Diurnal Cortisol Interacts With Stressful Events to Prospectively Predict Depressive Symptoms in Adolescent Girls

Longitudinal Assessment of Hair Cortisol as a Predictor of Psychological Symptoms During COVID-19

BACKGROUND

There is a lack of evidence regarding enduring psychoneuroendocrine changes following an initial traumatic event, particular in the presence of an ongoing stressor. The coronavirus pandemic presents an opportunity to explore this matter. Consequently, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the impact of the ongoing pandemic (2021) on individuals, who experienced a first-time motor vehicle crash (MVC) at least 6 years earlier. To this end, we hypothesized that hair cortisol concentrations (HCC) following a first-time traumatic event positively predict symptoms of depression.

METHOD

We investigated N = 69 individuals (18 - 65 yrs.), who were victims of a MVC during 2010 - 2014. Hair strands were collected 10 days (t1) and 3 months after the MVC (t2), as well during the pandemic in 2021 (t3). To assess symptoms of depression, the participants filled out the Beck Depression Inventory at t1 - t3 and were additionally interviewed (Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I) at t1 and t2. Exclusion criteria conveyed a lifetime or acute mental disorder (incl. past trauma exposure).

RESULTS

Elevated pre-pandemic HCC following adversity (i.e., MVC) significantly predicted symptoms of depression in adults during the coronavirus pandemic (BDI: ß =.44, p =.010, R2 =.20), even after controlling for confounders. HCC significantly decreased over time, while in average psychological symptoms remained consistent.

CONCLUSION

Cortisol dysregulation in the past presents an enduring vulnerability to ongoing stress. In this regard, vulnerable groups may benefit from preventive measures. This finding validates the predictive power of HCC and extended past evidence in this regard, at the same time reinforcing the concept of the diathesis-stress model.

Interplay of Adolescents' and Parents' Mindsets of Socioeconomic Status on Adolescents' Stress-Related Outcomes

The reciprocity and variation of values and beliefs are dynamic features of the parent-child relationship. Parents and adolescents may hold congruent or incongruent views regarding the malleability of socioeconomic status (mindset of SES), potentially influencing adolescents' psychological and physiological stress outcomes, as reflected in stress perceptions and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis functioning. The current study investigated how patterns of parent-adolescent congruence and incongruence in mindset of SES were associated with adolescents' perceived stress and diurnal cortisol patterns four months later. A total of 253 adolescents (Mage = 12.60, 46.2% girls) and their parents (Mage = 40.09 years, 59.5% mothers) participated in this study. Polynomial regression analyses and response surface analyses showed that adolescents perceived lower levels of stress when they themselves or their parents reported a stronger growth mindset of SES. Additionally, adolescents with a stronger growth mindset of SES also exhibited a steeper diurnal cortisol slope. Moreover, parents' mindset significantly interacted with adolescents' mindset to influence adolescents' diurnal cortisol patterns such that when adolescents hold weaker growth mindset of SES, those with higher parental growth mindsets had significantly higher cortisol awakening response and steeper diurnal cortisol slope. Furthermore, adolescents who showed incongruence with their parents but had averagely stronger growth mindsets of SES reported a significantly steeper diurnal cortisol slope than those who had averagely weaker growth mindsets with their parents. The findings point to the beneficial impacts of the growth mindset of SES on stress-related outcomes among adolescents, as well as the significance of considering both parents' and adolescents' mindsets when exploring these associations.

Chronic restraint stress-induced depression-like behavior is mediated by upregulation of melanopsin expression in C57BL/6 mice retina

BACKGROUND

Depression is associated with circadian disturbances in which melanopsin was a key mechanism. Further studies have demonstrated that melanopsin gene variations are associated with some depressive disorders and aberrant light can impair mood through melanopsin-expressing retinal ganglion cells (mRGCs). The goal of this study was to explore the direct relationship between depression and melanopsin.

METHODS

Adult C57BL/6 male mice were physically restrained for 16 h in a 50-ml polypropylene centrifuge tube and all behavioral tests were performed after CRS treatment. Western blot analysis and immunofluorescence were used to detect melanopsin expression in the retina of C57BL/6 mice. And we observed the change of the electrophysiological function and release of glutamate of mRGCs.

RESULTS

The melanopsin expression upregulate in mRGCs of chronic restraint stress (CRS)-treating mice which exhibit depression-like behavior. The frequency of blue light-induced action potentials and light-induced glutamate release mediated by melanopsin also increase significantly. This change of melanopsin is mediated by the CRS-induced glucocorticoid.

CONCLUSIONS

CRS may induce the depression-like behavior in mice via glucocorticoid-melanopsin pathway. Our findings provide a novel mechanistic link between CRS-induced depression and melanopsin in mice.

Pre-pandemic socio-emotional vulnerability, internalizing and externalizing symptoms predict changes in hair cortisol concentrations in reaction to the COVID-19 pandemic in children

The COVID-19 pandemic led to increased distress in many children, particularly in girls. Socio-emotional vulnerability, as well as psychiatric symptomatology prior to or during the initial stages of the pandemic, have been identified as important predictors of this distress. Still, it is unclear whether the pandemic also had physiological repercussions in children. If so, it remains to be determined whether these same predictors could provide insight into inter-individual variability. This longitudinal study aimed to investigate the effects of socio-emotional vulnerability, as well as pre-pandemic internalizing and externalizing symptoms, on hair cortisol concentrations (HCC) in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in healthy youth. In June 2020 (T1), 69 healthy children (M = 11.57 y/o) who visited the laboratory between 2017 and 2019 (T0) provided a 6 cm hair sample. This technique allowed us to quantify cortisol secretion during the three months preceding the COVID-19 pandemic (Segment A) and during the first three months of the first wave of the pandemic in Quebec, Canada (Segment B). At T0, participants completed the Dominic Interactive to assess pre-pandemic internalizing and externalizing symptoms. A socio-emotional composite score (SECS) was derived using a weighted z-score with the following constructs: anxiety sensitivity (Childhood Anxiety Sensitivity Index) measured at T0, trait anxiety (Trait subscale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAI-C)), intolerance of uncertainty (Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale for Children), and trait rumination (Children's Response Style Scale) measured at T1. A linear regression was conducted using the percent change in HCC across Segment A and B as the dependent variable, where SECS, pre-pandemic internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and sex were used as predictors. We found a main effect of sex, with girls presenting increased HCC reactivity compared to boys. We also found that SECS and internalizing symptoms negatively predicted HCC, whereas the opposite relationship was found between externalizing symptoms and HCC reactivity. For healthy children, our results suggest that previous psychiatric symptoms and socio-emotional vulnerability may be risk factors for the presentation of diverging cortisol response patterns in response to an adverse life event (such as the COVID-19 pandemic).

Hair cortisol as a risk marker for increased depressive symptoms among older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic

Determining pre-existing biological risk markers of incident depression and other mental health sequelae after exposure to a new stressor would help identify vulnerable individuals and mechanistic pathways. This study investigated primarily whether hair cortisol predicted elevated depressive symptoms in middle-aged and older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic, 6 years later. A secondary aim was to deduce whether any association differed by sex.

METHODS

We studied 1025 adults aged 50 and older (75% female) as part of The Irish Longitudinal Study on Ageing. Hair cortisol samples were collected at 2014 (Wave 3) and depressive symptoms were assessed using the 8-item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale in 2014 (Wave 3), 2016 (Wave 4), 2018 (Wave 5) and again in 2020 as part of TILDA's COVID-19 Study. Hierarchical mixed effects logistic regression models were applied to investigate the association between cortisol levels and clinically significant depressive symptoms before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.

RESULTS

In a full covariate adjusted model there was a significant interaction between cortisol and wave on depressive symptoms (χ2 = 8.5, p = .03). Cortisol was positively and significantly associated with elevated depressive symptoms during the COVID-19 Study (OR =1.3, 95% CI 1.11, 1.56, p = .003), and was associated with an increased likelihood of reporting clinically significant depressive symptoms during first year of the COVID-19 pandemic, when compared with before, OR = 1.4, 95% CI 1.05, 1.9, p = .015. There was no evidence of effect modification by sex.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher hair cortisol, assessed 6 years previously, predicted clinically significant depressive symptoms among middle-aged and older adults during (but not before) the pandemic. Findings suggest a biological phenotype which denotes increased susceptibility to the negative impact of environmental stress on psychological health.

Association of childhood maltreatment and cortisol with the severity and stability of depression symptoms

BACKGROUND

Little is known about patterns of depression symptoms over time in older adults. This study aims to assess the association of childhood maltreatment and cortisol levels with latent classes of depression symptoms over ten years in older adults.

METHODS

A total of 752 participants (mean age 61.7±9.5, female 18%) in the Second Manifestations of ARTerial disease-Memory, depression and aging (SMART-Medea) study provided up to twenty measures of depression symptoms over ten years based on the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9). At baseline, salivary cortisol was measured, and childhood maltreatment was assessed. Responses to the PHQ-9 were indicators in a latent class analysis. Multinomial regression determined associations between class membership and cortisol and maltreatment, adjusting for age, sex, and education.

RESULTS

Four distinct classes were identified; never depressed (n=275, 37%), energy/sleep difficulties (n=237, 32%), mild depression symptoms (n=152, 20%) and fluctuating severe depression (n=88, 12%). Childhood maltreatment was associated with mild depression symptoms (OR=1.95, 95% CI: 1.17-3.25) and fluctuating severe depression (OR=3.50, 95% CI: 1.99-6.15). Blunted morning cortisol was associated with energy/sleep difficulties (OR=0.98, 95% CI: 0.95-1.00) and fluctuating severe depression (OR=0.96, 95% CI: 0.92-0.99). There was no evidence for interaction between maltreatment and cortisol.

LIMITATIONS

There is limited generalizability due to the cohort consisting of participants with atherosclerosis and being mostly male. This study utilizes retrospective self-reporting of childhood maltreatment.

CONCLUSION

Childhood maltreatment and blunted morning cortisol independently contribute to a worse depression course. Blunted morning cortisol may contribute to sub-clinical depression symptoms, specifically difficulties with energy levels and sleep.

The Mediating and Moderating Roles of Life Skills and Cortisol in the Relationship Between Sleep Quality and Depressive Symptoms Among Chinese Adolescents With Childhood Household Dysfunction

BACKGROUND

Various studies show that sleep quality, life skills, and cortisol are associated with depressive symptoms, separately. However, the relationships between sleep quality, life skills, cortisol, and depressive symptoms remain unclear. Thus, this study aims to examine the mediating or moderating roles of life skills and cortisol in the relationship between sleep quality and depressive symptoms.

METHODS

A retrospective cross-sectional study was performed among 212 adolescents with childhood household dysfunction (CHD) from August to October 2020 in China. We used the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, the Secondary School Student Life Skills Rating Scale, and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale to measure sleep quality, life skills, and depressive symptoms, respectively. Additionally, 65 participants provided blood samples to assess their blood cortisol levels. Analyses included correlations, regressions, and structural equation models. Bootstrapping was performed to examine the mediation effect. Multiple regression analysis was performed to examine the moderation effect.

RESULTS

The results showed that sleep quality and life skills were significantly associated with depressive symptoms (p < 0.01). Life skills mediated the relationship between sleep quality and depressive symptoms. Cortisol moderated the relationship between sleep quality and depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSION

Our findings support potential mediating and moderating roles of life skills and cortisol in the relationship between sleep quality and depressive symptoms, which suggests improving sleep quality, life skills are of great significance in the prevention and intervention of depression in adolescents with CHD, and disseminating knowledge about the high risk of developing increased depressive symptoms among adolescents with CHD with higher cortisol levels is indicated.

Theory of mind and hair cortisol in healthy young adults: the moderating effects of childhood trauma

Background: Experiences of negative social interactions and childhood trauma (CT) can lead to aberrant hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal functions. Poor theory of mind (ToM) ability is related to increased social stress levels; however, studies on the relationship between ToM and cortisol remain scarce. Objective: This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between ToM and the hair cortisol concentration (HCC) in healthy young adults considering the moderating role of CT. Method: A total of 206 healthy young adults were divided into two groups based on an experience of moderate-to-severe childhood trauma (CT+ and CT-). To determine whether CT moderated the relationship between ToM and HCC, moderation analysis was conducted controlling for age, sex, years of education, and scores of perceived stress, depression, and anxiety. Results: CT+ individuals reported higher subjective stress perception and depressive symptoms than CT- individuals, whereas anxiety-related symptoms, ToM, and HCC were not different between the groups. The experience of CT significantly moderated the relationship between ToM and HCC. The association between poorer ToM ability and higher HCC was significant only in CT+ group. Conclusion: CT is a moderator of the association between ToM and HCC, indicating the importance of CT in social cognition and the stress response.

Differential Susceptibility to the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Working Memory, Empathy, and Perceived Stress: The Role of Cortisol and Resilience

There are important individual differences in adaptation and reactivity to stressful challenges. Being subjected to strict social confinement is a distressful psychological experience leading to reduced emotional well-being, but it is not known how it can affect the cognitive and empathic tendencies of different individuals. Cortisol, a key glucocorticoid in humans, is a strong modulator of brain function, behavior, and cognition, and the diurnal cortisol rhythm has been postulated to interact with environmental stressors to predict stress adaptation. The present study investigates in 45 young adults (21.09 years old, SD = 6.42) whether pre-pandemic diurnal cortisol indices, overall diurnal cortisol secretion (AUCg) and cortisol awakening response (CAR) can predict individuals' differential susceptibility to the impact of strict social confinement during the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on working memory, empathy, and perceived stress. We observed that, following long-term home confinement, there was an increase in subjects' perceived stress and cognitive empathy scores, as well as an improvement in visuospatial working memory. Moreover, during confinement, resilient coping moderated the relationship between perceived stress scores and pre-pandemic AUCg and CAR. In addition, in mediation models, we observed a direct effect of AUCg and an indirect effect of both CAR and AUCg, on change in perceived self-efficacy. These effects were parallelly mediated by the increase in working memory span and cognitive empathy. In summary, our findings reveal the role of the diurnal pattern of cortisol in predicting the emotional impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, highlighting a potential biomarker for the identification of at-risk groups following public health crises.

Sleep problems in adolescence are prospectively linked to later depressive symptoms via the cortisol awakening response

Sleep disturbance is a symptom of and a well-known risk factor for depression. Further, atypical functioning of the HPA axis has been linked to the pathogenesis of depression. The purpose of this study was to examine the role of adolescent HPA axis functioning in the link between adolescent sleep problems and later depressive symptoms. Methods: A sample of 157 17-18 year old adolescents (61.8% female) completed the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Inventory (PSQI) and provided salivary cortisol samples throughout the day for three consecutive days. Two years later, adolescents reported their depressive symptoms via the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). Results: Individuals (age 17-18) with greater sleep disturbance reported greater depressive symptoms two years later (age 19-20). This association occurred through the indirect effect of sleep disturbance on the cortisol awakening response (CAR) (indirect effect = 0.14, 95%CI [.02 -.39]). Conclusions: One pathway through which sleep problems may lead to depressive symptoms is by up-regulating components of the body's physiological stress response system that can be measured through the cortisol awakening response. Behavioral interventions that target sleep disturbance in adolescents may mitigate this neurobiological pathway to depression during this high-risk developmental phase.

Interpersonal Stress Severity Longitudinally Predicts Adolescent Girls' Depressive Symptoms: the Moderating Role of Subjective and HPA Axis Stress Responses

In recent decades, stress response models of adolescent depression have gained attention, but it remains unclear why only certain adolescents are vulnerable to the depressogenic effects of stress while others are not. Building on evidence that affective and physiological responses to stress moderate the impact of stress exposure on depression, the current study examined whether the interaction between severity of interpersonal stress, subjective affective reactivity, and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis reactivity to an acute, in-vivo psychosocial stressor prospectively predicted depressive symptoms nine months later. Hypotheses were examined with a clinically-oversampled group of 182 adolescent girls (aged 12-16) to ensure an examination of the widest possible range of risk. Self-report measures of affect and salivary cortisol samples were collected before and after an in-vivo stress task to assess affective reactivity and HPA axis reactivity, respectively. Severity of interpersonal stress between baseline and nine months was assessed using a semi-structured interview and was objectively coded for severity and content theme (i.e., interpersonal vs. non-interpersonal). Results indicate that experiences of severe interpersonally-themed stress predict elevated levels of depressive symptoms longitudinally only for adolescent girls with elevated affective reactivity to stress, and suggest that these deleterious effects of stress are most exacerbated for girls with elevated physiological responses to stress. Findings suggest that it may be critical to examine both affective and physiological stress responses when assessing risk for depression in adolescents.

Stress sensitization to depression following childhood adversity: Moderation by HPA axis and serotonergic multilocus profile scores

Childhood adversity appears to sensitize youth to stress, increasing depression risk following stressful life events occurring throughout the lifespan. Some evidence suggests hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis-related and serotonergic genetic variation moderates this effect, in a "gene-by-environment-by-environment" interaction (G × E × E). However, prior research has tested single genetic variants, limiting power. The current study uses a multilocus genetic profile score (MGPS) approach to capture polygenic risk relevant to HPA axis and serotonergic functioning. Adolescents (N = 241, Mage = 15.90) completed contextual-threat-based interviews assessing childhood adversity and acute life events, and diagnostic interviews assessing depression. Established MGPSs indexed genetic variation linked to HPA axis (10 single nucleotide polymorphisms [SNPs]) and serotonergic (five SNPs) functioning. Results showed significant MGPS × Childhood Adversity × Recent Life Stress interactions predicting depression for both HPA axis and serotonergic MGPSs, with both risk scores predicting stronger Childhood Adversity × Recent Stress interactions. Serotonergic genetic risk specifically predicted sensitization to major interpersonal stressors. The serotonergic MGPS G × E × E was re-tested in an independent replication sample of early adolescent girls, with comparable results. Findings support the notion that genetic variation linked to these two neurobiological symptoms alters stress sensitization, and that gene-by-environment (G × E) interactions may be qualified by environmental exposures occurring at different points in development.

Effects Of Early Trauma and Recent Stressors on Depression, Anxiety, and Anger

BACKGROUND

Early life traumatic events and recent stressful events are known to have especially strong effects on emotional wellbeing. However, little is known about the interaction of early and recent stressors on emotions. We aimed to examine the interactive effects of early trauma and recent stressors on depression, anxiety, and anger.

METHODS

One hundred and seventy adults were recruited and asked to complete the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), the state anxiety subscale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-S), and the state anger subscale of the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI-S). Early traumas and recent stressors were assessed during face-to-face interviews. Multiple regression analysis was performed to test whether early trauma, recent stressors, and the interaction of the two would predict CES-D, STAI-S, and STAXI-S scores.

RESULTS

In the multiple regression models, STAI-S scores were predicted only by recent stressors (R² = 0.063, p = 0.001). In contrast, CES-D and STAXI-S scores were predicted only by the synergistic interaction of early trauma with recent stressors (R² = 0.075, p < 0.001; R² = 0.039, p = 0.01, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

A synergistic interaction effect between early trauma and recent stressful events on current depression and anger was observed, indicating that the combined effects of early trauma and recent stressors are stronger than their individual effects. In contrast, anxiety was affected mainly by recent stressors. Our findings suggest that the form that emotional disturbance takes can vary depending on the timing of stressors.

Feasibility of a Complex Setting for Assessing Sleep and Circadian Rhythmicity in a Fragile X Cohort

INTRODUCTION

Sleep, circadian rhythms, (mental) health, and development are assumed to be intertwined. However, differentiated and reliable parameters of sleep and circadian rhythms are particularly difficult to assess for Fragile X (FXS) individuals. As those parameters need to be observed in complex settings, the feasibility of measurements for people with FXS was to be proven. Findings from this pilot study can inform further research and help to estimate sample sizes for future studies on FXS patients.

METHODS AND SAMPLE

Nine individuals (male and female) with full mutation of the FMR1 gene were integrated in the study and underwent a complex measurement including actigraphy, sleep log, and 24-h saliva sampling in order to examine profiles of melatonin and cortisol, and a polysomnography.

RESULTS

Seven actigraphy profiles, eight sleep logs, eight saliva profiles and seven polysomnographic data sets were collected. Complete data were analyzed for six individuals [mean age 14.87 years (SD 4.12), mean BMI 25.90 (SD 4.44)] were collected. No drop outs due to the constraints of the assessment were registered.

DISCUSSION

All assessments and the setting in total were tolerated well by participants and caregivers. Procedures were adapted to individual needs of the participants.

CONCLUSION

All its components and the setting in total are absolutely feasible in the specific population of FXS individuals. Losses during consenting and recruiting have to be planned as well as high amounts of interindividual variances have to be taken into account.

The interactive association of proximal life stress and cumulative HPA axis functioning with depressive symptoms

BACKGROUND

Stress is consistently implicated in depression. Using a vulnerability-stress framework, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis may be one factor affecting the stress-depression association. However, the interactive influence of recent life stress and HPA axis functioning on depressive symptoms remains unclear. It is particularly important to understand the synergistic association during adolescence, as this is a developmental period associated with a high risk for depression.

METHODS

A community sample of 58 adolescents (67% female, 59% Caucasian; mean age, 15.07 years) participated. Adolescents completed a well-validated measure of depressive symptoms and a structured life events interview to assess recent life stress. Hair cortisol concentration was obtained to measure cumulative exposure to HPA axis functioning.

RESULTS

Recent life stress and cumulative HPA axis exposure measured through hair cortisol were directly associated with higher depressive symptoms. Further, cumulative HPA axis exposure moderated the relationship between recent life stress and depressive symptoms. The recent life stress-depression association occurred for adolescents who experienced average and high, but not low, levels of cumulative HPA axis exposure.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study builds on prior work and finds both a direct and interactive association of recent life stress and cumulative HPA axis functioning with depressive symptoms during adolescence. Identifying youth who experience high levels of HPA axis exposure is important to prevent the onset of depression.

The cortisol awakening response (CAR) interacts with acute interpersonal stress to prospectively predict depressive symptoms among early adolescent girls

The cortisol awakening response (CAR) has been shown to prospectively predict depression, but it remains unresolved whether a greater CAR predicts risk independently of subsequent acute stress, or whether greater CAR indicates increased vulnerability to subsequent acute stress. Further, no prior work has evaluated whether the CAR increases vulnerability to certain types of acute stress, but not others, in predicting depression. To address these gaps, we investigated whether the CAR predicted depressive symptoms alone and in interaction with acute interpersonal stress in a one-year longitudinal study of 86 early adolescent girls with no history of diagnosable depression. To index the CAR, adolescents collected saliva at waking and 30-minutes past waking for 3 days; compliance with the sampling protocol was electronically monitored. Diagnostic and objective contextual stress interviews were used to quantify acute stress in the 2-months prior to worst depressive symptom onset during the follow-up. Supporting hypotheses, results indicated that greater CAR predicted greater depressive symptoms, and interacted with acute interpersonal stress in predicting depressive symptoms. Further, the CAR interacted with acute dependent (i.e., at least partially arising from the person's behavior) interpersonal stress in predicting depressive symptoms. In contrast, the CAR did not interact with acute non-interpersonal stress nor acute interpersonal independent (i.e., fateful) stress in predicting depressive symptoms. These results further refine circumstances in which the CAR is predictive of depressive symptoms among early adolescent girls, and highlight the importance of focusing on etiologically relevant stress when testing interactions between physiological stress indicators and environmental stress.

Cortisol awakening response and additive serotonergic genetic risk interactively predict depression in two samples: The 2019 Donald F. Klein Early Career Investigator Award Paper

BACKGROUND

The serotonin system and hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis are each implicated in the pathway to depression; human and animal research support these systems' cross-talk. Our work implicates a 5-variant additive serotoninergic multilocus genetic profile score (MGPS) and separately the cortisol awakening response (CAR) in the prospective prediction of depression; other work has shown that the serotonin transporter polymorphism 5HTTLPR predicts CAR and interacts with the CAR to predict depression.

METHODS

We tested the hypothesis that a 6-variant MGPS (original plus 5HTTLPR) would interact with CAR to predict prospective depressive episode onsets in 201 emerging adults using four annual follow-up interviews. We also tested whether MGPS predicted CAR. We attempted replication of significant findings in a sample of 77 early adolescents predicting depression symptoms.

RESULTS

In sample 1, MGPS did not significantly predict CAR. MGPS interacted with CAR to predict depressive episodes; CAR slopes for depression steepened as MGPS increased, for risk or protection. No single variant accounted for results, though CAR's interactions with 5HTTLPR and the original MGPS were both significant. In sample 2, the 6-variant MGPS significantly interacted with CAR to predict depression symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher serotonergic MGPS appears to sensitize individuals to CAR level-for better and worse-in predicting depression.

Parental depression moderates the relationships of cortisol and testosterone with children's symptoms

BACKGROUND

Previous research on the hormone-symptom relationship in children suggests that certain hormone patterns may be associated with symptoms, but only under certain circumstances. Having a parent with a history of depression may be one circumstance under which dysregulated hormone patterns are especially associated with emotional and behavioral symptoms in children. The current study sought to explore these relationships in a community sample of 389 9-year-old children.

METHODS

Children's salivary cortisol and testosterone levels were collected at home over three consecutive days; parental psychiatric histories were assessed using semi-structured diagnostic interviews; and children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms were rated by the child's mother.

RESULTS

Having two parents with a history of depression moderated the associations of reduced total daily cortisol output with higher externalizing scores, as well as the association of reduced testosterone with higher internalizing scores. A maternal history of depression, on the other hand, moderated the relationship between higher cortisol awakening response and higher internalizing scores. Furthermore, lower daily cortisol output was associated with higher internalizing scores among girls, but not boys, with two parents with a history depression.

LIMITATIONS

Limitations include the cross-sectional nature of the current analyses, as well as the limited racial, ethnic, and geographical diversity of the sample.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, the current results suggest that the relationship between hormones and internalizing and externalizing symptoms in children may vary as a function of parental depression and child sex, knowledge that may inform intervention efforts aimed at preventing psychopathology in children whose parents have a history of depression.

Cultural neurobiology and the family: Evidence from the daily lives of Latino adolescents

Culturally linked family influences during adolescence are important predictors of health and well-being for Latino youth, yet few studies have examined whether these familial influences are associated with indicators of typical physiological stress processes. Following a cultural neurobiology framework, we examined the role of family in the everyday lives of Latino adolescents (N = 209; Mage = 18.10; 85.1% Mexican descent; 64.4% female) by investigating familism values and perceptions of parent support as well as daily family assistance behaviors in relation to hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis diurnal patterns, indexed by salivary cortisol five times a day for 3 weekdays. Three-level growth curve analyses revealed that perceptions of parental support were associated with greater cortisol awakening responses, whereas familism values were not associated with diurnal cortisol patterns. In day-to-day analyses, assisting family during the day (compared to not assisting family) was associated with lower waking cortisol levels and flatter diurnal slopes the next day. Our findings highlight the dynamic associations and multiple time courses between cultural values and behaviors, daily experiences, and physiological stress processes for Latino adolescents. Further, we identified important cultural risk and promotive factors associated with physiological regulation in daily life and potential pathways toward health outcomes in adulthood.

The relationship between childhood adversity, recent stressors, and depression in college students attending a South African university

BACKGROUND

College students are at risk of depression. This risk may be increased by the experience of childhood adversity and/or recent stressors. This study examined the association between reported experiences of childhood adversity, recent stressors and depression during the last 12 months in a cohort of South African university students.

METHODS

Six hundred and eighty-six first year students at Stellenbosch University in South Africa completed a health-focused e-survey that included items on childhood adversity, recent stressors and mood. Individual and population attributable risk proportions (PARP) between experiences of childhood adversity and 12-month stressful experiences and 12-month depression were estimated using multivariate binomial logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

About one in six students reported depression during the last 12 months. Being a victim of bullying and emotional abuse or emotional neglect during childhood were the strongest predictors of depression in the past year at both individual and population level. With regard to recent stressors, a romantic partner being unfaithful, serious ongoing arguments or break-ups with some other close friend or family member and a sexual or gender identity crisis were the strongest predictors of depression. The predictor effect of recent stressors was significantly reduced in the final model that adjusted for the type and number of childhood traumatic experiences. At a population level, academic stress, serious ongoing arguments or break-ups with a close friend or family member, and serious betrayal by someone close were the variables that yielded the highest PARP.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest a significant relationship between early adversity, recent stressors, and depression here and throughout, consistent with the broader literature on predictors of depression. This study contributes to the limited data on college students' mental health in low and middle income countries including on the African continent. The findings provide information on the population level effect sizes of trauma as a risk factor for depression, as well as on the relationship between specific recent stressors and depression in college students.