Degradation of UV filters in sewage sludge and 4-MBC in liquid medium by the ligninolytic fungus Trametes versicolor

Bioconcentration, biotransformation, and transcriptomic impact of the UV-filter 4-MBC in the manila clam Ruditapes philippinarum

Ultraviolet filters (UV-filters) are compounds extensively used in personal care products. These compounds are produced at increasing rates and discharged into marine ecosystems in unknown quantities and with no regulation, making them emerging contaminants. Among those, the UV-filter 4-Methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC) is used in a variety of personal care products such as sunscreens, soaps, or lipsticks. This high consumption has resulted in its presence in various environmental matrices at in concentrations ranging from ng to μg L-1. Very little is known, however, about the possible adverse effects in exposed non-target organisms. Our study presents novel data on the bioconcentration, toxicokinetics, and molecular effects of 4-MBC in a marine bivalve species of commercial interest, Ruditapes philippinarum (Manila clam). Organisms were exposed at two different concentrations (1.34 and 10.79 μg L-1) of 4-MBC for 7 days, followed by a 3-day depuration period (clean sea waters). Bioconcentration factors (BCF) were 3562 and 2229 L kg-1 for the low and high exposure concentrations, respectively, making this pollutant bioaccumulative according to REACH criteria. Up to six 4-MBC biotransformation products (BTPs)were identified, 2 of them for the first time. Transcriptomic analysis revealed between 658 and 1310 differently expressed genes (DEGs) after 4-MBC exposure. Functional and enrichment analysis of the DEGs showed the activation of the detoxification pathway to metabolize and excrete the bioconcentrated 4-MBC, which also involved energy depletion and caused an impact on the metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids and in the oxidative phosphorylation pathways. Oxidative stress and immune response were also evidenced through the activation of cathepsins and the complement system. Such elucidation of the mode of action of a ubiquitous pollutant such as 4-MBC at the molecular level is valuable both from an environmental point of view and for the sustainable production of Manila clam, one of the most cultivated mollusk species worldwide.

Microbial consortia degrade several widely used organic UV filters, but a number of hydrophobic filters remain recalcitrant to biodegradation

Organic UV filters are important ingredients in many personal care products, including sunscreens. Evaluating the biodegradability of organic UV filters is key to estimate their recalcitrance and environmental fate and thus central to their overall environmental risk assessment. In order to further understand the degradation process, the aim was to investigate whether specific consortia could degrade certain UV filters. Several bacterial strains were isolated from enrichment cultures actively degrading octocrylene (OC), butyl methoxydibenzoylmethane (BM), homosalate (HS), and 2-ethylhexyl salicylate (ES) and were utilized to construct an in-house consortium. This synthetic consortium contained 27 bacterial strains and degraded OC, BM, HS, and ES 60-80% after 12 days, but not benzophenone-3 (BP3), methoxyphenyl triazine (BEMT), methylene bis-benzotriazolyl tetramethylbutylphenol (MBBT), diethylhexyl butamido triazone (DBT), ethylhexyl triazone (EHT), or diethylamino hydroxybenzoyl hexyl benzoate (DHHB). Furthermore, several commercial microbial mixtures from Greencell were tested to assess their degradation activity toward the same organic UV filters. ES and HS were degraded by some of the commercial consortia, but to a lesser extent. The rest of the tested UV filters were not degraded by any of the commercial bacterial mixes. These results confirm that some organic UV filters are recalcitrant to biodegradation, while others are degraded by a specific set of microorganisms.

The environmental sources of benzophenones: Distribution, pretreatment, analysis and removal techniques

Benzophenones (BPs) have wide practical applications in real human life due to its presence in personal care products, UV-filters, drugs, food packaging bags, etc. It enters the wastewater by daily routine activities such as showering, impacting the whole aquatic system, then posing a threat to human health. Due to this fact, the monitoring and removal of BPs in the environment is quite important. In the past decade, various novel analytical and removal techniques have been developed for the determination of BPs in environmental samples including wastewater, municipal landfill leachate, sewage sludge, and aquatic plants. This review provides a critical summary and comparison of the available cutting-edge pretreatment, determination and removal techniques of BPs in environment. It also focuses on novel materials and techniques in keeping with the concept of "green chemistry", and describes on challenges associated with the analysis of BPs, removal technologies, suggesting future development strategies.

Status quo on identified transformation products of organic ultraviolet filters and their persistence

Organic micropollutants of concern-including organic UV filters (UVF)-are getting increasing attention. Personal care products such as sunscreens or cosmetic articles often contain large quantities of UVF. These substances enter the environment either directly (during outdoor activities) or indirectly (via sewages from households). Therefore, the removal or degradation of UVF by natural or technical treatment processes is important to understand. UVF are often incompletely removed and transformed to side products of incomplete mineralization by abiotic and biotic processes. An extensive overview on transformation products (TPs) is essential to systematically identify knowledge gaps and to derive research needs. While there are many reviews on the UVF themselves, the number of reviews which focus on their TPs is limited. Consequently, this review gives an overview on the latest findings regarding TPs of UVF. In this publication, known TPs of UVF, which were formed during abiotic and biotic processes, are reviewed. Target substances were defined and a literature database was reviewed for studies on TPs of the target substances. The first list of studies was shortened stepwise, thus generating a final list of studies which contained only the relevant studies. Since biodegradation is one of the most important pathways for removal of organic compounds from the environment, this review presents an overview on known TPs of organic UVF and their biodegradability, which determines their environmental fate. In this way, all identified TPs of UVF were listed and checked for information on their biodegradability. A total of 2731 records of studies were assessed. Forty-two studies, which assessed 46 processes that lead to the formation of identified TPs, were included in this review. One hundred and seventyseven different TPs resulting from 11 different UVF were identified. Little to no data on the biodegradability was found for TPs. This indicates a severe lack of data on the biodegradability of TPs of organic UVF substances. Since most TPs lack information on biodegradability, further research should provide information on both-identity and biodegradability-of formed TPs to be able to assess their hazardousness for the environment.

Pharmaceutical active compounds in sewage sludge: Degradation improvement and conversion into an organic amendment by bioaugmentation-composting processes

Around 143,000 chemicals find their fate in wastewater treatment plants in the European Union. Low efficiency on their removal at lab-based studies and even poorer performance at large scale experiments have been reported. Here, a coupled biological technology (bioaugmentation and composting) is proposed and proved for pharmaceutical active compounds degradation and toxicity reduction. The optimization was conducted through in situ inoculation of Penicillium oxalicum XD 3.1 and an enriched consortium (obtained from non-digested sewage sludge), into pilot scale piles of sewage sludge under real conditions. This bioaugmentation-composting system allowed a better performance of micropollutants degradation (21 % from the total pharmaceuticals detected at the beginning of the experiment) than a traditional composting process. Particularly, inoculation with P. oxalicum allowed the degradation of some recalcitrant compounds like carbamazepine, cotinine and methadone, and also produced better stabilization features in the mature compost (significant passivation of copper and zinc, higher macronutrients value, adequate physicochemical conditions for soil direct application and less toxic effect on germination) compared to the control and the enriched culture. These findings provide a feasible, alternative strategy to obtain a safer mature compost and a better removal of micropollutants performance at large scale.

Endocrine disrupting activity in sewage sludge: Screening method, microbial succession and cost-effective strategy for detoxification

Sewage sludge (SS) presents a high agronomic potential due to high concentrations of organic matter and nutrients, encouraging its recycling as a soil conditioner. However, the presence of toxic substances can preclude this use. To enable the safe disposal of this waste in agriculture, SS requires additional detoxification to decrease the environmental risks of this practice. Although some alternatives have been proposed in this sense, little attention is provided to eliminating endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). To fill this gap, this study aimed to develop effective and low-cost technology to eliminate EDCs from SS. For this, a detoxification process combining microorganisms and biostimulating agents (soil, sugarcane bagasse, and coffee grounds) was performed for 2, 4, and 6 months with aerobic and anaerobic SSs. The (anti-)estrogenic, (anti-)androgenic, retinoic-like, and dioxin-like activities of SSs samples were verified using yeast-based reporter-gene assays to prove the effectiveness of the treatments. A fractionation procedure of samples, dividing the target sample extract into several fractions according to their polarity, was conducted to decrease the matrix complexity and facilitate the identification of EDCs. A decrease in the abundance and microbial diversity of the SS samples was noted along the biostimulation with the predominance of filamentous fungal species over yeasts and gram-positive bacteria and non-fermenting rods over enterobacteria. Among the 9 EDCs quantified by LC-ESI-MS/MS, triclosan and alkylphenols presented the highest concentrations in both SS. Before detoxification, the studied SSs induced significant agonistic activity, especially at the human estrogen receptor α (hERα) and the human aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). The raw anaerobic sludge also activated the androgen (hAR), retinoic acid (RARα), and retinoid X (RXRα) receptors. However, no significant endocrine-disrupting activities were observed after the SS detoxification, showing that the technology applied here efficiently eliminates receptor-mediated toxicity.

Determination of UV Filters in Waste Sludge Using QuEChERS Method Followed by In-Port Derivatization Coupled with GC-MS/MS

UV filters (UVFs) are widely used in personal care and in industrial products for protection against photodegradation. In recent years, their potential toxicological and environmental effects have received growing attention. Due to their excessive use, their residue levels in the environment are gradually increasing and they tend to accumulate on biological wastewater treatment sludge. The utilization of sludge as fertilizer could be one of the main routes of UVF contamination in the environment. Therefore, the development of a reliable and sensitive method of analyzing their trace level residues in waste sludge samples is of great importance. The success of the method largely depends on the sample preparation technique in such complex matrices. This study presents a rapid, sensitive and green analysis method for eight UVFs in sludge samples, selected for their rather low no-observed-effect concentrations (NOEC). For this purpose, the QuEChERS methodology was coupled with in-port derivatization for subsequent detection of the targeted UVFs via GC−MS/MS. The analysis time was substantially shortened using this method, and reagent utilization was also reduced. The method was validated in the sludge samples, and high recovery (66−123%) and low RSD values (<25.6%) were obtained. In addition, major contributing uncertainty sources and expanded uncertainties were determined.

Cosmetic wastewater treatment technologies: a review

Over the past three decades, environmental concerns about the water pollution have been raised on societal and industrial levels. The presence of pollutants stemming from cosmetic products has been documented in wastewater streams outflowing from industrial as well as wastewater treatment plants. To this end, a series of consistent measures should be taken to prevent emerging contaminants of water resources. This need has driven the development of technologies, in an attempt to mitigate their impact on the environment. This work offers a thorough review of existing knowledge on cosmetic wastewater treatment approaches, including, coagulation, dissolved air flotation, adsorption, activated sludge, biodegradation, constructed wetlands, and advanced oxidation processes. Various studies have already documented the appearance of cosmetics in samples retrieved from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), which have definitely promoted our comprehension of the path of cosmetics within the treatment cycle; however, there are still multiple blanks to our knowledge. All treatments have, without exception, their own limitations, not only cost-wise, but also in terms of being feasible, effective, practical, reliable, and environmentally friendly.

Bioremediation of organic pollutants by white rot fungal cytochrome P450: The role and mechanism of CYP450 in biodegradation

Cytochrome P450 (CYP450) is a well-known protein family that is widely distributed in many organisms. Members of this family have been implicated in a broad range of reactions involved in the metabolism of various organic compounds. Recently, an increasing number of studies have shown that the CYP450 enzyme also participates in the elimination and degradation of organic pollutants, by white rot fungi (WRF), a famous group of natural degraders. This paper reviews previous investigations of white rot fungal CYP450 involved in the biodegradation of organic pollutants, with a special focus on inhibitory experiments, and the direct and indirect evidence of the role of white rot fungal CYP450 in bioremediation. The catalytic mechanisms of white rot fungal CYP450, its application potential, and future prospect for its use in bioremediation are then discussed.

Evaluation of the degradation capacity of WWTP sludge enrichment cultures towards several organic UV filters and the isolation of octocrylene-degrading microorganisms

Organic UV filters are present in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) due to the use of these compounds in many personal care products (PCPs) and their subsequent release into the wastewater system from showering/bathing. Once in the wastewater system, organic UV filters generally partition into the solid phase but might also undergo other processes, such as degradation by microorganisms. To further understand the fate of organic UV filters in WWTPs, the degradation of 7 UV filters by WWTP sludge was investigated The UV filters 2-ethylhexyl salicylate (ES), homosalate (HS), butyl methoxydibenzoylmethane (BM) and octocrylene (OC) were degraded after 20-60 days. The rest of the filters tested, namely, bis-ethylhexyloxyphenol methoxyphenyl triazine (BEMT), methylene bis-benzotriazolyl tetramethylbutylphenol (MBBT) and diethylhexyl butamido triazone (DBT), did not degrade even after 120 days of incubation. The microbial community from the microcosms degrading ES, HS, OC and BM was transferred every 30 days into new microcosms to enrich for microorganisms capable of utilizing the individual UV filters for growth. The enrichment cultures continued to degrade throughout 20 transfers. The microbial community was clearly different between the enrichments degrading ES, HS, OC and BM, meaning that the microbial community was strongly influenced by the UV filter present. Furthermore, several strains were isolated from OC-degrading cultures and two of these strains, Gordonia sp. strain OC_S5 and Sphingopyxis sp. strain OC_4D, degraded OC with and without other carbon sources present. These experiments show that several organic UV filters can be degraded by a specific set of microorganisms. The lack of degradation observed for BEMT, MBBT and DBT is probably due to limited bioavailability. Indeed, this is the first biodegradation study of these filters, in addition to being the first description of ES and HS degradation in microcosm experiments.

Tobacco-associated with Methylophilus sp. FP-6 enhances phytoremediation of benzophenone-3 through regulating soil microbial community, increasing photosynthetic capacity and maintaining redox homeostasis of plant

Benzophenone-3 (BP-3) has attracted widespread attention due to its large accumulation in the environment and its potential toxicity effects to human. This study aimed to investigate the effects of the combined application of tobacco and Methylophilus sp. strain FP-6 with both plant growth promoting (PGP) traits and BP-3 degradation function on BP-3 remediation in soil. The results showed that about 79.18% of BP-3 was removed from the soil after 30 days of plant culture inoculated with the FP-6 strain, which was significantly higher than the plant-alone treatment. Simultaneously, inoculation with strain FP-6 significantly improved growth performance, biomass production, antioxidant levels, osmoregulation substance, photosynthetic capacity and chlorophyll accumulation in tobacco. Moreover, the application of FP-6 shifted the bacterial community, and enhanced the abundance of BP-3-degrading or soil nutrient cycling-affecting bacteria (e.g., Chloroflexi, Bryobacter, MND1 and Myxococcales), which might be valuable for the promotion of plant growth and degradation of BP-3 in the soil. The results from this study gave first insights into the enhancement of BP-3 removal efficiency from soil by phytoremediation assisted with bacteria possessing both PGP properties and BP-3 degradation function. The role of soil bacterial community in this remediation process was also discussed.

Structure-related endocrine-disrupting potential of environmental transformation products of benzophenone-type UV filters: A review

Benzophenone-type UV filters (BPs) represent a very diverse group of chemicals that are used across a range of industrial sectors around the world. They are found within different environmental compartments (e.g. surface water, groundwater, wastewater, sediments and biota) at concentrations ranging from ng/L to mg/L. Some are known as endocrine disruptors and are currently within the scope of international regulations. A structural alert for high potential of endocrine disrupting activity was assigned to 11 BP derivatives. Due to the widespread use, distribution and disruptive effects of some BPs, knowledge of their elimination pathways is required. This review demonstrates that biodegradation and photolytic decomposition are the major elimination processes for BP-type UV filters in the environment. Under aerobic conditions, transformation pathways have only been reported for BP, BP-3 and BP-4, which are also the most common derivatives. Primary biodegradation mainly results in the formation of hydroxylated BPs, which exhibit a structure-related increase in endocrine activity when compared to their parent substances. By combining 76 literature-based transformation products (TPs) with in silico results relating to their receptor activity, it is demonstrated that 32 TPs may retain activity and that further knowledge of the degradation of BPs in the environment is needed.

Elucidating the biodegradation pathway and catabolic genes of benzophenone-3 in Rhodococcus sp. S2-17

A new bacterium, Rhodococcus sp. S2-17, which could completely degrade an emerging organic pollutant, benzophenone-3 (BP-3), was isolated from contaminated sediment through an enrichment procedure, and its BP-3 catabolic pathway and genes were identified through metabolic intermediate and transcriptomic analyses and biochemical and genetic studies. Metabolic intermediate analysis suggested that strain S2-17 may degrade BP-3 using a catabolic pathway progressing via the intermediates BP-1, 2,4,5-trihydroxy-benzophenone, 3-hydroxy-4-benzoyl-2,4-hexadienedioic acid, 4-benzoyl-3-oxoadipic acid, 3-oxoadipic acid, and benzoic acid. A putative BP-3 catabolic gene cluster including cytochrome P450, flavin-dependent oxidoreductase, hydroxyquinol 1,2-dioxygenase, maleylacetate reductase, and α/β hydrolase genes was identified through genomic and transcriptomic analyses. Genes encoding the cytochrome P450 complex that demethylates BP-3 to BP-1 were functionally verified through protein expression, and the functions of the other genes were also verified through knockout mutant construction and intermediate analysis. This study suggested that strain S2-17 might have acquired the ability to catabolize BP-3 by recruiting the cytochrome P450 complex and α/β hydrolase, which hydrolyzes 4-benzoyl-3-oxoadipic acid to benzoic acid and 3-oxoadipic acid, genes, providing insights into the recruitment of genes of for the catabolism of emerging organic pollutants.

UV-filter pollution: current concerns and future prospects

UV-filters are widely used in cosmetics and personal care products to protect users' skin from redamage caused by ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. Globally, an estimated 16,000 to 25,000 tonnes of products containing UV-filters were used in 2014 with modern consumption likely to be much higher. Beyond this use in cosmetics and personal care products, UV-filters are also widely used to provide UV-stability in industrial products such as paints and plastics. This review discusses the main routes by which UV-filters enter aquatic environments and summarises the conclusions of studies from the past 10 years that have investigated the effects of UV-filters on environmentally relevant species including corals, microalgae, fish, and marine mammals. Safety data regarding the potential impact of UV-filters on human health are also discussed. Finally, we explore the challenges surrounding UV-filter removal and research on more environmentally friendly alternatives to current UV-filters.

Biodegradation of 2-ethylhexyl-4-methoxycinnamate in river sediments and its impact on microbial communities

Numerous studies have evaluated the toxicity and endocrine disrupting properties of organic UV filters for aquatic organisms, but little is known about their biodegradation in river sediments and their impact on microorganisms. We have set up the sterile and microbiological systems in the laboratory, adding 2-ethylhexyl-4-methoxycinnamate (EHMC), one of organic UV filters included in the list of high yield chemicals, at concentrations of 2, 20 and 200 μg/L, and characterized the microbial community composition and diversity in sediments. Monitoring of EHMC degradation within 30 days revealed that the half-life in the microbial system (3.49 days) was much shorter than that in the sterile system (7.55 days). Two potential degradation products, 4-mercaptobenzoic acid and 3-methoxyphenol were identified in the microbial system. Furthermore, high-throughput 16s and 18s rRNA gene sequencing showed that Proteobacteria dominated the sediment bacterial assemblages followed by Chloroflexi, Acidobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Nitrospirae; Eukaryota_uncultured fungus dominated the sediment fungal assemblages. Correlation analysis demonstrated that two bacterium genera (Anaerolineaceae_uncultured and Burkholderiaceae_uncultured) were significantly correlated with the biodegradation of EHMC. These results illustrate the biodegradability of EHMC in river sediments and its potential impact on microbial communities, which can provide useful information for eliminating the pollution of organic UV filters in natural river systems and assessing their potential ecological risks.

Efficient degradation of the organic UV filter benzophenone-3 by Sphingomonas wittichii strain BP14P isolated from WWTP sludge

Benzophenone-3 (BP3) is a widely used organic UV filter present in many environmental compartments. One way BP3 is released into the environment is through effluents from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). These plants are possible sources for degradation activity and WWTP sludge may potentially degrade BP3. Our goal was to identify any BP3 degrading microorganism(s) in WWTP sludge and to investigate whether the degradation was co-metabolic. Initial WWTP sludge microcosms spiked with BP3 showed 100% degradation after 20 days. Multiple transfers of these microcosms, while maintaining a strong selective pressure for BP3 degradation capabilities, resulted in the dominance of one bacterial strain. This strain was identified as Sphingomonas wittichii BP14P and was subsequently isolated. It was shown to degrade BP3 in a growth dependent manner. Strain BP14P utilized BP3 as the sole energy and carbon source and completely degraded BP3 after 7 days in minimal media. We tested the capability of BP14P to degrade nine other UV filters, but the degradation ability seemed to be restricted to BP3. However, whether this specificity is due to the lack of degradation genes, cellular transport or low bioavailability of the other UV filters remained unclear. The efficient degradation of BP3 by a group of bacteria well known for their potential for xenobiotic degradation is an important step forward for a complete risk assessment of the long-term environmental impact of BP3.

Distribution, removal efficiencies and environmental risk assessment of benzophenone and salicylate UV filters in WWTPs and surface waters from Romania

This article presents the environmental pollution level with organic UV filters and the effect they pose on aquatic organisms in Romania.

Isolation and characterization of a novel benzophenone-3-degrading bacterium Methylophilus sp. strain FP-6

Benzophenone-3 (BP-3) is extensively applied in sunscreens and some other related cosmetic products. It is necessary to efficiently and safely remove BP-3 from environments by application of various treatment technologies. However, to the authors' knowledge, BP-3 biodegradation by a single bacterial strain has not been reported before. In this study, a Gram-negative aerobic bacterium capable of degrading BP-3 as a sole carbon source was isolated from a municipal wastewater treatment plant and classified as Methylophilus sp. FP-6 according to BIOLOG GEN III and 16S rDNA analysis. Methanol was chosen for further experiments as a co-metabolic carbon source to enhance the microbial degradation efficiency of BP-3. Orthogonal and one-way experiments were all performed to investigate the optimal culture conditions for degradation of BP-3 by Methylophilus sp. FP-6. The degradation rate of BP-3 reached about 65% after 8 days of incubation with strain FP-6 under optimal culture conditions. The half-life (t_1/2) of BP-3 biodegradation by strain FP-6 was estimated as 2.95 days according to the BP-3 degradation curve. The metabolite intermediates generated during the BP-3 degradation process were analyzed by LC-MS/MS and three metabolite products were identified. According to the analysis of metabolic intermediates, three pathways for degradation of BP-3 by strain FP-6 were proposed. The results from this study gave first insights into the potential of BP-3 biodegradation by a single bacterial strain.

Microbial biotransformation of some novel hydantoin derivatives: Perspectives for bioremediation of potential sunscreen agents

Having identified novel hydantoin derivatives (compounds 1-5) demonstrating promising photoprotective capacity against UV radiation, and understainding the problem of the biotic and abiotic degradation of UV filters, the aim of the study was to evaluate their metabolic fate with the environmental fungus Cunninghamella echinulata. In parallel, compound 1 in vitro microsomal metabolic pattern was evaluated. Finally, in silico toxicity of test compounds and their biotransformation products was estimated, and parent compounds photostability was assessed. The study demonstrated the capacity for C. echinulata to metabolize 1-5, which were biotransformed to a greater extent than the standard UV filter. O-dealkylation of the side chains attached to the phenyl or hydantoin rings, and hydroxylation of the phenyl ring occurred during microbial transformation. O-dealkylation product was a unique metabolite observed in microsomal biotransformation of 1, being its intrinsic clearance in the medium category range. In silico study demonstrated that compounds 1-5 have low toxicity risk. Among the resulting metabolites, four can increase the risk of reproductive effects as shown by OSIRIS prediction. Noteworthy, all indicated metabolites belong to minor metabolites, except for compound 3 major metabolite. Moreover, the results of the photostability study showed that 1-5 were considered to be photostable. To sum up, the obtained in vitro biotransformation, photostability, and in silico toxicity results encourage further studies on hydantoin derivatives as potential UV photoprotective agents. The presented biotransformation profile of compounds 1-5 by C. echinulata suggests that these compounds may follow a similar biodegradation fate when released into the environment.

Personal care products reconnaissance in EVROTAS river (Greece): Water-sediment partition and bioaccumulation in fish

Twenty-six common ingredients of personal care products (PCPs) in water, sediment and fish from the Evrotas River (Greece) were investigated. Water sample analysis revealed the occurrence of twenty PCPs at concentrations ranging from 2.8 to 2031.0 ng l^-1, the maximum corresponding to the endocrine disrupting UV filter benzophenone 3 (BP3). In sediment samples, six compounds were found to be adsorbed, the highest concentration being that of 4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4MBC, 1400.4 ng g^-1 dw). Evrotas cyprinid fish (Squalius keadicus) showed a high accumulation potential for these chemicals, 100% detection frequency with maximum concentration that of benzophenone 2 (BP2, 41.9 ng g^-1 dw). These data allowed estimating the distribution coefficients sediment-water (DCs-w) and the bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) of the pollutants investigated. Calculated rates revealed that benzophenone 1 (BP1), 4-hydroxybenzophenone (4HB) and ethyl-4-(dimethyl-amino)benzoate (EtPABA) have a strong tendency to adsorb onto the sediments, showing high DCs-w, i.e. 8.2E + 4 l g^-1, 6.7E + 4 l g^-1 and 5.7E + 3 l g^-1, respectively. BFAs were only estimated for 5-methyl benzotriazole (MeBT), the compound having paired data from fish and water. The obtained values (range 2.0E + 2 l g^-1-3.8E + 3 l g^-1), indicated MeBT's strong bioaccumulation. Risk assessment of the investigated compounds for several aquatic organisms indicated a high ecological risk (HQ > 1) for BP3 and medium ecological risk (HQ ~ 0.5) for ODPABA.

Development and optimization of a QuEChERS-GC-MS/MS methodology to analyse ultraviolet-filters and synthetic musks in sewage sludge

A Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged and Safe (QuEChERS) methodology followed by gas chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) analysis was developed to extract synthetic musk compounds (SMCs) (6 polycyclic, 2 macrocyclic and 5 nitro musks) and ultraviolet-filters (UVFs) (6 compounds) from sludge. This methodology fills a gap in the literature, since the proposed technique does not require specific equipment, nor large amounts of solvents, sorbents and time to extract SMCs and UVFs from sludge. To optimize this new methodology, a design of experiments (DoE) approach was used, applying first a screening design (SD) and then a central composite design (CCD). The best conditions achieved to extract these 19 compounds simultaneously were: 500 mg freeze dried sludge, 2.5 min of vortex and 15 min ultrasound and the use of a QuEChERS for the dispersive solid-phase extraction (d-SPE) containing 500 mg MgSO₄, 410 mg C18 and 315 mg PSA. Then, this methodology was successfully validated. Recoveries of the target compounds ranged from 75% (cashmeran, DPMI) to 122% (2‑ethylhexyl 4‑methoxycinnamate, EHMC), with good repeatability (relative standard deviation < 10%). The instrumental detection limits (IDLs) and quantification (IQLs) varied from 0.001 pg (musk moskene, MM) to 7.5 pg (musk xylene, MX) and from 0.003 (MM) to 25 pg (MX), respectively. The method detection and quantification limits (MDLs and MQLs) ranged between 0.5 (DPMI) and 1394 (exaltolide, EXA) ng/g dw and 2 and 4648 ng/g-dw, respectively. Both SMCs and UVFs were detected in all sludge samples analysed. Higher concentrations were found for octocrylene (OC: maximum value of 115,486 ng/g-dw) followed by galaxolide (HHCB: 81,771 ng/g-dw). Only the nitro musks ambrette, xylene, moskene and tibetene and macrocyclic musk ethylene brassylate (EB) were not detected in any sample.

Molecular recognition of wood polyphenols by phase II detoxification enzymes of the white rot Trametes versicolor

Wood decay fungi have complex detoxification systems that enable them to cope with secondary metabolites produced by plants. Although the number of genes encoding for glutathione transferases is especially expanded in lignolytic fungi, little is known about their target molecules. In this study, by combining biochemical, enzymatic and structural approaches, interactions between polyphenols and six glutathione transferases from the white-rot fungus Trametes versicolor have been demonstrated. Two isoforms, named TvGSTO3S and TvGSTO6S have been deeply studied at the structural level. Each isoform shows two distinct ligand-binding sites, a narrow L-site at the dimer interface and a peculiar deep hydrophobic H-site. In TvGSTO3S, the latter appears optimized for aromatic ligand binding such as hydroxybenzophenones. Affinity crystallography revealed that this H-site retains the flavonoid dihydrowogonin from a partially purified wild-cherry extract. Besides, TvGSTO6S binds two molecules of the flavonoid naringenin in the L-site. These data suggest that TvGSTO isoforms could interact with plant polyphenols released during wood degradation.

The role of sorption processes in the removal of pharmaceuticals by fungal treatment of wastewater

The contribution of the sorption processes in the elimination of pharmaceuticals (PhACs) during the fungal treatment of wastewater has been evaluated in this work. The sorption of four PhACs (carbamazepine, diclofenac, iopromide and venlafaxine) by 6 different fungi was first evaluated in batch experiments. Concentrations of PhACs in both liquid and solid (biomass) matrices from the fungal treatment were measured. Contribution of the sorption to the total removal of pollutants ranged between 3% and 13% in relation to the initial amount. The sorption of 47 PhACs in fungi was also evaluated in a fungal treatment performed in 26days in a continuous bioreactor treating wastewater from a veterinary hospital. PhACs levels measured in the fungal biomass were similar to those detected in conventional wastewater treatment (WWTP) sludge. This may suggest the necessity of manage fungal biomass as waste in the same manner that the WWTP sludge is managed.

Biodegradation of UV-filters in marine sediments

The degradation of two of the most frequently used UV-filters was investigated through microcosm studies. Marine sediments sampled from two sites in Italy (La Spezia harbour and Sarno river estuary, S1 and S2 respectively) were used to set up aerobic and anaerobic sets of reactors. The sediments were spiked with a methanol solution of 3-(4-methylbenzylidene)camphor (4-MBC) and 2-ethylhexyl 4-(dimethylamino)benzoate (EH-DPAB), at concentrations of either 25 or 50mgkg^-1 each. Methanol (6.3g/L) also served as an organic amendment and growth substrate for improving microbial activity. Monitoring of the biotic and abiotic degradation of the selected contaminants over 16months revealed that 4-MBC biodegradation was very slow and incomplete, whereas over 90% of EH-DPAB was degraded both in the aerobic and the anaerobic reactors by the natural microbial communities of both sediments. Repeated spikes of EH-DPAB were followed by complete decay, characterised by first-order kinetics. The calculated kinetic rate constants under aerobic and anaerobic conditions were similar. In reactors inoculated with the S1 sediment the degradation rate constants progressively increased after each spike, up to the value of 0.039d^-1. For the S2 sediment the rate constant was around 0.020d^-1 throughout the duration of the experiment. Mass spectrometry analysis of sediment extracts allowed detection of potential transformation products of EH-DPAB and 4-MBC. Moreover, the natural microbial community of the sediments was studied using the CAtalyzed Reporter Deposition Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (CARD-FISH) both in the initial sediments and after degradation under aerobic and anaerobic conditions.

Detoxification of sewage sludge by natural attenuation and implications for its use as a fertilizer on agricultural soils

Sewage Sludges (SS) from wastewater treatment systems constitute a potential alternative to agricultural fertilizers. However, their use is limited by the presence of toxic substances that may represent significant hazards for the environment and for human health. To test the potential of natural processes to attenuate their putative toxic activities, actual SS samples from domestic sewage were buried in holes in a pollution-free environment for different periods of time, up to one year. Aqueous and organic extracts were obtained after each period of natural attenuation, and their respective toxicity was tested for estrogenic and dioxin-like activity by yeast-based bioassays (ER-RYA and AhR-RYA, respectively) and for general toxicity and teratogenicity in zebrafish embryos. Dioxin-like activity was also tested in zebrafish embryos by monitoring the induction of the marker gene cyp1a. Whereas the results showed essentially no estrogenic activity, both dioxin-like activity and embryotoxicity were observed in the initial samples, decreasing significantly after six months of attenuation. Chemical analysis of toxic SS samples showed the presence of low levels of dioxins and furans, and relatively high levels of m- and p-cresol, at concentrations that only partially justify the observed biological effects. Our data indicates the presence of largely uncharacterized hydrophilic compounds with high biological activity in SS, constituting a potential risk of groundwater pollution upon their disposal into the environment. It also shows that this potential impact may be significantly mitigated by attenuation protocols, as the one presented here.

An aggregate analysis of personal care products in the environment: Identifying the distribution of environmentally-relevant concentrations

Over the past 3-4 decades, per capita consumption of personal care products (PCPs) has steadily risen, resulting in increased discharge of the active and inactive ingredients present in these products into wastewater collection systems. PCPs comprise a long list of compounds employed in toothpaste, sunscreen, lotions, soaps, body washes, and insect repellants, among others. While comprehensive toxicological studies are not yet available, an increasing body of literature has shown that PCPs of all classes can impact aquatic wildlife, bacteria, and/or mammalian cells at low concentrations. Ongoing research efforts have identified PCPs in a variety of environmental compartments, including raw wastewater, wastewater effluent, surface water, wastewater solids, sediment, groundwater, and drinking water. Here, an aggregate analysis of over 5000 reported detections was conducted to better understand the distribution of environmentally-relevant PCP concentrations in, and between, these compartments. The distributions were used to identify whether aggregated environmentally-relevant concentration ranges intersected with available toxicity data. For raw wastewater, wastewater effluent, and surface water, a clear overlap was present between the 25th-75th percentiles and identified toxicity levels. This analysis suggests that improved wastewater treatment of antimicrobials, UV filters, and polycyclic musks is required to prevent negative impacts on aquatic species.

A review of organic UV-filters in wastewater treatment plants

UV-filters are a group of compounds which have been massively used in the past years due to the recent concerns with sunburns, premature skin ageing and the risk of developing skin cancer, related to sun exposure. At the moment, these compounds have been identified by the scientific community as emerging pollutants, due to their persistence in the environment, potential to accumulate in biota and potential threat as endocrine disruptors. At some point, the majority of sunscreens will find their way into wastewater (due to bathing and washing activities) and because wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are not able to remove and/or degrade them, consequently they find their way into rivers, lakes and ocean, so it is not surprising that UV-filters are found in the environment. Therefore, wastewater treatment plants should be the focus of the scientific community aiming to better understand the fate of the UV-filters and develop new technologies to remove them from wastewater and sludge. This review, aims to provide the current state of the art in the occurrence and fate of UV-filters in wastewater treatment plants and how the technologies that are being used are successfully removing these compounds from both wastewater and sludge.

Trace organic contaminants in biosolids: Impact of conventional wastewater and sludge processing technologies and emerging alternatives

This paper critically reviews the fate of trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) in biosolids, with emphasis on identifying operation conditions that impact the accumulation of TrOCs in sludge during conventional wastewater and sludge treatment and assessing the technologies available for TrOC removal from biosolids. The fate of TrOCs during sludge thickening, stabilisation (e.g. aerobic digestion, anaerobic digestion, alkaline stabilisation, and composting), conditioning, and dewatering is elucidated. Operation pH, sludge retention time (SRT), and temperature have significant impact on the sorption and biodegradation of TrOCs in activated sludge that ends up in the sludge treatment line. Anaerobic digestion may exacerbate the estrogenicity of sludge due to bioconversion to more potent metabolites. Application of advanced oxidation or thermal pre-treatment may minimise TrOCs in biosolids by increasing the bioavailability of TrOCs, converting TrOCs into more biodegradable products, or inducing complete mineralisation of TrOCs. Treatment of sludge by bioaugmentation using various bacteria, yeast, or fungus has the potential to reduce TrOC levels in biosolids.

Degradation of pharmaceuticals from membrane biological reactor sludge with Trametes versicolor

Emerging contaminants are a wide group of chemical products that are found at low concentrations in the environment. These contaminants can be either natural, e.g., estrogens, or synthetics, such as pesticides and pharmaceuticals, which can enter the environment through the water and sludge from wastewater treatment plants (WWTP). The growth of Trametes versicolor on membrane biological reactor (MBR) sludge in bioslurry systems at the Erlenmeyer scale was assessed and its capacity for removing pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) was evaluated. The ability of the fungus to remove hydrochlorothiazide (HZT) from liquid media cultures was initially assessed. Consequently, different bioslurry media (complete nutrient, glucose and no-nutrient addition) and conditions (sterile and non-sterile) were tested, and the removal of spiked HZT was monitored under each condition. The highest spiked HZT removal was assessed under non-sterile conditions without nutrient addition (93.2%). Finally, the removal assessment of a broad set of pharmaceuticals was performed in non-spiked bioslurry. Under non-sterile conditions, the fungus was able to completely degrade 12 out of the 28 drugs initially detected in the MBR sludge, achieving an overall degradation of 66.9%. Subsequent microbial analysis showed that the microbial diversity increased after 15 days of treatment, but there was still some T. versicolor in the bioslurry. Results showed that T. versicolor can be used to remove PPCPs in bioslurry systems under non-sterile conditions, without extra nutrients in the media, and in matrices as complex as an MBR sludge.

Re-inoculation strategies enhance the degradation of emerging pollutants in fungal bioaugmentation of sewage sludge

The use of Trametes versicolor has been partially successful in the removal of some pharmaceuticals from sewage sludge in laboratory-scale biopile systems. The application of two strategies for the re-inoculation of biomass was assessed during the fungal bioaugmentation of non-sterile sludge (42-d treatment) as an approach to improve the elimination of pharmaceuticals and other groups of emerging pollutants. Globally, the re-inoculation of biopiles with blended mycelium exerted a major effect on the removal of pharmaceuticals (86%), brominated-flame-retardants (81%) and UV filters (80%) with respect to the re-inoculation with additional lignocellulosic substrate colonized by the fungus (69-67-22%). The performance was better than that of the analogous non-re-inoculated systems that were assayed previously for the removal of pharmaceuticals. The results demonstrate the ability of T. versicolor to remove a wide spectrum of emerging micropollutants under non-sterile conditions, while re-inoculation appears to be a useful step to improve the fungal treatment of sludge.

Biodegradation of the X-ray contrast agent iopromide and the fluoroquinolone antibiotic ofloxacin by the white rot fungus Trametes versicolor in hospital wastewaters and identification of degradation products

This paper describes the degradation of the X-ray contrast agent iopromide (IOP) and the antibiotic ofloxacin (OFLOX) by the white-rot-fungus Trametes versicolor. Batch studies in synthetic medium revealed that between 60 and 80% of IOP and OFLOX were removed when spiked at approximately 12 mg L(-1) and 10 mg L(-1), respectively. A significant number of transformation products (TPs) were identified for both pharmaceuticals, confirming their degradation. IOP TPs were attributed to two principal reactions: (i) sequential deiodination of the aromatic ring and (ii) N-dealkylation of the amide at the hydroxylated side chain of the molecule. On the other hand, OFLOX transformation products were attributed mainly to the oxidation, hydroxylation and cleavage of the piperazine ring. Experiments in 10 L-bioreactor with fungal biomass fluidized by air pulses operated in batch achieved high percentage of degradation of IOP and OFLOX when load with sterile (87% IOP, 98.5% OFLOX) and unsterile (65.4% IOP, 99% OFLOX) hospital wastewater (HWW) at their real concentration (μg L(-1) level). Some of the most relevant IOP and OFLOX TPs identified in synthetic medium were also detected in bioreactor samples. Acute toxicity tests indicated a reduction of the toxicity in the final culture broth from both experiments in synthetic medium and in batch bioreactor.

Removal of pharmaceuticals, polybrominated flame retardants and UV-filters from sludge by the fungus Trametes versicolor in bioslurry reactor

Conventional wastewater treatments are inefficient in the removal of many organic pollutants. The presence of these contaminants in the final sludge represents a source of environmental pollution due to the increasing use of biosolids in land application. A biotechnological approach which employed the fungus Trametes versicolor in a sludge-bioslurry reactor was assessed in order to remove several groups of emerging pollutants. Biological fungal activity was monitored by means of ergosterol and laccase determinations. Fifteen out of 24 detected pharmaceuticals were removed at efficiencies over 50% after the treatment, including eight completely degraded. Removal ranged between 16-53% and 22-100% for the brominated flame retardants and the UV-filters, respectively. Only two of all the detected compounds remained unchanged after the treatment. Although elimination results are promising, the toxicity of the final sludge increased after the treatment. This finding is contrary to the toxicity results obtained in similar treatments of sludge with T. versicolor in solid-phase.

Evaluation of fungal- and photo-degradation as potential treatments for the removal of sunscreens BP3 and BP1

Photodecomposition might be regarded as one of the most important abiotic factors affecting the fate of UV absorbing compounds in the environment and photocatalysis has been suggested as an effective method to degrade organic pollutants. However, UV filters transformation appears to be a complex process, barely addressed to date. The white rot fungus Trametes versicolor is considered as a promising alternative to conventional aerobic bacterial degradation, as it is able to metabolise a wide range of xenobiotics. This study focused on both degradation processes of two widely used UV filters, benzophenone-3 (BP3) and benzophenone-1 (BP1). Fungal treatment resulted in the degradation of more than 99% for both sunscreens in less than 24 h, whereas photodegradation was very inefficient, especially for BP3, which remained unaltered upon 24 h of simulated sunlight irradiation. Analysis of metabolic compounds generated showed BP1 as a minor by-product of BP3 degradation by T. versicolor while the main intermediate metabolites were glycoconjugate derivatives. BP1 and BP3 showed a weak, but significant estrogenic activity (EC50 values of 0.058 mg/L and 12.5 mg/L, respectively) when tested by recombinant yeast assay (RYA), being BP1 200-folds more estrogenic than BP3. Estrogenic activity was eliminated during T. versicolor degradation of both compounds, showing that none of the resulting metabolites possessed significant estrogenic activity at the concentrations produced. These results demonstrate the suitability of this method to degrade both sunscreen agents and to eliminate estrogenic activity.