinees, as examiners’ brain activity increased and decreased in a similar way as the examinees’ one. In the examiners, higher left-hemisphere activity was observed suggesting the likely activation of non-spatial WM processes. Data support a bell-shaped relationship between cognitive load and brain activity, and provide original insights on the cognitive processes activated in the examiner during CBT.

Gratitude Affects Inter-Subjective Synchronicity for Cognitive Performance and Autonomic Responsiveness

Recently, social neurosciences have been interested in the investigation of neurophysiological responses related to the experience of positive emotions, such as gratitude, during social interactions. Specifically, the aim of the present research was to investigate whether gratitude related to gift exchange could favor cooperative behavior and bond construction, by improving behavioral and autonomic responsivity. At this regard, the autonomic synchronization and behavioral performance of 16 friends coupled in dyads were recorded during a joint attentional task. Gift exchange could be occurred either at the beginning or in the middle of the task. For the recording of simultaneous autonomic activity [heart rate (HR) and skin conductance level (SCL)], a hyperscanning biofeedback paradigm was used. Intra-subjective analysis showed an increase in behavioral [accuracy (ACC)] and autonomic responses (HR and SCL) when the gift exchange took place at the beginning of the task rather than in the middle. Moreover, inter-subjective analysis revealed an increase in behavioral performance and greater autonomic synchronization of HR index. The present research, therefore, shows how gratitude and trust experienced following gift exchange can modify participants’ reactions by creating a shared cognition and the adoption of joint strategies.

Leadership and tempo perturbation affect coordination in medium-sized groups

In marching bands, sports, dance and virtually all human group behaviour, we coordinate our actions with others. Coordinating actions in time and space can act as a social glue, facilitating bonding among people. However, much of our understanding about coordination dynamics is based on research into dyadic interactions. Little is known about the nature of the sensorimotor underpinnings and social bonding outcomes of coordination in medium-sized groups-the type of groups, in which most everyday teamwork takes place. In this study, we explored how the presence of a leader and an unexpected perturbation influence coordination and cohesion in a naturalistic setting. In groups of seven, participants were instructed to walk in time to an auditory pacing signal. We found that the presence of a reliable leader enhanced coordination with the target tempo, which was disrupted when the leader abruptly changed their movement tempo. This effect was not observed on coordination with the group members. Moreover, participants' perceptions of being a follower and group cooperativeness increased in the presence of a leader. This study extends our knowledge about coordination beyond previous work on dyads. We discuss our results in light of sensorimotor coupling and social cohesion theories of coordination in groups.

Dual brain stimulation enhances interpersonal learning through spontaneous movement synchrony

Social interactive learning denotes the ability to acquire new information from a conspecific-a prerequisite for cultural evolution and survival. As inspired by recent neurophysiological research, here we tested whether social interactive learning can be augmented by exogenously synchronizing oscillatory brain activity across an instructor and a learner engaged in a naturalistic song-learning task. We used a dual brain stimulation protocol entailing the trans-cranial delivery of synchronized electric currents in two individuals simultaneously. When we stimulated inferior frontal brain regions, with 6 Hz alternating currents being in-phase between the instructor and the learner, the dyad exhibited spontaneous and synchronized body movement. Remarkably, this stimulation also led to enhanced learning performance. These effects were both phase- and frequency-specific: 6 Hz anti-phase stimulation or 10 Hz in-phase stimulation, did not yield comparable results. Furthermore, a mediation analysis disclosed that interpersonal movement synchrony acted as a partial mediator of the effect of dual brain stimulation on learning performance, i.e. possibly facilitating the effect of dual brain stimulation on learning. Our results provide a causal demonstration that inter-brain synchronization is a sufficient condition to improve real-time information transfer between pairs of individuals.

HyPyP: a Hyperscanning Python Pipeline for inter-brain connectivity analysis

The bulk of social neuroscience takes a 'stimulus-brain' approach, typically comparing brain responses to different types of social stimuli, but most of the time in the absence of direct social interaction. Over the last two decades, a growing number of researchers have adopted a 'brain-to-brain' approach, exploring similarities between brain patterns across participants as a novel way to gain insight into the social brain. This methodological shift has facilitated the introduction of naturalistic social stimuli into the study design (e.g. movies) and, crucially, has spurred the development of new tools to directly study social interaction, both in controlled experimental settings and in more ecologically valid environments. Specifically, 'hyperscanning' setups, which allow the simultaneous recording of brain activity from two or more individuals during social tasks, has gained popularity in recent years. However, currently, there is no agreed-upon approach to carry out such 'inter-brain connectivity analysis', resulting in a scattered landscape of analysis techniques. To accommodate a growing demand to standardize analysis approaches in this fast-growing research field, we have developed Hyperscanning Python Pipeline, a comprehensive and easy open-source software package that allows (social) neuroscientists to carry-out and to interpret inter-brain connectivity analyses.

Capturing Human Interaction in the Virtual Age: A Perspective on the Future of fNIRS Hyperscanning

Advances in video conferencing capabilities combined with dramatic socio-dynamic shifts brought about by COVID-19, have redefined the ways in which humans interact in modern society. From business meetings to medical exams, or from classroom instruction to yoga class, virtual interfacing has permeated nearly every aspect of our daily lives. A seemingly endless stream of technological advances combined with our newfound reliance on virtual interfacing makes it likely that humans will continue to use this modern form of social interaction into the future. However, emergent evidence suggests that virtual interfacing may not be equivalent to face-to-face interactions. Ultimately, too little is currently understood about the mechanisms that underlie human interactions over the virtual divide, including how these mechanisms differ from traditional face-to-face interaction. Here, we propose functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) hyperscanning-simultaneous measurement of two or more brains-as an optimal approach to quantify potential neurocognitive differences between virtual and in-person interactions. We argue that increased focus on this understudied domain will help elucidate the reasons why virtual conferencing doesn't always stack up to in-person meetings and will also serve to spur new technologies designed to improve the virtual interaction experience. On the basis of existing fNIRS hyperscanning literature, we highlight the current gaps in research regarding virtual interactions. Furthermore, we provide insight into current hurdles regarding fNIRS hyperscanning hardware and methodology that should be addressed in order to shed light on this newly critical element of everyday life.

Clinician-Patient Movement Synchrony Mediates Social Group Effects on Interpersonal Trust and Perceived Pain

Pain is an unfortunate consequence of many medical procedures, which in some patients becomes chronic and debilitating. Among the factors affecting medical pain, clinician-patient (C-P) similarity and nonverbal communication are particularly important for pain diagnosis and treatment. Participants (N = 66) were randomly assigned to clinician and patient roles and were grouped into C-P dyads. Clinicians administered painful stimuli to patients as an analogue of a painful medical procedure. We manipulated the perceived C-P similarity of each dyad using groups ostensibly based on shared beliefs and values, and each patient was tested twice: Once with a same group clinician (concordant, CC) and once with a clinician from the other group (discordant, DC). Movement synchrony was calculated as a marker of nonverbal communication. We tested whether movement synchrony mediated the effects of group concordance on patients' pain and trust in the clinician. Movement synchrony was higher in CC than DC dyads. Higher movement synchrony predicted reduced pain and increased trust in the clinician. Movement synchrony also formally mediated the group concordance effects on pain and trust. These findings increase our understanding of the role of nonverbal C-P communication on pain and related outcomes. Interpersonal synchrony may be associated with better pain outcomes, independent of the specific treatment provided. PERSPECTIVE: This article demonstrates that movement synchrony in C-P interactions is an unobtrusive measure related to their relationship quality, trust toward the clinician, and pain. These findings suggest that interpersonal synchrony may be associated with better patient outcomes, independent of the specific treatment provided.