Recombinant human GLP-1 beinaglutide regulates lipid metabolism of adipose tissues in diet-induced obese mice

Unlocking the multifaceted roles of GLP-1: Physiological functions and therapeutic potential

Glucagon (GCG) like peptide 1 (GLP-1) has emerged as a powerful player in regulating metabolism and a promising therapeutic target for various chronic diseases. This review delves into the physiological roles of GLP-1, exploring its impact on glucose homeostasis, insulin secretion, and satiety. We examine the compelling evidence supporting GLP-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) in managing type 2 diabetes (T2D), obesity, and other diseases. The intricate molecular mechanisms underlying GLP-1RAs are explored, including their interactions with pathways like extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), activated protein kinase (AMPK), cyclic adenine monophosphate (cAMP), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and protein kinase C (PKC). Expanding our understanding, the review investigates the potential role of GLP-1 in cancers. Also, microribonucleic acid (RNA) (miRNAs), critical regulators of gene expression, are introduced as potential modulators of GLP-1 signaling. We delve into the link between miRNAs and T2D obesity and explore specific miRNA examples influencing GLP-1R function. Finally, the review explores the rationale for seeking alternatives to GLP-1RAs and highlights natural products with promising GLP-1 modulatory effects.

The effects of Beinaglutide on obesity and related factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Considering the important role of obesity and related factors in different societies on increasing the burden of non-communicable diseases, in this review we will investigate the possible effects of Beinaglutide on these risk factors.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

In order to identify all randomized controlled trials that investigated the effects of Beinaglutide on cardiometabolic factors, a systematic search was conducted in the original databases using predefined keywords until July 2024. The pooled weighted mean difference (WMD) and 95% confidence intervals were computed using the random-effects model.

RESULTS

   A quantitative meta-analysis results from seven studies with 872 participants showed that Beinaglutide has a significant lowering effect on weight (WMD: -3.74 kg; 95% CI: -5.03, -2.45), body mass index (BMI) (WMD:-1.64 kg/m2; 95% CI: -2.10, -1.17), waist circumference (WC) (WMD: -3.19 cm; 95% CI: -4.65 to -1.73), triglyceride (TG) levels (WMD: -0.14 mmol/l with; 95% CI: -0.25, -0.04), and systolic blood pressure (SBP) (WMD: -1.76 mm/Hg; 95% CI: -2.61, -0.91). In addition, body weight loss was greater in doses < 0.4 mg compared to doses ≥ 0.4 mg.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this meta-analysis show that Beinaglutide is effective in reducing parameters related to obesity, TG as well as SBP.

Thermogenic adipose tissues: Promising therapeutic targets for metabolic diseases

The ongoing increase in the prevalence of obesity and its comorbidities such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes (T2D) and dyslipidemia warrants discovery of novel therapeutic options for these metabolic diseases. Obesity is characterized by white adipose tissue expansion due to chronic positive energy balance as a result of excessive energy intake and/or reduced energy expenditure. Despite various efforts to prevent or reduce obesity including lifestyle and behavioral interventions, surgical weight reduction approaches and pharmacological methods, there has been limited success in significantly reducing obesity prevalence. Recent research has shown that thermogenic adipocyte (brown and beige) activation or formation, respectively, could potentially act as a therapeutic strategy to ameliorate obesity and its related disorders. This can be achieved through the ability of these thermogenic cells to enhance energy expenditure and regulate circulating levels of glucose and lipids. Thus, unraveling the molecular mechanisms behind the formation and activation of brown and beige adipocytes holds the potential for probable therapeutic paths to combat obesity. In this review, we provide a comprehensive update on the development and regulation of different adipose tissue types. We also emphasize recent interventions in harnessing therapeutic potential of thermogenic adipocytes by bioactive compounds and new pharmacological anti-obesity agents.

Preoperative Oral Carbohydrate for Lower Extremity Arthroplasty: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of preoperative oral carbohydrate (CHO) loading on postoperative insulin resistance, hospital stay, and pain in patients undergoing elective arthroplasty.

METHODS

Clinical randomized controlled trials on the effects of preoperative oral CHO loading in patients undergoing elective hip and knee arthroplasty were searched on PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, Embase, Chinese Biomedical Literature Database, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) from inception to February 2024. The Cochrane Risk of Bias Assessment Tool was used to evaluate the quality of the enrolled randomized controlled trials.

RESULTS

There were 16 papers included. Meta-analysis unveiled that compared with the control group, the test group had notably reduced postoperative anxiety scores [standardized mean difference = -0.06, 95% CI (confidence interval) (-0.42 to 0.30)] and complication rates [OR (odds ratio) = 0.64, 95% CI (0.41 to 0.99)] and enhanced postoperative active GLP-1 levels after preoperative oral CHO loading [standardized mean difference = 0.46, 95% CI (0.06 to 0.86)]. There was no marked difference in postoperative blood glucose levels, hospitalization time, insulin levels, and pain score.

CONCLUSIONS

Available evidence suggests that preoperative oral CHO loading in patients undergoing arthroplasty may reduce related complications, improve postoperative active GLP-1 levels, and alleviate postoperative anxiety.

Epigenetic dysregulation of metabolic programs mediates liposarcoma cell plasticity

Sarcomas are rare connective tissue cancers thought to arise from aberrant mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) differentiation. Liposarcoma (LPS) holds valuable insights into dysfunctional differentiation given its well- and dedifferentiated histologic subtypes (WDLPS, DDLPS). Despite well-established differences in histology and clinical behavior, the molecular pathways underlying each subtype are poorly understood. Here, we performed single-nucleus multiome sequencing and spatial profiling on carefully curated human LPS samples and found defects in adipocyte-specific differentiation within LPS. Loss of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) and gain of cellular programs related to early mesenchymal development and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)-induced insulin secretion are primary features of DDLPS. IGF1 loss was associated with worse overall survival in LPS patients. Through in vitro stimulation of the IGF1 pathway, we identified that DDLPS cells are deficient in the adipose-specific PPARG isoform 2 (PPARG2). Defects in IGF1/PPARG2 signaling in DDLPS led to a block in differentiation that could not be fully overcome with the addition of exogenous IGF1 or the pro-adipogenic agonists to PPARG and GLP-1. However, we noted upregulation of the IGF1 receptor (IGF1R) in the setting of IGF1 deficiency, which promoted sensitivity to an IGF1R-targeted antibody-drug conjugate that may serve as a novel therapeutic strategy in LPS. In summary, lineage-specific defects in adipogenesis drive dedifferentiation in LPS and may translate into selective therapeutic targeting in this disease.

Metabolomics and molecular docking-directed anti-obesity study of the ethanol extract from Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Makino

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Makino (G. pentaphyllum) is an oriental herb documented to treat many diseases, including obesity, hyperlipidemia, metabolic syndromes and aging. However, the anti-obesity mechanism of G. pentaphyllum remains poorly understood.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To reveal the anti-obesity mechanism of G. pentaphyllum Extract (GPE) in High-Fat Diet (HFD)-induced obese mice through untargeted metabolomics, Real-Time Quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR), and immunohistochemical experiments. Additionally, to tentatively identify the active constituents through LC-MS/MS and molecular docking approaches.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

GPE was prepared using ethanol reflux and purified by HP-20 macroporous resins. The components of GPE were identified by Liquid Chromatography- Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) system. Forty-two C57BL/6 J mice were randomly and evenly divided into six groups, with seven mice in each group: the control group, obese model group, Beinaglutide group (positive control), and GPE low, medium, and high-dose groups (50 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg, and 200 mg/kg of 80% ethanol extract). Body weight, liver weight, blood glucose, blood lipids, and liver histopathological changes were assessed. Untargeted metabolomics was employed to characterize metabolic changes in obese mice after GPE treatment. The expression of genes related to differential metabolites was verified using Real-Time Quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and immunohistochemical experiments. The constituents with anti-obesity effects from GPE were tentatively identified through molecular docking approaches.

RESULTS

A total of 17 compounds were identified in GPE. GPE significantly lowered body weight, total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) in obese mice and reduced liver weight and hepatic steatosis. Serum metabolomics identified 20 potential biomarkers associated with GPE treatment in obese mice, primarily related to tryptophan metabolism. GPE treatment downregulated the expression of Slc6a19 and Tph1 and upregulated Ucp1 expression. Molecular docking illustrated that compounds such as 20(R)-ginsenoside Rg3, Araliasaponin I, Damulin B, Gypenoside L, Oleifolioside B, and Tricin7-neohesperidoside identified in GPE exhibited favorable interaction with Tph1.

CONCLUSION

The extract of G. pentaphyllum can inhibit the absorption of tryptophan and its conversion to 5-HT through the Slc6a19/Tph1 pathway, upregulating the expression of Ucp1, thereby promoting thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue, facilitating weight loss, and mitigating symptoms of fatty liver. Triterpenoids such as Araliasaponin I, identified in GPE, could be the potential inhibitor of Tph1 and responsible for the anti-obesity activities.

Research Progress on Peptide Drugs for Type 2 Diabetes and the Possibility of Oral Administration

Diabetes is a global disease that can lead to a range of complications. Currently, the treatment of type 2 diabetes focuses on oral hypoglycemic drugs and insulin analogues. Studies have shown that drugs such as oral metformin are useful in the treatment of diabetes but can limit the liver's ability to release sugar. The development of glucose-lowering peptides has provided new options for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Peptide drugs have low oral utilization due to their easy degradation, short half-life, and difficulty passing through the intestinal mucosa. Therefore, improving the oral utilization of peptide drugs remains an urgent problem. This paper reviews the research progress of peptide drugs in the treatment of diabetes mellitus and proposes that different types of nano-formulation carriers, such as liposomes, self-emulsifying drug delivery systems, and polymer particles, should be combined with peptide drugs for oral administration to improve their absorption in the gastrointestinal tract.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor: mechanisms and advances in therapy

The glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor, known as GLP-1R, is a vital component of the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family and is found primarily on the surfaces of various cell types within the human body. This receptor specifically interacts with GLP-1, a key hormone that plays an integral role in regulating blood glucose levels, lipid metabolism, and several other crucial biological functions. In recent years, GLP-1 medications have become a focal point in the medical community due to their innovative treatment mechanisms, significant therapeutic efficacy, and broad development prospects. This article thoroughly traces the developmental milestones of GLP-1 drugs, from their initial discovery to their clinical application, detailing the evolution of diverse GLP-1 medications along with their distinct pharmacological properties. Additionally, this paper explores the potential applications of GLP-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) in fields such as neuroprotection, anti-infection measures, the reduction of various types of inflammation, and the enhancement of cardiovascular function. It provides an in-depth assessment of the effectiveness of GLP-1RAs across multiple body systems-including the nervous, cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, and digestive systems. This includes integrating the latest clinical trial data and delving into potential signaling pathways and pharmacological mechanisms. The primary goal of this article is to emphasize the extensive benefits of using GLP-1RAs in treating a broad spectrum of diseases, such as obesity, cardiovascular diseases, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), neurodegenerative diseases, musculoskeletal inflammation, and various forms of cancer. The ongoing development of new indications for GLP-1 drugs offers promising prospects for further expanding therapeutic interventions, showcasing their significant potential in the medical field.

Regulated and adaptive in vivo insulin secretion from islets only containing β-cells

Insulin-producing β-cells in pancreatic islets are regulated by systemic cues and, locally, by adjacent islet hormone-producing 'non-β-cells' (namely α-cells, δ-cells and γ-cells). Yet whether the non-β-cells are required for accurate insulin secretion is unclear. Here, we studied mice in which adult islets are exclusively composed of β-cells and human pseudoislets containing only primary β-cells. Mice lacking non-β-cells had optimal blood glucose regulation, enhanced glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity and restricted body weight gain under a high-fat diet. The insulin secretion dynamics in islets composed of only β-cells was comparable to that in intact islets. Similarly, human β-cell pseudoislets retained the glucose-regulated mitochondrial respiration, insulin secretion and exendin-4 responses of entire islets. The findings indicate that non-β-cells are dispensable for blood glucose homeostasis and β-cell function. These results support efforts aimed at developing diabetes treatments by generating β-like clusters devoid of non-β-cells, such as from pluripotent stem cells differentiated in vitro or by reprograming non-β-cells into insulin producers in situ.

Discovery of baicalein derivatives as novel inhibitors against human pancreatic lipase: Structure-activity relationships and inhibitory mechanisms

Human pancreatic lipase (hPL) is a vital digestive enzyme responsible for breaking down dietary fats in humans, inhibiting hPL is a feasible strategy for preventing and treating obesity. This study aims to investigate the structure-activity relationships (SARs) of flavonoids as hPL inhibitors, and to find potent hPL inhibitors from natural and synthetic flavonoids. In this work, the anti-hPL effects of forty-nine structurally diverse naturally occurring flavonoids were assessed and the SARs were summarized. The results demonstrated that the pyrogallol group on the A ring was a key moiety for hPL inhibition. Subsequently, a series of baicalein derivatives were synthesized, while 4'-amino baicalein (ABA) and 4'-pyrrolidine baicalein (PBA) were identified as novel potent hPL inhibitors (IC50 < 1 μM). Further investigations showed that scutellarein, ABA and PBA potently inhibited hPL in a non-competitive manner (Ki < 1 μM). Among all tested flavonoids, PBA showed the most potent anti-hPL effect in vitro, while this agent also exhibited favorable safety profiles, unique tissue distribution (high exposure level to intestinal system but low exposure levels to deep organs) and impressive in vivo effects for lowering blood triglyceride levels in mice. Collectively, this work uncovers the SARs of flavonoids against hPL, while a newly synthetic flavonoid (PBA) emerges as a potent hPL inhibitor with favorable safety profiles and impressive anti-hPL effects in vivo.

Do anti-obesity medical treatments have a direct effect on adipose tissue?

During the past years, several drugs have been developed for the treatment of obesity. Some are already used in clinical practice: orlistat, GLP-1 receptor agonists (RA), GLP-1/GIP biagonists and the melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) agonist, setmelanotide. Some should be available in the future: GLP-1/glucagon biagonists, GLP-1/GIP/glucagon triagonists. These drugs act mainly by reducing food intake or fat absorption. However, many of them show specific effects on the adipose tissue. All these drugs show significant reduction of fat mass and, more particularly of visceral fat. If most of the drugs, except orlistat, have been shown to increase energy expenditure in rodents with enhanced thermogenesis, this has not yet been clearly demonstrated in humans. However, biagonists or triagonist stimulating glucagon seem to a have a more potent effect to increase thermogenesis in the adipose tissue and, thus, energy expenditure. Most of these drugs have been shown to increase the production of adiponectin and to reduce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by the adipose tissue. GLP-1RAs reduce the size of adipocytes and promote their differentiation. GLP-1RAS and GLP-1/GIP biagonists reduce, in the adipose tissue, the expression of several genes involved in lipogenesis. Further studies are still needed to clarify the precise roles, on the adipose tissue, of these drugs dedicated for the treatment of obesity.

GLP-1 in the Hypothalamic Paraventricular Nucleus Promotes Sympathetic Activation and Hypertension

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and its analogs are widely used for diabetes treatment. The paraventricular nucleus (PVN) is crucial for regulating cardiovascular activity. This study aims to determine the roles of GLP-1 and its receptors (GLP-1R) in the PVN in regulating sympathetic outflow and blood pressure. Experiments were carried out in male normotensive rats and spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA) and mean arterial pressure (MAP) were recorded. GLP-1 and GLP-1R expressions were present in the PVN. PVN microinjection of GLP-1R agonist recombinant human GLP-1 (rhGLP-1) or EX-4 increased RSNA and MAP, which were prevented by GLP-1R antagonist exendin 9-39 (EX9-39) or GLP-1R antagonist 1, superoxide scavenger tempol, antioxidant N-acetylcysteine, NADPH oxidase (NOX) inhibitor apocynin, adenylyl cyclase (AC) inhibitor SQ22536 or protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor H89. PVN microinjection of rhGLP-1 increased superoxide production, NADPH oxidase activity, cAMP level, AC, and PKA activity, which were prevented by SQ22536 or H89. GLP-1 and GLP-1R were upregulated in the PVN of SHR. PVN microinjection of GLP-1 agonist increased RSNA and MAP in both WKY and SHR, but GLP-1 antagonists caused greater effects in reducing RSNA and MAP in SHR than in WKY. The increased superoxide production and NADPH oxidase activity in the PVN of SHR were augmented by GLP-1R agonists but attenuated by GLP-1R antagonists. These results indicate that activation of GLP-1R in the PVN increased sympathetic outflow and blood pressure via cAMP-PKA-mediated NADPH oxidase activation and subsequent superoxide production. GLP-1 and GLP-1R upregulation in the PVN partially contributes to sympathetic overactivity and hypertension.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 analogs: Miracle drugs are blooming?

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), secreted by L cells in the small intestine, assumes a central role in managing type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and obesity. Its influence on insulin secretion and gastric emptying positions it as a therapeutic linchpin. However, the limited applicability of native GLP-1 stems from its short half-life, primarily due to glomerular filtration and the inactivating effect of dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DPP-IV). To address this, various structural modification strategies have been developed to extend GLP-1's half-life. Despite the commendable efficacy displayed by current GLP-1 receptor agonists, inherent limitations persist. A paradigm shift emerges with the advent of unimolecular multi-agonists, such as the recently introduced tirzepatide, wherein GLP-1 is ingeniously combined with other gastrointestinal hormones. This novel approach has captured the spotlight within the diabetes and obesity research community. This review summarizes the physiological functions of GLP-1, systematically explores diverse structural modifications, delves into the realm of unimolecular multi-agonists, and provides a nuanced portrayal of the developmental prospects that lie ahead for GLP-1 analogs.

Beinaglutide for weight management in Chinese individuals with overweight or obesity: A phase 3 randomized controlled clinical study

AIM

To investigate the efficacy and safety of beinaglutide as an adjunct to lifestyle intervention among non-diabetic Chinese individuals with overweight or obesity.

METHODS

This multicentre, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (ChiCTR1900023428) included 427 Chinese adults with a body mass index of 28 kg/m2 or higher (obesity) or 24-27.9 kg/m2 (overweight) with weight-related complications. Patients were randomized in a 2:1 ratio to receive 0.2 mg of beinaglutide (subcutaneous) thrice daily or placebo for 16 weeks. Co-primary endpoints were body weight change and the proportion of patients with a weight reduction of 5% or more.

RESULTS

Mean body weight change from baseline to week 16 was -6.0% and -2.4% in the beinaglutide (n = 282) and placebo (n = 138) groups, respectively; the mixed model repeated measures difference was -3.6% (95% confidence interval: -4.6% to -2.6%; P < .0001). At week 16, more beinaglutide-treated patients achieved a weight reduction of 5% or more (58.2% vs. 25.4% [placebo], odds ratio: 4.4; P < .0001) and of 10% or more (21.3% vs. 5.1% [placebo], odds ratio: 5.5; P < .0001). Beinaglutide also resulted in greater waist circumference reduction (difference: -1.81 cm; P < .01). The weight regain rate 12 weeks after beinaglutide treatment was 0.78%. Nausea (transient and mild-to-moderate) was the most common adverse event in the beinaglutide group (49.3% vs. 7.1% [placebo]). More patients receiving beinaglutide discontinued treatment because of adverse events (5.9% vs. 0.7% [placebo]). Pancreatitis or an increased resting heart rate was not observed in the beinaglutide group.

CONCLUSION

Beinaglutide combined with lifestyle intervention resulted in significant and clinically meaningful weight reduction with good tolerance in non-diabetic Chinese individuals with overweight or obesity.

Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists and Suicidal Ideation: Analysis of Real-Word Data Collected in the European Pharmacovigilance Database

BACKGROUND

A potential risk of suicide associated with liraglutide or semaglutide treatments has recently emerged. Therefore, we decided to investigate the reporting probability of suicidal events among glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RAs).

METHODS

A retrospective pharmacovigilance study of the European Pharmacovigilance database was conducted for the period from 1 January 2018 to 10 July 2023. Disproportionality analyses (reporting odds ratio, ROR) were performed to assess the reporting probability of suicidal events among GLP-1 RAs.

RESULTS

A total of 230 reports of suicidal events were identified. The most reported GLP-1 RA was liraglutide (38.3%), followed by semaglutide (36.5%) and dulaglutide (16.1%). The most reported events were suicidal ideation (65.3%) and suicide attempt (19.5%). Disproportionality analysis found a higher reporting probability of suicidal events for semaglutide than dulaglutide (ROR, 2.05; 95%CI, 1.40-3.01) and exenatide (ROR, 1.81; 95%CI, 1.08-3.05). In the same way, liraglutide was associated with a higher reporting probability of suicidal events than dulaglutide (ROR, 3.98; 95%CI, 2.73-5.82) and exenatide (ROR, 3.52; 95%CI, 2.10-5.92). On the contrary, a lower reporting probability was found for semaglutide than liraglutide (ROR, 0.51; 95%CI, 0.38-0.69).

CONCLUSIONS

Suicidal events were mostly reported with semaglutide and liraglutide, which were also associated with significantly higher reporting probabilities compared to other GLP1 RAs. Although this study provides the reporting frequencies of suicide-related events with GLP-1 RAs, establishing causality requires further investigation, which will probably be addressed by the Pharmacovigilance Risk Assessment Committee of the European Medicine Agency in the future.

Recent clinical and pharmacological advancements of incretin-based therapy and the effects of incretin on physiology

A novel therapeutic target for diabetes mellitus is incretin-based therapies, glucagon-like peptide-1, and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptides are released from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and act on beta cells of pancreatic islets by increasing the secretion of insulin. The management and prevention of diabetes require habitual and pharmacological therapies along with quality and healthy lifestyle. This includes maintaining the body weight, blood glucose level, cardiovascular risk, complexity, and co-morbidities. The utilization of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) agonists is an object of research with favorable hemoglobin A1C levels and weight loss in type 1 diabetic patients. However, cost-effectiveness and tolerability, remain significant barriers for patients to using these medications. The risk of suicidal tendencies and thoughts of self-harm have been increased in patients receiving GLP-1 receptor agonists. Tirzepatide treatment showed a potent glucose-lowering effect and promoted weight loss with minimum GI adverse effects in animal studies as well as phase I and II human trials, in comparison with established GLP-1 receptor agonists. The glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor (GIPR) peptide-antagonist effectively blocks the action of gastric-inhibitory-polypeptide (GIP) in vitro and ex vivo in human pancreas and in vivo in rodent models. However, incretin-based therapies have received enormous attention in the last few decades for the treatment of diabetes, obesity, and other repurposing including central nervous system disorders. Therefore, in this article, we demonstrate the overview, physiological, and pharmacological advances of incretin-based pharmacotherapies and their physiological roles. Furthermore, the recent updates of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist, Glucagon-like peptide-2 receptor agonist, GLP-1/GIP co-agonists, GIP/GLP-1/glucagon triple agonist and GIP-antagonist are also discussed.

Palmitoylation of PKCδ by ZDHHC5 in hypothalamic microglia presents as a therapeutic target for fatty liver disease

The hypothalamus plays a fundamental role in controlling lipid metabolism through neuroendocrine signals. However, there are currently no available drug targets in the hypothalamus that can effectively improve human lipid metabolism. In this study, we found that the antimalarial drug artemether (ART) significantly improved lipid metabolism by specifically inhibiting microglial activation in the hypothalamus of high-fat diet-induced mice. Mechanically, ART protects the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) neurons surrounding microglial cells from inflammatory damage and promotes the release of TRH into the peripheral circulation. As a result, TRH stimulates the synthesis of thyroid hormone (TH), leading to a significant improvement in hepatic lipid disorders. Subsequently, we employed a biotin-labeled ART chemical probe to identify the direct cellular target in microglial cells as protein kinase Cδ (PKCδ). Importantly, ART directly targeted PKCδ to inhibit its palmitoylation modification by blocking the binding of zinc finger DHHC-type palmitoyltransferase 5 (ZDHHC5), which resulted in the inhibition of downstream neuroinflammation signaling. In vivo, hypothalamic microglia-specific PKCδ knockdown markedly impaired ART-dependent neuroendocrine regulation and lipid metabolism improvement in mice. Furthermore, single-cell transcriptomics analysis in human brain tissues revealed that the level of PKCδ in microglia positively correlated with individuals who had hyperlipemia, thereby highlighting a clinical translational value. Collectively, these data suggest that the palmitoylation of microglial PKCδ in the hypothalamus plays a role in modulating peripheral lipid metabolism through hypothalamus-liver communication, and provides a promising therapeutic target for fatty liver diseases.

GLP1 Receptor Agonists-Effects beyond Obesity and Diabetes

Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP1RA) have been transformative for patients and clinicians in treating type-2 diabetes and obesity. Drugs of this class, the bioavailability of which is continuously improving, enable weight loss and control blood glucose with minimal unwanted side effects. Since adopting GLP1RA for treating metabolic diseases, animal and clinical studies have revealed their beneficial effects on several other pathologies, including cardiovascular diseases, neurodegeneration, kidney disease, and cancer. A notable commonality between these diseases is their association with older age. Clinical trials and preclinical data suggest that GLP1RA may improve outcomes in these aging-related diseases. Some of the benefits of GLP1RA may be indirect due to their effects on obesity and glucose metabolism. However, there is building evidence that GLP1RA may also act directly on multiple organs implicated in aging-related pathology. This review aims to compile the studies reporting the effects of GLP1RA on aging-related diseases and discuss potential underlying mechanisms.

Effect of beinaglutide combined with metformin versus aspart 30 with metformin on metabolic profiles and antidrug antibodies in patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomized clinical trial

Objective

This prospective study aimed to evaluate the effect of beinaglutide combined with metformin versus aspart 30 with metformin on metabolic profiles and antidrug antibodies (ADAs) in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D).

Methods

A total of 134 eligible participants were randomly assigned to the test group and the control group. Patients in the test group were treated with beinaglutide and metformin, whereas patients in the control group were randomly treated with aspart 30 and metformin, with a follow-up period of 6 months. The metabolic profiles and ADAs over 6 months were evaluated.

Results

After 6 months, 101 (75.37%) patients completed the study. Compared with the control group, the beinaglutide group had significant reductions in 2-h postprandial blood glucose (2hBG) and low blood glucose index (LBGI). Glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) decreased in both groups relative to baseline. In the test group, one had treatment-emergent beinaglutide ADAs. Significant reductions in triglycerides (TG), non-fasting TG, weight, waist circumference (WC), and body mass index (BMI) were observed. The values of insulin sensitivity index (HOMA-IR) were decreased to a statistically higher degree with beinaglutide treatment.

Conclusion

Beinaglutide reduces metabolic dysfunction, LBGI, and weight in patients of T2D with a low risk of ADAs. Beinaglutide may offer the potential for a disease-modifying intervention in cardiovascular disease (CVD).

Clinical trial registration

www.chictr.org.cn, identifier ChiCTR2200061003.

The Novel Tetra-Specific Drug C-192, Conjugated Using UniStac, Alleviates Non-Alcoholic Steatohepatitis in an MCD Diet-Induced Mouse Model

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is a complex disease resulting from chronic liver injury associated with obesity, type 2 diabetes, and inflammation. Recently, the importance of developing multi-target drugs as a strategy to address complex diseases such as NASH has been growing; however, their manufacturing processes remain time- and cost-intensive and inefficient. To overcome these limitations, we developed UniStac, a novel enzyme-mediated conjugation platform for multi-specific drug development. UniStac demonstrated high conjugation yields, optimal thermal stabilities, and robust biological activities. We designed a tetra-specific compound, C-192, targeting glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), glucagon (GCG), fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21), and interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA) simultaneously for the treatment of NASH using UniStac. The biological activity and treatment efficacy of C-192 were confirmed both in vitro and in vivo using a methionine-choline-deficient (MCD) diet-induced mouse model. C-192 exhibited profound therapeutic efficacies compared to conventional drugs, including liraglutide and dulaglutide. C-192 significantly improved alanine transaminase levels, triglyceride accumulation, and the non-alcoholic fatty liver disease activity score. In this study, we demonstrated the feasibility of UniStac in creating multi-specific drugs and confirmed the therapeutic potential of C-192, a drug that integrates multiple mechanisms into a single molecule for the treatment of NASH.

The efficacy and safety of beinaglutide alone or in combination with insulin glargine in Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus who are inadequately controlled with oral antihyperglycemic therapy: A multicenter, open-label, randomized trial

BACKGROUND

To compare glycemic control in Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) whose blood glucose levels were inadequately controlled with oral antidiabetic drugs after beinaglutide alone or combined with insulin glargine (IGlar).

METHODS

In this 16-week multicenter, randomized clinical trial, 68 participants randomly received beinaglutide or IGlar for 8 weeks, then the two drugs in combination for 8 weeks. The primary outcomes were the proportion of individuals achieving their glycemic target and the change in glucose variability as measured with a continuous glucose monitoring system from baseline to 8 and 16 weeks.

RESULTS

Both the beinaglutide and IGlar groups showed increased proportions achieving their glycemic target at 8 weeks, and the combination augmented the proportion reaching the glycated hemoglobin target from 25.42% at 8 weeks to 40.68% at 16 weeks. The beinaglutide group showed a significant reduction in body weight, body mass index, waist circumference, and systolic blood pressure. Beinaglutide elevated high-density lipoprotein cholesterol by 0.08 mmol/L (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.00-0.16), and diminished low-density lipoprotein cholesterol by 0.21 mmol/L (95% CI, 0.05-0.48), whereas IGlar showed no effect. Though IGlar was more efficient in lowering fasting plasma glucose than beinaglutide at comparable efficacies (to -1.57 mmol/L [95% CI, -2.60 to -0.54]), this difference was abolished in patients whose fasting C-peptide was ≥0.9 ng/mL.

CONCLUSION

Beinaglutide exhibited a favorable hypoglycemic effect on patients with T2DM, and in combination with IGlar, glucose level was further decreased. Low fasting C-peptide in patients may reduce the glycemic response to beinaglutide therapy. We recommend that C-peptide levels be evaluated when using or switching to the novel glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists beinaglutide.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT03829891.

Lipid remodeling of adipose tissue in metabolic health and disease

Adipose tissue is a dynamic and metabolically active organ that plays a crucial role in energy homeostasis and endocrine function. Recent advancements in lipidomics techniques have enabled the study of the complex lipid composition of adipose tissue and its role in metabolic disorders such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. In addition, adipose tissue lipidomics has emerged as a powerful tool for understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying these disorders and identifying bioactive lipid mediators and potential therapeutic targets. This review aims to summarize recent lipidomics studies that investigated the dynamic remodeling of adipose tissue lipids in response to specific physiological changes, pharmacological interventions, and pathological conditions. We discuss the molecular mechanisms of lipid remodeling in adipose tissue and explore the recent identification of bioactive lipid mediators generated in adipose tissue that regulate adipocytes and systemic metabolism. We propose that manipulating lipid-mediator metabolism could serve as a therapeutic approach for preventing or treating obesity-related metabolic diseases.

Effect of Benaglutide on Gut Microbiota and Fecal Metabolites in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Objective

Benaglutide is a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (GLP-1RA) that has been approved in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). It is known to lead to significant weight loss, and it is hypothesized that changes in gut microbiota may play a significant role in such weight loss. However, it is unclear how gut microbiota and metabolites change as a result of benaglutide treatment.

Methods

Healthy participants and patients with T2DM were included in this study. They received differentiated treatments, and stool specimens were collected separately. These stool specimens were subjected to 16S ribosomal RNA amplicon and metagenomic sequencing to create fecal metabolomic profiles. The diversity of gut microbiota and metabolic products in the stools of each participant was analyzed.

Results

The data showed that Faecalibacterium prausnitzii was abundant in the gut microbiota of the control group, which was entirely made up of healthy individuals; however, it showed a statistically significant decrease in patients with T2DM treated with metformin alone, while no significant decrease was observed in patients treated with metformin combined with benaglutide. A metagenomic analysis revealed that benaglutide could improve the fecal microbiota diversity in patients with T2DM. Furthermore, there was a statistically significant correlation between the changes in the metabolites of patients with T2DM and the changes in their gut microbiota (including F. prausnitzii) after treatment with metformin and benaglutide.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that the weight-reducing effect of benaglutide is attributed to its ability to normalize the gut microbiota of patients with T2DM, particularly by increasing the abundance of F. prausnitzii.

Usage of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 for Obesity in Children; Updated Review of Clinicaltrials.gov

Background

Obesity in both adults and children is a primary health concern that can lead to many complications at a young age, including insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and other diseases. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1) are drugs utilized to treat diabetes, but they are also approved as an adjunct to a low-calorie diet to reduce body weight and to enhance the metabolic profile readings for diabetic and non-diabetic patients. However, their efficacy and safety in children have not been extensively examined.

Aim

To identify glucagon-like peptide-1 medications for obesity in pediatric participants (aged up to 17 years old).

Methods

Analysis of all clinical trials registered on ClinicalTrials.gov for obesity using GLP-1 as a treatment for children.

Results

As of January 26th, 2023, 10,828 clinical trials were found. The search included childhood obesity using GLP-1. The number of trials on the use of GLP-1 to treat childhood obesity is limited. The final number of analyzed trials was 19. GLP-1 has been shown to result in the effective management of body gain among children.

Conclusion

Exenatide, semaglutide, and liraglutide were the only GLP-1 medications used as the pharmacotherapy option. It has been studied in many circumstances eg, to treat children with severe obesity, PCOS, hypothalamic obesity, glucose tolerance, and as a complementary treatment alongside behavior-lifestyle change and surgery for obesity.

Targeted MicroRNA Profiling Reveals That Exendin-4 Modulates the Expression of Several MicroRNAs to Reduce Steatosis in HepG2 Cells

Excess hepatic lipid accumulation is the hallmark of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), for which no medication is currently approved. However, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs), already approved for treating type 2 diabetes, have lately emerged as possible treatments. Herein we aim to investigate how the GLP-1RA exendin-4 (Ex-4) affects the microRNA (miRNAs) expression profile using an in vitro model of steatosis. Total RNA, including miRNAs, was isolated from control, steatotic, and Ex-4-treated steatotic cells and used for probing a panel of 799 highly curated miRNAs using NanoString technology. Enrichment pathway analysis was used to find the signaling pathways and cellular functions associated with the differentially expressed miRNAs. Our data shows that Ex-4 reversed the expression of a set of miRNAs. Functional enrichment analysis highlighted many relevant signaling pathways and cellular functions enriched in the differentially expressed miRNAs, including hepatic fibrosis, insulin receptor, PPAR, Wnt/β-Catenin, VEGF, and mTOR receptor signaling pathways, fibrosis of the liver, cirrhosis of the liver, proliferation of hepatic stellate cells, diabetes mellitus, glucose metabolism disorder and proliferation of liver cells. Our findings suggest that miRNAs may play essential roles in the processes driving steatosis reduction in response to GLP-1R agonists, which warrants further functional investigation.

Glucagon-like peptide 1(GLP-1) receptor agonists in the management of the patient with type 2diabetes mellitus and chronic kidney disease: an approach for the nephrologist

Diabetic kidney disease, a common complication in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, is associated with a markedly increased morbidity and mortality, especially of cardiovascular origin, and faster progression to end-stage renal disease. To date, reducing cardiovascular and renal risk in this population was based on strict control of cardiovascular risk factors and the renin-angiotensin system blockade. More recently, sodium-glucose cotransporter type 2 inhibitors have demonstrated to offer cardiovascular and renal protection, but the residual risk remains high and their antihyperglycemic efficacy is limited in moderate-severe CKD. Therefore, drugs with a potent antihyperglycemic effect, independent of the glomerular filtration rate, with a low risk of hypoglycemia, that reduce weight in overweight/obese patients and that provide cardiovascular and renal protection, such as GLP-1 receptor agonists, are needed. However, these drugs require subcutaneous administration, which may limit their early use. The recent availability of oral semaglutide may facilitate the early introduction of this family with proven cardiovascular and renal benefits and excellent safety profile. In this review the family is analyzed as well as their cardiovascular and renal effects.

Short-term effect of beinaglutide combined with metformin versus metformin alone on weight loss and metabolic profiles in obese patients with polycystic ovary syndrome: a pilot randomized trial

Objective

To observe the effect of beinaglutide combined with metformin versus metformin alone on weight loss and metabolic profiles in obese patients with polycystic ovary syndrome(PCOS).

Methods

A total of 64 overweight/obese women with PCOS diagnosed via the Rotterdam criteria were randomly assigned to metformin(MET) 850 mg twice a day(BID) or combined MET 850 mg BID with beinaglutide (COMB) starting at 0.1mg three times a day(TID)and increasing to 0.2mg TID two weeks later. The main endpoints were changes in anthropometric measurements of obesity. Glucose and lipid metabolic, gonadal profiles, and antral follicle count changes as secondary outcomes were also observed.

Results

60(93.75%) patients completed the study. In terms of lowering weight, body mass index (BMI),waist circumference(WC) and waist to height ratio(WHtR), COMB treatment outperformed MET monotherapy. Subjects in the COMB arm lost weight 4.54±3.16kg compared with a 2.47±3.59kg loss in the MET arm. In the COMB group, BMI,WC and WHtR were reduced significantly compared with that in the MET group, respectively. COMB therapy is also more favorable in the reduction of fasting insulin(FINS), total testosterone(TT), and homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance(HOMA-IR) when compared to MET therapy. Antral follicle count and ovarian volume were non-significantly changed in both groups.The most frequent side effects in both groups were mild and moderate digestive symptoms. Itching and induration at the injection site were reported with COMB treatment.

Conclusion

Short-term combined treatment with beinaglutide and metformin appears superior to metformin monotherapy in lowering body weight, BMI, WC,WHtR and improving insulin sensitivity and androgen excess in women with PCOS and obesity, with tolerable adverse events.

Clinical trial registration

https://www.chictr.org.cn/listbycreater.aspx, identifier ChiCTR2000033741.

The Role of GLP1-RAs in Direct Modulation of Lipid Metabolism in Hepatic Tissue as Determined Using In Vitro Models of NAFLD

Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) have been shown to improve glucose and lipid homeostasis, promote weight loss, and reduce cardiovascular risk factors. They are a promising therapeutic option for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), the most common liver disease, associated with T2DM, obesity, and metabolic syndrome. GLP-1RAs have been approved for the treatment of T2DM and obesity, but not for NAFLD. Most recent clinical trials have suggested the importance of early pharmacologic intervention with GLP-1RAs in alleviating and limiting NAFLD, as well as highlighting the relative scarcity of in vitro studies on semaglutide, indicating the need for further research. However, extra-hepatic factors contribute to the GLP-1RA results of in vivo studies. Cell culture models of NAFLD can be helpful in eliminating extrahepatic effects on the alleviation of hepatic steatosis, modulation of lipid metabolism pathways, reduction of inflammation, and prevention of the progression of NAFLD to severe hepatic conditions. In this review article, we discuss the role of GLP-1 and GLP-1RA in the treatment of NAFLD using human hepatocyte models.

An adipocentric perspective on the development and progression of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

Alongside the liver, white adipose tissue (WAT) is critical in regulating systemic energy homeostasis. Although each organ has its specialised functions, they must work coordinately to regulate whole-body metabolism. Adipose tissues and the liver are relatively resilient and can adapt to an energy surplus by facilitating triglyceride (TG) storage up to a certain threshold level without significant metabolic disturbances. However, lipid storage in WAT beyond a "personalised" adiposity threshold becomes dysfunctional, leading to metabolic inflexibility, progressive inflammation, and aberrant adipokine secretion. Moreover, the failure of adipose tissue to store and mobilise lipids results in systemic knock-on lipid overload, particularly in the liver. Factors contributing to hepatic lipid overload include lipids released from WAT, dietary fat intake, and enhanced de novo lipogenesis. In contrast, extrahepatic mechanisms counteracting toxic hepatic lipid overload entail coordinated compensation through oxidation of surplus fatty acids in brown adipose tissue and storage of fatty acids as TGs in WAT. Failure of these integrated homeostatic mechanisms leads to quantitative increases and qualitative alterations to the lipidome of the liver. Initially, hepatocytes preferentially accumulate TG species leading to a relatively "benign" non-alcoholic fatty liver. However, with time, inflammatory responses ensue, progressing into more severe conditions such as non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma, in some individuals (often without an early prognostic clue). Herein, we highlight the pathogenic importance of obesity-induced "adipose tissue failure", resulting in decreased adipose tissue functionality (i.e. fat storage capacity and metabolic flexibility), in the development and progression of NAFL/NASH.

GLP-1 receptor agonists for the treatment of obesity: Role as a promising approach

Obesity is a complex disease characterized by excessive fat accumulation which is caused by genetic, environmental and other factors. In recent years, there has been an increase in the morbidity, disability rate,and mortality due to obesity, making it great threat to people's health and lives, and increasing public health care expenses. Evidence from previous studies show that weight loss can significantly reduce the risk of obesity-related complications and chronic diseases. Diet control, moderate exercise, behavior modification programs, bariatric surgery and prescription drug treatment are the major interventions used to help people lose weight. Among them, anti-obesity drugs have high compliance rates and cause noticeable short-term effects in reducing obese levels. However, given the safety or effectiveness concerns of anti-obesity drugs, many of the currently used drugs have limited clinical use. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonists are a group of drugs that targets incretin hormone action, and its receptors are widely distributed in nerves, islets, heart, lung, skin, and other organs. Several animal experiments and clinical trials have demonstrated that GLP-1R agonists are more effective in treating or preventing obesity. Therefore, GLP-1R agonists are promising agents for the treatment of obese individuals. This review describes evidence from previous research on the effects of GLP-1R agonists on obesity. We anticipate that this review will generate data that will help biomedical researchers or clinical workers develop obesity treatments based on GLP-1R agonists.

Proteomic analysis reveals semaglutide impacts lipogenic protein expression in epididymal adipose tissue of obese mice

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Obesity is a global health problem with few pharmacologic options. Semaglutide is a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) analogue that induces weight loss. Yet, the role of semaglutide in adipose tissue has not yet been examined. The following study investigated the mechanism of semaglutide on lipid metabolism by analyzing proteomics of epididymal white adipose tissue (eWAT) in obese mice.

METHODS

A total of 36 C57BL/6JC mice were randomly divided into a normal-chow diet group (NCD, n = 12), high-fat diet (HFD, n = 12), and HFD+semaglutide group (Sema, n = 12). Mice in the Sema group were intraperitoneally administered semaglutide, and the HFD group and the NCD group were intraperitoneally administered an equal volume of normal saline. Serum samples were collected to detect fasting blood glucose and blood lipids. The Intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test (IPGTT) was used to measure the blood glucose value at each time point and calculate the area under the glucose curve. Tandem Mass Tag (TMT) combined with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) were used to study the expression of eWAT, while cellular processes, biological processes, corresponding molecular functions, and related network molecular mechanisms were analyzed by bioinformatics.

RESULTS

Compared with the model group, the semaglutide-treated mice presented 640 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs), including 292 up-regulated and 348 down-regulated proteins. Bioinformatics analysis showed a reduction of CD36, FABP5, ACSL, ACOX3, PLIN2, ANGPTL4, LPL, MGLL, AQP7, and PDK4 involved in the lipid metabolism in the Sema group accompanied by a decrease in visceral fat accumulation, blood lipids, and improvement in glucose intolerance.

CONCLUSION

Semaglutide can effectively reduce visceral fat and blood lipids and improve glucose metabolism in obese mice. Semaglutide treatment might have beneficial effects on adipose tissues through the regulation of lipid uptake, lipid storage, and lipolysis in white adipose tissue.