Development of hot and cool executive function during the transition to adolescence

Effects of Cognitive and Physical Load of Acute Exercise on Inhibitory Control and Prefrontal Cortex Hemodynamics in Children

INTRODUCTION

Evidence suggests that acute exercise benefits inhibitory control, but it remains unclear how physical and cognitive load influence this ability in preadolescent children, when faced with different types of distractors. We examined their moderating effects along with changes in prefrontal cortex hemodynamics.

METHODS

Using a crossover design, 29 participants completed 10 min of exercise (with an interactive training wall) at 1) low physical and low cognitive load, 2) low physical and high cognitive load, 3) high physical and low cognitive load, and 4) high physical and high cognitive load in a randomized order. Before and after each condition, they performed a Standard and Affective Stroop task. During both tasks, the lateral oxygenation difference in the prefrontal cortex was measured by using functional near-infrared spectroscopy.

RESULTS

For the Standard Stroop task, there was no effect of physical and cognitive load on performance. In contrast, exercise with low compared with high cognitive load was associated with a greater reduction of reaction time and increase in accuracy on the Affective Stroop task. This was accompanied by a decrease in lateral oxygenation difference on trials with low inhibitory control demands.

CONCLUSIONS

Acute exercise with low compared with high cognitive demand benefits the ability to resolve emotional conflict, but the control over inhibition of nonemotional information remains unaffected. This effect of cognitive load is complemented by an increased efficiency of the left prefrontal cortex, when no emotional conflict resolution is required.

Decreased gray matter volume in the anterior cerebellar of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder comorbid oppositional defiant disorder children with associated cerebellar-cerebral hyperconnectivity: insights from a combined structural MRI and resting-state fMRI study

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) are highly comorbid. Many prior investigations have found that ADHD relates to anatomical abnormalities in gray matter. The abnormal gray matter of ADHD comorbid ODD is still poorly understood. This study aimed to explore the effect of comorbid ODD on gray matter volume (GMV) and functional alterations in ADHD. All data were provided by the ADHD-200 Preprocessed Repository, including 27 ADHD-only children, 27 ADHD + ODD children, and 27 healthy controls aged 9-14 years. Voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and functional connectivity (FC) of resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) were used to compare the difference in GMV and FC between ADHD + ODD, ADHD-only, and healthy children. The results showed that ADHD children with comorbid ODD had a more significant reduction in cerebellar volume, mainly in the anterior regions of the cerebellum (Cerebellum_4_5). The Cerebellum_4_5 showed increased functional connectivity with multiple cortical regions. These brain regions include numerous executive functioning (EF) and brain default mode network (DMN) nodes. The GMV abnormalities and excessive connectivity between brain regions may further exacerbate the emotional and cognitive deficits associated with ADHD.

Profiles of executive functions in middle childhood and prediction of later self-regulation

Most research on the development of executive functions (EF) has applied variable-oriented approaches, neglecting the potential inter- and intraindividual interplay of these capacities. In a person-oriented approach, the present study identified varying profiles of performance for three cool EF facets: inhibition, working-memory updating, and cognitive flexibility, as well as two hot EF facets: affective decision-making and delay of gratification, in a community sample of 1,657 children (T1; age: 6-11 years, M = 8.36 years, 52.1% female) via latent profile analysis. The best-fitting model allowed for partial dependence across the three cool EF and included four profiles: all-average (69.4% of the children), low-delay (19.0%), regulated-decision-making (7.0%), and low-inhibition (4.6%). Age, binary sex, socio-economic status, multilingualism, and processing speed were identified as significant characteristics of EF profile membership. Longitudinally, a higher probability of belonging to the low-inhibition profile predicted lower rates of the self-regulatory outcome of inhibitory control 1 year later, while belonging to the regulated-decision-making profile predicted lower rates of the ability to plan and organize 3 years later. These results not only demonstrate the existence of subgroups with different concurrent within-person expressions of EF performance, but also identify related characteristics and longitudinal outcomes of subgroup membership. In turn, these conclusions stress the importance of person-oriented research to inform on differing weaknesses or strengths in EF performance for varying individuals, thereby providing valuable insight for educational and clinical research into the design of effective personalized support or interventions during middle childhood.

A critical review of hot executive functioning in youth attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Methodological limitations, conceptual considerations, and future directions

Hot executive functioning (EF) - EF under emotionally or motivationally salient conditions - is a putative etiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), disruptive behavior problems (DBPs), and their related impairments. Despite two decades of research, the present study is the first review of the construct in youth ADHD, with a particular focus on the role of task design, age, and DBPs, as well as relevant conceptual and methodological considerations. While certain hot EF tasks have been investigated extensively (e.g., choice impulsivity), substantial inconsistency in measurement of the broader construct remains, severely limiting conclusions. Future research should a) consider the extent to which various hot EF tasks relate to one another, a higher order factor, and other related constructs; b) further investigate task design, particularly the elicitation of emotion or motivation and its anticipated effect on EF; and c) incorporate multiple levels of analysis to validate similarities and differences among tasks with regard to the affective experiences and cognitive demands they elicit. With improved measurement and conceptual clarity, hot EF has potential to advance the literature on etiological pathways to ADHD, DBPs and associated impairments and, more broadly, may represent a useful tool for understanding the influence of emotion and motivation on cognition.

A scoping review on self-regulation and reward processing measured with gambling tasks: Evidence from the general youth population

Aberrant reward processing and poor self-regulation have a crucial role in the development of several adverse outcomes in youth, including mental health disorders and risky behaviours. This scoping review aims to map and summarise the evidence for links between aspects and measures of reward processing and self-regulation among children and adolescents in the general population. Specifically, it examined the direct associations between self-regulation (emotional or cognitive regulation) and reward processing. Studies were included if participants were <18 years and representative of the general population. Quantitative measures were used for self-regulation, and gambling tasks were used for reward processing. Of the eighteen studies included only two were longitudinal. Overall, the direction of the significant relationships identified depended on the gambling task used and the self-regulation aspect explored. Emotional regulation was measured with self-report questionnaires only, and was the aspect with the most significant associations. Conversely, cognitive regulation was mainly assessed with cognitive assessments, and most associations with reward processing were non-significant, particularly when the cognitive regulation aspects included planning and organisational skills. Nonetheless, there was some evidence of associations with attention, cognitive control, and overall executive functioning. More longitudinal research is needed to draw accurate conclusions on the direction of the association between self-regulation and reward processing.

Age-related differences in the removal of information from working memory

Removal has been assumed to be a core mechanism in working memory. However, it remains unclear whether children can actively remove outdated information from working memory and how this ability develops as children age. The current study aimed to examine age-related differences in removal ability and its relations with cognitive control and working memory capacity. Children aged 7, 9, and 11 years performed a modified working memory updating task assessing removal efficiency. In addition, a battery of cognitive control and working memory capacity tasks was administered. Results indicated that updating response times decreased considerably when a longer time was given for removal, suggesting that children aged 7 to 11 years can actively remove outdated items from working memory prior to encoding the new ones and that removal efficiency increased with age. More important, age-related increases in removal efficiency occurred concurrently with the development of working memory capacity. Proactive control predicted removal efficiency over and beyond age and working memory capacity. The findings shed new light on the mechanisms underlying the development of working memory updating.

Influence of rhythmic-movement activity intervention on hot executive function of 5- to 6-year-old children

Hot Executive Function (hot EF) refers to cognitive process involved in high emotion or motivation, and the operation of this function is related to the activities of the ventromedial prefrontal lobe and orbitofrontal lobe. Meanwhile, rhythmic-movement activity is a musical activity in which one expresses and feels music with one's own body movements which involves cognitive abilities such as adjusting and understanding emotions among children. To explore how rhythmic-movement activity with rewards influences the development of hot EF in children of 5-6 years old, the organization principles of rhythmic-movement activity with rewards intervention on hot EF were designed, and 62 children of 5-6 years old in a kindergarten in Yantai of China were selected as research participants (M = 5.80 years old, SD = 0.37 years old) for pre-test and post-test experimental design. The experimental group received rhythmic-movement activity with rewards three times a week for 6 weeks, while the control group did not. The gift delay task and the children's gambling task were used to measure two sub-components of hot EF before and after the intervention, and the results show that rhythmic-movement activity with rewards has a significant effect on gratification delay and affective decision-making ability of children. Finally, the effects and enlightenment of rhythmic-movement activity with rewards on hot EF are discussed.

Hot and cool executive function in the development of behavioral problems in grade school

Despite the well-established link between children's executive function and behavioral adjustment, it remains unclear whether the hot and cool aspects of executive function are uniquely associated with children's behavioral problems. Using longitudinal data spanning in the grade school (N = 1,140), this study aimed to examine whether hot and cool executive function skills may be uniquely related to the development of behavioral problems. Hot and cool executive function skills were measured with tasks, standardized tests, and questionnaires at 54 months and in the first grade, respectively. Internalizing and externalizing problems were evaluated by teachers using questionnaires throughout the grade school. The results indicated that, independent of each other, hot and cool executive function skills were uniquely and negatively related to the development of internalizing and externalizing problems over time at the between-individual level, adjusting for within-individual fluctuations. Moreover, internalizing and externalizing problems were positively related at the between-individual level across the grade school. Findings provide needed evidence to clarify the relations between hot and cool executive function and children's behavioral problems, emphasizing the importance of both aspects of executive function in understanding the development of behavioral problems in school-age children.

Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function in Preschool (BRIEF-P) and Attention-Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders (ADHD): A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Floor and Ceiling Effects

BACKGROUND

ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is accompanied by executive challenges.

OBJECTIVES

To obtain evidence of the usefulness of the BRIEF-P and to analyze the possible ceiling and floor effect of its scores in the assessment of executive function in preschoolers with signs compatible with a possible diagnosis of ADHD.

METHOD

A search was performed in Science Direct, NCBI (PubMed), and ProQuest Education Journals during the period 2012-2022. We included studies that evaluated samples of individuals with symptomatology compatible with ADHD, with an age range between 2 and 6 years, published in English or Spanish. Of a total of 2538 articles, only seven met the inclusion criteria. The risk of bias was assessed using the QUADAS-2 questionnaire. The main variables were age and executive functioning.

CONCLUSIONS

Executive deficits in early-age individuals with symptoms compatible with ADHD are more extensive than just deficits in working memory. A floor effect has been found in tests associated with hot executive functions and a ceiling effect in cold executive functions. This makes it necessary to use different tests to assess executive performance in preschoolers with ADHD-compatible symptomatology and to design intervention proposals accordingly. The BRIEF-P is an instrument that facilitates obtaining a sensitive and discriminative executive profile, although it should be used in combination with other neuropsychological performance tests.

Self-regulated learning as a mediator of the relation between executive functions and preschool academic competence

Executive functions (EF) and self-regulated learning (SRL) are processes for the goal-directed control of cognition and (learning) behavior that positively affect academic outcomes. Based on the finding that EF form the developmental basis for SRL, this study tested a model that assumes SRL as a mediator of the relationship between preschool EF and academic competence. Previous studies that found evidence for this mediation considered as predictors cool EF, which are important in emotionally neutral situations. However, since (pre)school-based learning is also associated with motivational incentives (e.g., praise from teachers and educators), this study aimed to test the validity of the above-mentioned mediation model using as predictors hot EF, which are important in emotional-motivational contexts. To this end, the constructs included in the model were cross-sectionally examined using performance measures and parent ratings in a sample of n = 77 German preschoolers (Mage = 71.61 months, SD = 4.13; 51.9 % girls). Results show that SRL mediates the relationship between hot EF and academic competence. Methodological limitations of the present study and implications for research and practice are discussed.

The Interaction Between Measurement and Individual Difference in Ego Depletion: Task Type, Trait Self-Control and Action Orientation

Previous research found that performing an initial self-control task impairs subsequent self-control performance, which is referred to as ego depletion. However, recent meta-analyses and replication studies have led to controversies over whether the ego depletion effect is as reliable as previously assumed. The present study aimed to shed more light on these controversies by combining depletion measurement task type and personality as moderators. Study 1 investigated trait self-control and action orientation's moderation role for depletion effects on stop-signal task (inhibitory control). Study 2 examined the trait self-control and action orientation's moderation role for depletion effects on a majority congruent Stroop task (goal maintenance). Results showed that trait self-control moderated the ego depletion effect on stop-signal reaction time (SSRT). High trait self-control people were less vulnerable to the ego depletion effect on the reactive inhibitory control task, whereas the moderating role of trait self-control for ego depletion was not found in the goal maintenance task. More particularly, high action-oriented people were less susceptible to the ego depletion effect on the goal maintenance task, but there was no moderation effect of action orientation for ego depletion in the stop-signal task. We discuss types of task for depletion measurement and individual differences in ego depletion, and we suggest possible avenues for future research.

Differential effects of mindfulness meditation and cognitive training on cool and hot inhibitory control in children and adolescents

Inhibitory control (IC) can occur either in a neutral context (cool) or in social contexts involving emotions (hot). Cool and hot IC have specific developmental trajectories; cool IC develops linearly from childhood to adulthood, whereas hot IC follows a quadratic trajectory. Some activities can improve the IC, such as cognitive training (CT) and mindfulness meditation (MM). The aim of our study was to compare the effects of 5 weeks of computerized MM versus CT on IC performance in 66 children (9-10 years old) and 63 adolescents (16-17 years old) by specifically analyzing cool and hot dimensions in the same participants and from a developmental perspective. We fit a linear mixed-effect model on the Stroop interference score with time (pretest vs. posttest) and type of conflict (cool vs. hot) as within-participant factors and intervention group (CT vs. MM) and age group (child vs. adolescent) as between-participant factors. The findings revealed that children but not adolescents benefitted from interventions. More specifically, CT improved cool IC but not hot IC, whereas MM practice improved hot IC but not cool IC. This study supports the benefits of MM at a young age. Theoretical issues linking MM programs to emotional competence grounded in hot IC skills are considered in academic settings.

Developmental trajectory of hot and cold executive functions in children with and without attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

BACKGROUND

Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have a delayed development. Two main cognitive models of ADHD are executive (cold) and motivational (hot) models. In this study, we aimed to compare the development of hot and cold executive functions in children with and without ADHD.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Forty-six children with ADHD symptoms (56% boys) and forty-four typically developing controls (54% boys), in three age groups of 6-8, 8-10 and 10-12 years, were participated in the study. Go/No-Go Task (GNGT), One-Back Test (OBT) and Shifting Attention Test (SAT), Delay Discounting Test (DDT) and Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) were used for assessment.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

Children with ADHD showed lower performance in GNG, OBT, SAT, and BART, but intact performance in DDT. The tasks' performance was significantly different between three age groups in GNG and SAT, but similar in OBT and BART. The interaction effect was significant only for the BART measures.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Children with ADHD compared to typically developing children, experience impaired hot and cold executive functions. The cognitive delay was found only in risky decision making as a hot executive function.

Age differences in intertemporal choice among children, adolescents, and adults

When choosing between sooner-smaller and later-larger rewards (i.e., intertemporal choices), adults typically prefer later-larger rewards more often than children. Intertemporal choice preferences have been implicated in various impulsivity-related psychopathologies, making it important to understand the underlying mechanisms not only in terms of how reward magnitude and delay affect choice but also in terms of how these mechanisms develop across age. We administered an intertemporal choice paradigm to 60 children (8-11 years), 79 adolescents (14-16 years), and 60 young adults (18-23 years). The paradigm systematically varied amounts and delays of the available rewards, allowing us to identify mechanisms underlying age-related differences in patience. Compared with young adults, both children and adolescents made fewer later-larger choices. In terms of underlying mechanisms, variation in delays, absolute reward magnitudes, and relative amount differences affected choice in each age group, indicating that children showed sensitivity to the same choice-relevant factors as young adults. Sensitivity to both absolute reward magnitude and relative amount differences showed a further monotonic age-related increase, whereas no change in delay sensitivity occurred. Lastly, adolescents and young adults weakly displayed a present bias (i.e., overvaluing immediate vs. future rewards; nonsignificant and trend, respectively), whereas children showed a nonsignificant but opposite pattern, possibly indicating that specifically dealing with future rewards changed with age. These findings shed light on the underlying mechanisms that contribute to the development of patience. By decomposing overt choices, our results suggest that the age-related increase in patience may be driven specifically by stronger sensitivity to amount differences with age.

A one-year follow-up of the cognitive and psycho-behavioural skills in artistic gymnastics

A good set of cognitive and psycho-behavioural skills are beneficial for young athletes to overcome and benefit from developmental challenges. Unfortunately, there is still a dearth of knowledge on how both these cognitive (i.e., executive functions; EF) and psycho-behavioural (i.e., psychological characteristics of developing excellence; PCDE) skills develop in youth athletes. Especially for athletes in early specialisation sports such as artistic gymnastics, the early EF and PCDE development might be important to be able to cope with the pressure and challenges that comes with a transition to the next stage. In the current study, artistic gymnasts between 9 and 22 years old were tested twice with a 12-month interval to investigate the changes in EF and PCDE. Results showed that EF developed within the youngest stage, but plateaued at the later stages. Most PCDE did not seem to change over time within each stage. Furthermore, the transition to a new stage does not seem to coincide with an increased improvement of PCDE. However, with a case study approach in the oldest stages, still inter-individual differences in EF and PCDE scores over time were observed. This study shows that EF and PCDE develop over time, albeit in a non-linear way, and along a variety of developmental trajectories.

Reward maximization assessed using a sequential patch depletion task in a large sample of heterogeneous stock rats

Choice behavior requires animals to evaluate both short- and long-term advantages and disadvantages of all potential alternatives. Impulsive choice is traditionally measured in laboratory tasks by utilizing delay discounting (DD), a paradigm that offers a choice between a smaller immediate reward, or a larger more delayed reward. This study tested a large sample of Heterogeneous Stock (HS) male (n = 896) and female (n = 898) rats, part of a larger genetic study, to investigate whether measures of reward maximization overlapped with traditional models of delay discounting via the patch depletion model using a Sequential Patch Depletion procedure. In this task, rats were offered a concurrent choice between two water "patches" and could elect to "stay" in the current patch or "leave" for an alternative patch. Staying in the current patch resulted in decreasing subsequent reward magnitudes, whereas the choice to leave a patch was followed by a delay and a resetting to the maximum reward magnitude. Based on the delay in a given session, different visit durations were necessary to obtain the maximum number of rewards. Visit duration may be analogous to an indifference point in traditional DD tasks. Males and females did not significantly differ on traditional measures of DD (e.g. delay gradient; AUC). When examining measures of patch utilization, females made fewer patch changes at all delays and spent more time in the patch before leaving for the alternative patch compared to males. Consistent with this, there was some evidence that females deviated from reward maximization more than males. However, when controlling for body weight, females had a higher normalized rate of reinforcement than males. Measures of reward maximization were only weakly associated with traditional DD measures and may represent distinctive underlying processes. Taken together, females performance differed from males with regard to reward maximization that were not observed utilizing traditional measures of DD, suggesting that the patch depletion model was more sensitive to modest sex differences when compared to traditional DD measures in a large sample of HS rats.

Risk Decision Making and Executive Function among Adolescents and Young Adults

The dual theory establishes that the decision-making process relies on two different systems, the affective system and the executive function (EF), developed during adolescence. This study analyzes the relationship between the decision-making and EF processes in a group of early adolescents (mean age = 12.51 years, SD = 0.61), where more affective impulse processes are developed, and in young adults (mean age = 19.38 years, SD = 1.97), where cognitive control processes have already matured. For this purpose, 140 participants in Spain completed the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) to measure their risky decisions and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) to measure their EF. Performance on the IGT improves over blocks; however, adolescents received lower mean scores than young adults. However, controlling for age, perseverative errors were negatively associated with the mean net score on the risky blocks of IGT; thus, those who committed more perseverative errors in the WCST were more likely to take cards from the disadvantageous decks on the last blocks of the IGT. The current study shows that adolescents and adults solve ambiguous decisions by trial and error; however, adolescents are more likely to make risky decisions without attending to the long-term consequences. Following the dual theory hypothesis, the maturation of EF with age partly accounts for this difference in risky decision-making between adolescents and adults.

Relationship between Executive Functions, Social Cognition, and Attachment State of Mind in Adolescence: An Explorative Study

BACKGROUND

The passage from pre-adolescence to adolescence is presented as a turning point for the achievement of those abilities in social understanding as they commonly appear in adulthood. Developmental perspectives point to the possible role of neuro-cognitive maturation and social experiences to facilitate this growth. This paper has the goal to goalsto propose a valid and reliable measure of the new quantitative and qualitative advancements in social understanding occurring in the adolescent passage; relying on this, the research has two main objectives (a) to establish the associations between the advancements in social understanding and the executive functions held responsible for the neuro-cognitive rearrangements of adolescence; (c) to evidence the significant associations between attachment models and the development of social understanding in this phase of life.

METHODS

100 subjects (50 boys and 50 girls, aged 11-15) were administered with AICA, SCORS, CNT, Stroop Color-Word Test, and WISC-III.

RESULTS

Advancements in the complexity of self-other representations and mentalization of interpersonal exchanges significantly occurs in the passage from pre-adolescence to adolescence and seem to be promoted by increased performances in executive control and cognitive shifting. Dismissing state of mind with respect to attachment is associated with lower development of social understanding in adolescence. The neurocognitive reorganization that underlies the passage from pre-adolescence to adolescence seems to provide the scaffolding for more sophisticated interpretations of the social world. Past and current affective experience can boost or hinder the full deployment of such human maturational potential. Given the importance of social cognition for adjustment and psychopathology, clinical intervention should target the amelioration of individual and family abilities in social reasoning and mentalization.

Reward Maximization Assessed Using a Sequential Patch Depletion Task in a Large Sample of Heterogeneous Stock Rats

Choice behavior requires animals to evaluate both short- and long-term advantages and disadvantages of all potential alternatives. Impulsive choice is traditionally measured in laboratory tasks by utilizing delay discounting (DD), a paradigm that offers a choice between a smaller immediate reward, or a larger more delayed reward. This study tested a large sample of Heterogeneous Stock (HS) male (n = 896) and female (n = 898) rats, part of a larger genetic study, to investigate whether measures of reward maximization overlapped with traditional models of delay discounting via the patch depletion model using a Sequential Patch Depletion procedure. In this task, rats were offered a concurrent choice between two water "patches" and could elect to "stay" in the current patch or "leave" for an alternative patch. Staying in the current patch resulted in decreasing subsequent reward magnitudes, whereas the choice to leave a patch was followed by a delay and a resetting to the maximum reward magnitude. Based on the delay in a given session, different visit durations were necessary to obtain the maximum number of rewards. Visit duration may be analogous to an indifference point in traditional DD tasks. While differences in traditional DD measures (e.g., delay gradient) have been detected between males and females, these effects were small and inconsistent. However, when examining measures of reward maximization, females made fewer patch changes at all delays and spent more time in the patch before leaving for the alternative patch compared to males. This pattern of choice resulted in males having a higher rate of reinforcement than females. Consistent with this, there was some evidence that females deviated from the optimal more, leading to less reward. Measures of reward maximization were only weakly associated with traditional DD measures and may represent distinctive underlying processes. Taken together, females performance differed from males with regard to reward maximization that were not observed utilizing traditional measures of DD, suggesting that the patch depletion model was more sensitive to modest sex differences when compared to traditional DD measures in a large sample of HS rats.

Influence of Social Exclusion on Cool and Hot Inhibitory Control in Chinese College Students

Social exclusion can affect nearly every aspect of a person's mental health, both on an emotional and cognitive level. The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether cool or hot inhibitory control capacity varied under social exclusion. More precisely, participants who had experienced and not experienced social exclusion were compared to explore the influence of social exclusion on cool and hot inhibitory controls. Social exclusion was induced through the use of a Cyberball game, and participants were divided into an exclusion group and an inclusion group. The number Stroop task and emotional face Stroop task were used to measure the cool and hot inhibitory control, respectively. In the cool Stroop task, participants had to refrain from reading printed digits to identify the number of items presented in the array. In the hot Stroop task, participants had to inhibit the meaning of the word to identify the emotion displayed on the face. Reaction time, accuracy, and Stroop interference were analyzed to compare the inhibitory control between the exclusion group and the inclusion group. The results showed an extension of the response time in the exclusion group compared to the inclusion group. We found a higher interference effect in the number of Stroop tasks in the exclusion group than that in the inclusion group, but it was not significant in the emotional face Stroop task. The results suggest that the cognitive and emotional basis of inhibitory control may differ during social exclusion. The present findings expand our understanding of how social exclusion affects cool and hot inhibitory controls and their internal psychological mechanism.

Interoceptive accuracy is associated with benefits in decision making in children

Introduction

Decision making results not only from logical analyses, but seems to be further guided by the ability to perceive somatic information (interoceptive accuracy). Relations between interoceptive accuracy and decision making have been exclusively studied in adults and with regard to complex, uncertain situations (as measured by the Iowa Gambling Task, IGT).

Methods

In the present study, 1454 children (6-11 years) were examined at two time points (approximately 1 year apart) using an IGT as well as a delay-of-gratification task for sweets-items and toy-items. Interoceptive accuracy was measured using a child-adapted version of the Heartbeat Perception Task.

Results

The present results revealed that children with higher, as compared to lower, interoceptive accuracy showed more advantageous choices in the IGT and delayed more sweets-items, but not toy-items, in a delay-of-gratification task at time point 2 but not at time point 1. However, no longitudinal relation between interoceptive accuracy and decision making 1 year later could be shown.

Discussion

Results indicate that interoceptive accuracy relates to decision-making abilities in situations of varying complexity already in middle childhood, and that this link might consolidate across the examined 1-year period. Furthermore, the association of interoceptive accuracy and the delay of sweets-items might have implications for the regulation of body weight at a later age.

Deliberative and Affective Risky Decisions in Teenagers: Different Associations with Maladaptive Psychological Functioning and Difficulties in Emotion Regulation?

Using network analysis, we investigated the relationships between maladaptive psychological functioning, difficulties in emotion regulation, and risk-taking in deliberative and affective behavioral decisions. Participants (103 adolescents aged between 13 and 19 years, 62% boys) took the Cold (deliberative) and Hot (affective) versions of the Columbia Card Task and completed the Youth Self-Report (YSR) and the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS). In contrast to the view that risk propensity increases from preadolescence to middle adolescence and decreases at later ages, our study revealed no age-specific trend. YSR syndrome scales were significantly correlated with risk propensity, but only in the Cold version. The YSR Thought Problems scale was the most central node in the network, linking internalizing and externalizing problems with risk propensity in the Cold CCT. Lack of emotional Clarity was the only DERS consistently linked with risk-taking both in correlation and network analyses. Maladaptive psychological functioning and difficulties in emotion regulation were linked with risk propensity in affective risky decisions through deliberative processes. The statistical significance of direct and indirect effects was further examined using nonparametric mediation analyses. Our study highlights the role of cognitive factors that in each variable set might account for risk-taking in teenagers.

Sex differences in associations between delay discounting and expectancies for alcohol analgesia

Self-medication of pain with alcohol is prevalent, and expectancies for alcohol analgesia likely influence pain relief and alcohol consumption. Hazardous alcohol use has been associated with greater delay discounting rates; however, little is known about the relationship between delay discounting and expectancies for alcohol analgesia. Therefore, the present study examined sex differences in associations between delay discounting and expectancies for alcohol analgesia. Healthy drinkers without chronic pain (N = 53) completed measures of expectancies for alcohol analgesia, alcohol use, and alcohol outcome expectancies. A five-trial adjusting-delay discounting task (DDT) for monetary outcomes was also administered. Regression analyses revealed that sex moderated the relationship between delay discounting and expectancies for alcohol analgesia. Steeper delay discounting rates were associated with weaker expectancies for alcohol analgesia among men when adjusting for average alcohol consumption. Among women, nonsignificant associations between delay discounting rates and expectancies for alcohol analgesia were observed. These findings provide initial evidence of sex differences in associations between delay discounting and expectancies for alcohol analgesia. The directionality of these associations was unexpected and may have implications for patterns of self-medication with alcohol. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Understanding patterns of heterogeneity in executive functioning during adolescence: Evidence from population-level data

Executive functioning (EF) is fundamental to positive development. Yet, little is known about how to best characterize constellations of EF skills that may inform disparate associations between EF and behavior during adolescence. In the current study, cross-validated latent profile analysis (LPA) was used to derive profiles of EF based on measures of inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility using data from 11,672 youth (52.2% male, mean age = 9.91 years) in the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development study. Four meaningful EF profiles emerged from the data representing Average EF, High EF, Low Inhibitory Control, and Low EF. Boys, youth from low-income households, and early developing youth were more likely to be in profiles distinguished by lower EF. Profile membership also predicted differences in externalizing, internalizing, and other problem behaviors assessed one year later. Findings indicate that youth may have distinct constellations of EF skills, underscoring the need for person-centered approaches that focus on patterns of individual characteristics.

Heterogeneity of decision-making strategies for preschoolers on a variant of the IGT

Adaptive decision-making strategies are critical for dealing with the complexity of the social world. The present study investigated the use of decision-making strategies in preschoolers and their association to prosocial behavior and peer problems. Eighty-six preschoolers aged 3- and 4-years completed the preschool decision-making task (PGT), a child variant of the Iowa Gambling task . Win-stay/lose-shift responses along with exploration (consecutive choices from the advantageous deck) and exploitation (shifting between options) were examined. Preschoolers showed a range of strategies, with 4-year-olds adapting their approach as the game progressed and making better use of feedback in comparison to 3-year-olds. Children who differed in terms of choices from the advantageous deck were distinguished by different combinations of exploration and exploitation. Furthermore, unique combinations of decision-making strategies also distinguished children who were rated as high versus low in prosocial behavior as well as children rated as having a high versus low level of peer problems. The findings suggest that consideration of strategies used in decision-making tasks could provide useful insight in a clinical setting, particularly for populations with social difficulties.

Direct and indirect effects on child neurocognitive development when maternal cancer is diagnosed during pregnancy: What do we know so far?

Cancer during pregnancy threatens the lives of mother and foetus and its incidence is rising, making it an emerging medical challenge. Evidence on the direct impact of cancer therapies on neonatal outcomes resulted in general guidelines for maternal treatment that safeguards foetal development. Less focus has been placed on indirect factors, in pre- and postnatal periods, that may exert long-term impacts specifically on child neurocognition. Foetal development, in the context of maternal cancer during pregnancy, may be influenced directly by exposure to cancer diagnostics and (co-)treatment, or indirectly through maternal inflammation, malnutrition, hormonal fluctuations, prematurity, and psycho-biological stress. Maternal stress and insecure mother-infant bonding related to postpartum cancer treatment may further impact child cognitive-behavioural development. Understanding the independent and synergistic effects of the factors impacting neurocognitive development creates the opportunity to intervene during the oncological treatment to improve the child's long-term outcome, both by medical and psychosocial care and support.

“Hot” executive functions are comparable across monolingual and bilingual elementary school children: Results from a study with the Iowa Gambling Task

Past research found performance differences between monolingual and bilingual children in the domain of executive functions (EF). Furthermore, recent studies have reported advantages in processing efficiency or mental effort in bilingual adults and children. These studies mostly focused on the investigation of “cold” EF tasks. Studies including measures of “hot” EF, i.e., tasks operating in an emotionally significant setting, are limited and hence results are inconclusive. In the present study, we extend previous research by investigating performance in a task of the “hot” EF domain by both behavioral data and mental effort via pupillary changes during task performance. Seventy-three monolingual and bilingual school children (mean age = 107.23 months, SD = 10.26) solved the Iowa Gambling Task in two different conditions. In the standard task, characterized by constant gains and occasional losses, children did not learn to improve their decision-making behavior. In a reversed task version, characterized by constant losses and occasional gains, both monolinguals and bilinguals learned to improve their decision-making behavior over the course of the task. In both versions of the task, children switched choices more often after losses than after gains. Bilinguals switched their choices less often than monolinguals in the reversed task, indicating a slightly more mature decision-making strategy. Mental effort did not differ between monolinguals and bilinguals. Conclusions of these findings for the bilingual advantage assumption will be discussed.

Positive symptoms of schizophrenia and their relationship with cognitive and emotional executive functions

BACKGROUND

Positive symptoms of schizophrenia are associated with significant difficulties in daily functioning, and these difficulties have been associated with impaired executive functions (EEFF). However, specific cognitive and socio-emotional executive deficits have not been fully established.

OBJECTIVE

The present study has several objectives. First, we aimed to examine the specific deficits in cognitive and socio-emotional EEFF in a group of patients with schizophrenia with a predominance of positive symptoms, as well as to determine if these patients present clinically significant scores in any of the three fronto-subcortical behavioral syndromes: Dorsolateral, Orbitofrontal, or Anterior Cingulate.

METHOD

The sample consisted of 54 patients, 27 with a predominance of positive symptoms, and 27 healthy controls matched for gender, age, and education. The two groups completed four cognitive and three socio-emotional EEFF tasks. In the group of patients, positive symptoms were evaluated using the scale for the Evaluation of Positive Symptoms (SANS), while the behavioral alterations associated with the three fronto-subcortical syndromes were evaluated using the Frontal System Behavior Scale (FrSBe).

RESULTS

The patients, in comparison with a control group, presented specific deficits in cognitive and socio-emotional EEFF. In addition, a high percentage of patients presented clinically significant scores on the three fronto-subcortical syndromes.

CONCLUSION

The affectation that these patients present, in terms of both cognitive and emotional components, highlights the importance of developing a neuropsychological EEFF intervention that promotes the recovery of the affected cognitive capacities and improves the social and emotional functioning of the affected patients.

The Directionality of the Relationship Between Executive Functions and Language Skills: A Literature Review

It has been demonstrated that executive functions play a significant role in different aspects of the development of children. Development of language is also one of the most important accomplishments of the preschool years, and it has been linked to many outcomes in life. Despite substantial research demonstrating the association between executive function and language development in childhood, only a handful of studies have examined the direction of the developmental pathways between EF skills and language skills, therefore little is known about how these two constructs are connected. In this review paper, we discuss three possible directional relationships between EFs and language development throughout childhood. First, we discuss how EF might affect language functioning. Next, we discuss how language functioning might affect EF. Lastly, we consider other possible relationships between EF and language. Given that children with better EF and language skills are more likely to succeed in educational settings and demonstrate greater social–emotional competencies, investigating the relationship between EF and language in the preschool period provides insight into mechanisms that have not been extensively studied. Furthermore, it could create new opportunities for designing effective and efficient interventions aimed at addressing EF and language deficits during the preschool period which could in turn influence later development.

Patience Is a Virtue: Theory of Mind Longitudinally Predicts Children's Delay during School Transition

Four- to seven-year-old children participated in a battery of tasks assessing their theory of mind, conflict inhibition, and delay at time 1, and theory of mind and delay one year later at time 2. Cross-lagged analysis revealed that earlier theory of mind predicted later delay after controlling for earlier conflict inhibition and theory of mind, child age, and family socioeconomic status. The findings highlighted the dynamic nature of the association between theory of mind and delay during the school transition years in its strength and direction, and the increasing specificity in the structure of executive function with age.

Learning motivation tendencies among preschoolers: Impact of executive functions and gender differences

The current study aimed to validate the Russian version of the Child Behaviour Motivation Scale (CBeMO), examine gender differences in motivational tendencies, and explore the impact of executive functions on learning motivation tendencies among children. The sample consisted of 434 typically developing 5-6 years old children. The confirmatory factor analysis showed that according to the evaluation criteria, the model is poorly fitted to the data. However, internal consistency analysis confirmed acceptable levels of reliability and unidimensionality of the CBeMO scales. The identified internal structure of CBeMO indicates an overlap between CBeMO items related to task avoidance and social dependence on the Russian sample. The study revealed differences between girls and boys in all three CBeMO scales. Concerning executive functioning, it was revealed that motor persistence skills and working memory have an impact on the learning motivation tendencies among children, when controlling for group size, age, gender and non-verbal intelligence.

Do Patterns of Levels of Socio-emotional Competence During Early Childhood Predict Executive Function at 4.5 Years?

Socio-emotional competence and executive function both work together to meet the demands of the everyday environment. While many studies have focused on how various domains of socio-emotional competence are predicted by, or associated with executive function, the predictive influence of socio-emotional competence on executive function has largely been ignored despite strong theoretical links. In addition, contradictory information exists with regard to the divergent validity of two subtypes of executive function: cool and hot. Using data from 4839 children participating in three data collection waves (9 months, 2 years and 4.5 year) in the Growing Up in New Zealand longitudinal study, we examined how different patterns of socio-emotional competence development during the early preschool years (persistent lows, recent low, improved and no lows) related to cool and hot executive function measured at aged 4.5 using a hand clap task and a gift wrap task, respectively. Findings showed that children with persistent lows (with no improvement) in the levels of early socio-emotional competence had increased odds of having below average cool and hot executive function at 4.5 years. However, no difference was found in the influence of socio-emotional competence on cool and hot executive function. Possible explanations for these associations between socio-emotional competence and executive function are discussed.

Shuffle the Decks: Children Are Sensitive to Incidental Nonrandom Structure in a Sequential-Choice Task

As children age, they can learn increasingly complex features of environmental structure-a key prerequisite for adaptive decision-making. Yet when we tested children (N = 304, 4-13 years old) in the Children's Gambling Task, an age-appropriate variant of the Iowa Gambling Task, we found that age was negatively associated with performance. However, this paradoxical effect of age was found only in children who exhibited a maladaptive deplete-replenish bias, a tendency to shift choices after positive outcomes and repeat choices after negative outcomes. We found that this bias results from sensitivity to incidental nonrandom structure in the canonical, deterministic forms of these tasks-and that it would actually lead to optimal outcomes if the tasks were not deterministic. Our results illustrate that changes in decision-making across early childhood reflect, in part, increasing sensitivity to environmental structure.

Context-Specificity of Locomotor Learning Is Developed during Childhood

Humans can perform complex movements with speed and agility in the face of constantly changing task demands. To accomplish this, motor plans are adapted to account for errors in our movements because of changes in our body (e.g., growth or injury) or in the environment (e.g., walking on sand vs ice). It has been suggested that adaptation that occurs in response to changes in the state of our body will generalize across different movement contexts and environments, whereas adaptation that occurs with alterations in the external environment will be context-specific. Here, we asked whether the ability to form generalizable versus context-specific motor memories develops during childhood. We performed a cross-sectional study of context-specific locomotor adaptation in 35 children (3-18 years old) and 7 adults (19-31 years old). Subjects first adapted their gait and learned a new walking pattern on a split-belt treadmill, which has two belts that move each leg at a different speed. Then, subjects walked overground to assess the generalization of the adapted walking pattern across different environments. Our results show that the generalization of treadmill after-effects to overground walking decreases as subjects' age increases, indicating that age and experience are critical factors regulating the specificity of motor learning. Our results suggest that although basic locomotor patterns are established by two years of age, brain networks required for context-specific locomotor learning are still being developed throughout youth.

Executive function moderates the relationship between temperament and psychological difficulties in middle childhood

The current study examined the possible moderating influence of hot and cool executive function (EF) on the relationship between temperament and psychological difficulties in middle childhood. One hundred and twenty-six children and their parents (n = 105) participated. Children aged between 5 and 12 years completed three hot (motivational decision-making on the Cambridge Gambling Task (CGT), delayed gratification, and Theory of Mind [ToM]) and three cool EF (working memory, inhibition, and attentional set shifting) measures. Children's parents completed the Behavioral Inhibition Sensitivity (BIS) and Behavioral Approach Sensitivity (BAS) Scale and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Hot EF (CGT, ToM) exacerbated the relationship between BAS and externalizing problems. Neither hot nor cool EF moderated the relationship between BIS and internalizing problems. The current findings provide further evidence of a hot-cool distinction in EF in middle childhood, suggesting that these constructs should be investigated separately when assessing EF. In addition, by considering potential interactions between temperament and EF, clinicians/researchers may be able to predict broad categories of psychological problems in middle childhood.

Psychometric properties and clinical utility of the executive function inventory for children and adolescents: a large multistage populational study including children with ADHD

Executive functions (EF) are a set of high order mental abilities that regulate cognition, emotions, and behavior. This study aims to report the construction and validation of a rating scale instrument for EF in children and adolescents aged from 5 to 18 years (EFICA), as well as to report the results of a comparison between children with ADHD and their peers without it. Thus, we conducted a population-based cross-sectional study relying on a sample composed of 3,284 typical children and adolescents accessed to study the psychometric properties of the parents' inventory (EFICA-P) and the teacher's inventory (EFICA-T) within a Structural Equation Modeling framework (SEM). Exploratory and confirmatory analyses were fitted, as well as the Cronbach's alpha and the McDonald's omega reliability indices. The known-groups method was carried out by independent Welch t-tests between untreated ADHD children and their peers. We concluded that the parents' inventory is composed of three dimensions (Cool Index 1, Cool Index 2, and Hot Index): χ² (1,649) = 4,607.852 p < .01, CFI = .965, TLI .963, RMSEA = .053, whereas the teachers´ inventory is composed of two dimensions (Cool Index and Hot Index): χ² (1,273) = 5,158.240, p < .01, CFI = .991, TLI = .991, RMSEA = .077. The internal consistency of both inventories was >.9. Significant differences between the ADHD groups were found in all domains accessed. These findings indicate that both inventories have a high degree of validity regarding their internal structures, as well as supporting their clinical utility.

Development and Internal Validation of a Model for Predicting Internet Gaming Disorder Risk in Adolescents and Children

BACKGROUND

The high prevalence of Internet gaming disorder among children and adolescents and its severe psychological, health, and social consequences have become a public emergency. A high efficiency and cost-effective early recognition method are urgently needed.

OBJECTIVE

We aim to develop and internally validate a nomogram model for predicting Internet gaming disorder (IGD) risk in Chinese adolescents and children.

METHODS

Through an online survey, 780 children and adolescents aged 7-18 years who participated in the survey from June to August 2021 were selected. The least absolute shrinkage and selection operator regression model was used to filter the factors. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to establish the prediction model and generate nomograms and a website calculator. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, calibration plot, and decision curve analysis were used to evaluate the model's discrimination, calibration, and clinical utility. Bootstrapping validation was used to verify the model internally.

RESULTS

Male sex and experience of game consumption were the two most important predictors. Both models exhibited good discrimination, with an area under the curve >0.80. The calibration plots were both close to the diagonal line (45°). Decision curve analyses revealed that two nomograms were clinically useful when the threshold probability for the intervention was set to 5-75%.

CONCLUSION

Two prediction models appear to be reliable tools for Internet gaming disorder screening in children and adolescents, which can also help clinicians to personalize treatment plans. Moreover, from the standpoint of simplification and cost, Model 2 appears to be a better alternative.

Time Organization Patterns of Adolescents: Agreement between Self- Report and Parent Report

AIMS

Occupational therapy services include measurement and promotion of time organization as important for adolescents' daily life management and well-being into adulthood. This study examined the internal consistency reliability of the Time Organization and Participation Scale (TOPS) among adolescents and their parents, associations between time organization and age, gender differences in time organization, and agreement levels between adolescents' and parents' perceptions of time-organization abilities.

METHODS

Seventy-five adolescents with typical development and their parents completed the TOPS self-report and parent versions.

RESULTS

Both TOPS versions showed high internal consistency (.80-.94). No significant correlations were found between age and time-organization patterns. Girls self-reported significantly more emotional response following disorganization in time. Parents' total scores explained 52.1% of the variance in their children's total scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescence, a critical transitional period of preparing for independent adult life, involves a continual interaction between person, occupation, and environment while using skills to organize in time. The TOPS's self- and parent-reports are reliable and can raise awareness of time-organization deficiencies in daily activities and emotional consequences. The use of the TOPS to assess adolescents' time-organization abilities can inform intervention design to help adolescents develop an awareness of their time use and foster their daily performance.

Smartphone Abuse Amongst Adolescents: The Role of Impulsivity and Sensation Seeking

Adolescence is the stage of development where the reward and emotional regulation systems are yet to be adjusted and where most excessive behaviors start, like smartphone abuse. In addition, in this evolutionary period adolescents are more susceptible to behavioral changes through specific interventions or educational programs. Thus, it is fundamental to analyze the personality profile of those adolescents showing excessive mobile phone usage to properly approach later prevention strategies. Impulsivity is one of the most repeated variables associated with teenage addictions, although it has been observed that not all impulsive behaviors need to be detrimental. The aim of this study is to analyze how impulsivity affects smartphone addiction directly, but also indirectly, by assessing its association with sensation seeking variables (thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility) which are in turn decisive when using these technologies improperly. The sample was made up of 614 adolescents aged 13-18 attending secondary education from Burgos, Spain. Dickman Impulsivity Inventory, Sensation Seeking Scale, and Ad-hoc questionnaire on adolescent self-perception as to smartphone use were applied. Results show that 41.4% of participants admit to abusing smartphones sometimes, while 18.3% admit to abusing them more frequently and 24% to, at least ever, having defined themselves as smartphone addicts. Stepwise regression analysis revealed that gender (female), dysfunctional impulsivity and sensation seeking (disinhibition and thrill and adventure seeking) evidence 15.7% of variance in smartphone abuse. In addition, sensation seeking (thrill and adventure seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility) were found to mediate the relationship between dysfunctional impulsivity and smartphone abuse. Therefore, dysfunctional impulsivity was directly connected with teenage smartphone abuse, but also had an indirect stronger association through thrill and adventure seeking, disinhibition and boredom susceptibility.

Adolescent decision making: A decade in review

Research in the past decade has highlighted the nuances of adolescent decision making. In this review article, we summarize several themes evident in the field of developmental science including the redefinition of adolescence and the ways in which adolescent decision-making capabilities converge with or diverge from those of adults. While the decision-making process is similar for adolescents and adults in contexts that encourage deliberation and reflection, adolescents and adults differ in contexts which preclude deliberation vis-à-vis high emotional arousal. We also discuss the reconceptualization of adolescent behavior, including risk taking, as adaptive. That is, characteristics of adolescence, including impulsivity, the importance of peers, and novelty seeking, are normative, evolutionarily advantageous, and essential for positive development. While these features manifest in negative, health-compromising ways (e.g., risky driving and criminal behavior), they also foster growth and exploration. We conclude with a discussion of potential avenues for future research.

Executive functions in 7-year-old children of parents with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder compared with controls: The Danish High Risk and Resilience Study-VIA 7, a population-based cohort study

Cognitive impairments are strongly associated with schizophrenia (SZ) and bipolar disorder (BP) with executive functions (EF) impairments as a likely key feature. Studies of everyday behavior rated EF in young children at familial high risk of SZ (FHR-SZ) are scarce and, to our knowledge, non-existent in young children at familial high risk of BP (FHR-BP). We aimed to compare everyday behavior-rated EF of FHR-SZ, FHR-BP, and control children. A nationwide population-based cohort of 522 7-year-old children with parents diagnosed with either SZ (N = 202) or BP (N = 120) and matched controls (N = 200) were recruited using the Danish national registries. The children's EF were assessed with the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functions questionnaire rated by primary caregivers and teachers. According to primary caregiver assessments, FHR-SZ children displayed widespread EF impairments and had an odds ratio of 3.7 (2.0-6.9) of having clinically significant global EF impairments compared to controls. FHR-BP children were most severely impaired regarding EF related to emotional control and had an odds ratio of 2.5 (1.2-5.1) of clinically significant global EF impairments compared to controls. Teacher assessments were overall comparable to primary caregiver assessments but teachers rated more difficulties in the FHR-SZ group than primary caregivers. Already at age 7, children with a parental history of SZ or BP displayed significant impairments of EF in everyday-life situations. FHR-SZ children displayed widespread significant impairments of EF, whereas FHR-BP children were most severely impaired on emotional control. Clinicians should be aware of potential EF impairments in FHR children.

Impulsive and risky decision-making in adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): The need for a developmental perspective

Impulsive and risky decision-making peaks in adolescence, and is consistently associated with the neurodevelopmental disorder Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), regardless of age. In this brief review, we demonstrate the similarity of theoretical models explaining impulsive and risky decision-making that originate in two relatively distinct literatures (i.e., on adolescence and on ADHD). We summarize research thus far and conclude that the presence of ADHD during adolescence further exacerbates the tendency that is already present in adolescents to make impulsive and risky decisions. We also conclude that much is still unknown about the developmental trajectories of individuals with ADHD with regard to impulsive and risky decision making, and we therefore provide several hypotheses that warrant further longitudinal research.