Macrophage immunomodulatory activity of the polysaccharides from the roots of Bupleurum smithii var. parvifolium

Construction and performance evaluation of polyguluronic acid polysaccharides-based drug delivery systems

Polysaccharides have garnered significant attention as potential nanoparticle carriers for targeted tumor therapy due to their excellent biodegradability and biocompatibility. Polyguluronic acid (PG) is a homogeneous acidic polysaccharide fragment derived from alginate, which is found in brown algae, possesses excellent bioactivities, unique properties. This study explored the immunomodulatory activity of PG and developed PG-based nanogels through modified disulfide bonds and Ca2+ dual crosslinking. We characterized their structure, assessed their drug-loading and release properties, and ultimately validated both the safety of the nanocarrier and the in vitro anti-tumor efficacy of the encapsulated drug. Results indicated that PG significantly enhanced the proliferative activity and phagocytosis of RAW264.7 cells while promoting reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and cytokine secretion. The study identified TLR4 as the primary receptor for PG recognition in RAW264.7 cells. Furthermore, PG-based drug-carrying nanogels were prepared, exhibiting uniform sizes of about 184 nm and demonstrating exceptional encapsulation efficiency (82.15 ± 0.82 %) and drug loading capacity (8.12 ± 0.08 %). In vitro release experiments showed that these nanogels could responsively release drugs under conditions of high glutathione (GSH) reduction, facilitating drug accumulation at tumor sites and enhancing therapeutic efficacy. This research not only expands the application of PG in drug delivery systems but also provides valuable insights into leveraging natural immunomodulatory polysaccharides as carriers for targeted drug delivery.

Structural characterization and immune-enhancing effects of a novel polysaccharide extracted from Sargassum fusiforme

To alleviate the adverse effects of chemotherapy and bolster immune function, a novel polysaccharide derived from Sargassum fusiforme named as SFP-αII. The structural composition of SFP-αII predominantly consisted of guluronic and mannuronic acids in a molar ratio of 33.8:66.2, with an average molecular weight of 16.5 kDa. Its structure was primarily characterized by →4)-α-GulA-(1 → and →4)-β-ManA-(1 → linkages confirmed by FT-IR, methylation, and NMR analyses. The absence of a triple-helix structure was in SFP-αII was confirmed using circular dichroism and Congo red dye assays. The dimensions varied with lengths ranging from 20 nm up to 3 μm revealed by atomic force microscopy (AFM). SFP-αII has been found to enhance immunomodulatory activity in cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced immunosuppressed mice. This was evidenced by improvements in immune organ indices, cytokine levels, and the release of nitric oxide (NO). Specifically, SFP-αII mitigated immunosuppression by upregulating the secretion of IL-1β (167.3 %) and TNF-α (227.1 %) at a dose of 400 mg/kg, compared with the CTX group in macrophages. Ultimately, SFP-αII may serve as a mechanism for immune enhancement through modulation of TLR4-mediated NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. This integration of traditional Chinese and Western medicine, leveraging SFP-αII as a potential functional food could be pivotal in alleviating immunosuppressive side effects in CTX treatment.

Analyzing the structure-activity relationship of raspberry polysaccharides using interpretable artificial neural network model

The structure-activity relationship has been a hot topic in the field of polysaccharide research. Six polysaccharides and three polysaccharide fragments were obtained from raspberry pulp. Based on their structural information and immune-enhancing activity data, an artificial neural network (ANN) model was used for prediction, and Gradient-weighted class activation mapping (Grad-CAM) algorithm was exploited for explanation structure-activity relationship of these raspberry polysaccharides in the present study. The structural information and immune activity data of raspberry polysaccharides were respectively used as input and output in the ANN model. The training and testing losses of ANN model was no longer decreased after trained for 200 epochs. The mean-square error (MSE) of training set and test set stabilized around 0.003 and 0.013, and the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of training set and test set were 0.21 % and 0.98 %, indicating the trained ANN model converged well and exhibited strong robustness. The interpretability analysis showed that molecular weight, content of arabinose, galactose or galacturonic acid, and glycosyl linkage patterns of →3)-Arap-(1→, Araf-(1→, →4)-Galp-(1 → were the main structural factors greatly affecting the immune-enhancing activity of raspberry polysaccharides. This work may provide a new perspective for the study of structure-activity relationship of polysaccharides.

Paraprobiotic derived from Bacillus velezensis GV1 improves immune response and gut microbiota composition in cyclophosphamide-treated immunosuppressed mice

Paraprobiotics that benefit human health have the capacity to modulate innate and adaptive immune systems. In this study, we prepared the paraprobiotic from Bacillus velezensis GV1 using the heat-killing method and investigated its effects on immunity and gut microbiota in vitro and in vivo. The morphology of inactivated strain GV1 was observed using scanning electron microscopy. Treatment with GV1 promoted nitric oxide production and augmented cytokine (IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α) expression and secretion in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Moreover, the strain GV1 could alleviate cyclophosphamide monohydrate (CTX)-induced immunosuppression by reversing spleen damage and restoring the immune organ index, as well as by increasing the expression of immune-related cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IFN-γ, and IL-2) in the spleen and thymus, respectively. Furthermore, GV1 treatment dramatically healed the CTX-damaged colon and regulated gut microbiota by increasing the relative abundance of beneficial bacterial families (Lactobacillaceae, Akkermansiaceae, and Coriobacteriaceae) and decreasing that of harmful bacterial families (Desulfovibrionaceae, Erysipelotrichaceae, and Staphylococcaceae). Thus, the heat-killed GV1 can be considered a potential immunoregulatory agent for use as a functional food or immune-enhancing medicine.

Comparative Study on Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Polysaccharides from Vinegar-Baked Radix Bupleuri Using Different Methods

The impact of the extraction method on the physiochemical characteristics and anti-inflammatory effect of polysaccharides from vinegar-baked Radix Bupleuri (VBCPs) was studied. Five extraction methods were employed to obtain the VBCPs: hot water extraction (HW), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UA), enzyme-assisted extraction (EA), citric acid-assisted extraction (CA), and ammonia-assisted extraction (KA). The results showed that the extraction method affects the yield, characteristics, and anti-inflammatory effect of the polysaccharides significantly. KA produced the highest yield, Ara content, and the strongest effect of enhancing IL-10 secretion. VBCP-EA exhibited the largest molecular weight (Mw), the highest Man content, and the poorest effect on inhibiting NO, VBCP-UA possessed more Gal than other VBCPs, the lowest Mw, and a comparable effect on inhibiting NO and TNF-α with VBCP-KA and VBCP-CA. All VBCP self-assembled into nanoparticles in solutions, and VBCP-KA presented the lowest particle size. The structure-activity analysis showed that Mw and Man content are negatively correlated and Ara content is positively correlated with the NO inhibition and IL-10 secretion effects; Rha and Gal A content are positively correlated and Glu is negatively correlated with the TNF-α inhibiting effect. The above results indicated that KA is an efficient method for obtaining anti-inflammatory VBCP, which provides new insight into the extraction of VBCP.

A comprehensive review on traditional and modern research of the genus Bupleurum (Bupleurum L., Apiaceae) in recent 10 years

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The genus Bupleurum (family Apiaceae), comprising approximately 248 accepted species, is widely distributed and used in China, Japan, India, Central Asia, North Africa and some European countries as traditional herbal medicines. Certain species have been reported to have significant therapeutic effects in fever, inflammatory disorders, cancer, gastric ulcer, virus infection and other diseases.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

we performed a comprehensive review of the ten-year research progress in phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicity, along with bibliometrics research of the genus Bupleurum, aiming to identify knowledge gaps for future research.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All the literatures are retrieved from library and electronic sources including Web of Science, PubMed, Elsevier, Google Scholar, CNKI and Baidu Scholar. These papers cover studies of the traditional use, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology of the genus Bupleurum.

RESULTS

There is a long history of using the genus Bupleurum in traditional herbal medicine that dated back to over 2000 years ago. Twenty-five species and 8 varieties with 3 variants within this genus have been reported to be effective to treat fever, pain, liver disease, inflammation, thoracolumbar pain, irregular menstruation and rectal prolapse. The main phytochemicals found in these plants are triterpene saponins, volatile oil, flavonoid, lignans, and polysaccharides. Many of these compounds have also been shown to have anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, antimicrobial, immunoregulation, neuroregulation, hepatoprotective and antidiabetic activities. Meanwhile, improper usage of Bupleurum may induce cytotoxic effects, and polyacetylenes may be the main poisonous compounds.

CONCLUSIONS

This article summarized recent findings about Bupleurum research from many different aspects. While a small number of Bupleurum species have been investigated through modern pharmacology methods, there are still major knowledge gaps due to inadequate studies and ambiguous findings. Future research could focus on more specific phytochemistry studies combined with mechanistic analysis to provide better guidance to utilize Bupleurum as medicinal resources.

The Wu-Shi-Cha formula protects against ulcerative colitis by orchestrating immunity and microbiota homeostasis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ulcerative colitis (UC) has become a healthy burden worldwide due to its insidious onset and repetitive relapse, with a rather complex etiology, including inappropriate immune response, dysbiosis, genetic susceptibility, and unhealthy diets. The Wu-Shi-Cha (WSC) formula is a widely utilized drug to protect against gastrointestinal disorders.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The study aspired to dissect the pertinent mechanisms of the WSC to treat UC.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Network pharmacology and weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) were performed to predict the targets of WSC in the context of UC and colorectal cancer. Dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) was used to construct murine models of experimental colitis, and the WSC was given to colitis mice for 14 days. Feces and colon samples were subjected to 16S rRNA gene sequencing combined with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and biochemical experiments, respectively.

RESULTS

Network pharmacology analysis predicted that the WSC formula could orchestrate inflammation, infection, and tumorigenesis, and WGCNA based on The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database showed a potent anti-neoplastic effect of the WSC therapy for colorectal cancer. The WSC therapy rescued bursts of pro-inflammatory cytokines and colonic epithelial collapse in DSS-induced colitis mice. Moreover, the high dose of WSC treatment facilitated the alternative activation of peritoneal macrophages (Mφs) and these Mφs were conducive to the survival of intestinal stem cells (ISCs), and the disturbed homeostasis of gut microbiota was re-established after WSC treatment, as evidenced by the decreased colonization of pathological taxa in the fecal samples.

CONCLUSION

The WSC formula suppresses inflammation and re-establishes the homeostasis of gut microbiota, thereby ameliorating colitis progression.

Extraction, purification, structure characteristics, biological activities and pharmaceutical application of Bupleuri Radix Polysaccharide: A review

Bupleuri Radix (BR), as a well-known plant medicine of relieving exterior syndrome, has a long history of usage in China. Bupleuri Radix Polysaccharide (BRP), as the main component and an important bioactive substance of BR, has a variety of pharmacological activities, including immunoregulation, antioxidant, antitumor, anti-diabetic and anti-aging, etc. In this review, the advancements on extraction, purification, structure characteristics, biological activities and pharmaceutical application of BRP from different sources (Bupleurum chinense DC., Bupleurum scorzonerifolium Willd., Bupleurum falcatum L. and Bupleurum smithii Woiff. var. Parvifolium Shan et Y. Li.) are summarized. Meanwhile, this review makes an in-depth discussion on the shortcomings of the research on BRP, and new valuable insights for the future researches of BRP are proposed.

Comparative Study on the Structural Properties and Bioactivities of Three Different Molecular Weights of Lycium barbarum Polysaccharides

The molecular weight, the triple-helix conformation, the monosaccharide content, the manner of glycosidic linkages, and the polysaccharide conjugates of polysaccharides all affect bioactivity. The purpose of this study was to determine how different molecular weights affected the bioactivity of the Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBPs). By ethanol-graded precipitation and ultrafiltration membrane separation, one oligosaccharide (LBPs-1, 1.912 kDa) and two polysaccharides (LBPs-2, 7.481 kDa; LBPs-3, 46.239 kDa) were obtained from Lycium barbarum. While the major component of LBPs-1 and LBPs-2 was glucose, the main constituents of LBPs-3 were arabinose, galactose, and glucose. LBPs-2 and LBPs-3 exhibited triple-helix conformations, as evidenced by the Congo red experiment and AFM data. Sugar residues of LBPs-2 and LBPs-3 were elucidated by NMR spectra. The polysaccharides (LBPs-2 and LBPs-3) exhibited much higher antioxidant capacities than oligosaccharide (LBPs-1). LBPs-3 showed higher oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity than LBPs-2, but a lower capability for scavenging ABTS⁺ radicals. In zebrafish, LBPs-2 and LBPs-3 boosted the growth of T-lymphocytes and macrophages, enhanced the immunological response, and mitigated the immune damage generated by VTI. In addition to the molecular weight, the results indicated that the biological activities would be the consequence of various aspects, such as the monosaccharide composition ratio, the chemical composition, and the chemical reaction mechanism.

Immunomodulatory Effects of Plant Extracts from Salvia deserta Schang. and Salvia sclarea L

Medicines, their safety, effectiveness and quality are indispensable factors of national security, important on a global scale. The COVID-19 pandemic has once again emphasized the importance of improving the immune response of the body in the face of severe viral infections. Plants from the Salvia L. genus have long been used in traditional medicine for treatment of inflammatory processes, parasitic diseases, bacterial and viral infections. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the immunomodulatory effects of plant extracts LS-1, LS-2 from Salvia deserta Schang. and LS-3, LS-4 from Salvia sclarea L. plants growing in southern Kazakhstan by conventional and ultrasonic-assisted extraction, respectively. The cytotoxic effects of the named sage extracts on neonatal human dermal fibroblasts (HDFn) were evaluated using the MTT assay. Immunomodulatory effects of the studied extracts were compared by examining their influence on pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion and phagocytic activity of murine immune cells. Depending on the physiological state of the innate immune cells, sage extracts LS-2 and LS-3 had either a stimulating effect on inactivated macrophages or suppressed cytokine-producing activity in LPS-activated macrophages. The greatest increase in TNF-α secretion was found after treatment of spleen T lymphocytes with sage extract LS-2, obtained by ultrasonic-assisted extraction.

Response of soil microecology to different cropping practice under Bupleurum chinense cultivation

The effects of cropping practices on the rhizosphere soil physical properties and microbial communities of Bupleurum chinense have not been studied in detail. The chemical properties and the microbiome of rhizosphere soil of B. chinense were assessed in the field trial with three cropping practices (continuous monocropping, Bupleurum-corn intercropping and Bupleurum-corn rotation). The results showed cropping practices changed the chemical properties of the rhizosphere soil and composition, structure and diversity of the rhizosphere microbial communities. Continuous monocropping of B. chinense not only decreased soil pH and the contents of NO₃⁻-N and available K, but also decreased the alpha diversity of bacteria and beneficial microorganisms. However, Bupleurum-corn rotation improved soil chemical properties and reduced the abundance of harmful microorganisms. Soil chemical properties, especially the contents of NH₄⁺-N, soil organic matter (SOM) and available K, were the key factors affecting the structure and composition of microbial communities in the rhizosphere soil. These findings could provide a new basis for overcoming problems associated with continuous cropping and promote development of B. chinense planting industry by improving soil microbial communities.

Validation of the Anticolitis Efficacy of the Jian-Wei-Yu-Yang Formula

Background

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality due to its repetitive remission and relapse. The Jian-Wei-Yu-Yang (JW) formula has a historical application in the clinic to combat gastrointestinal disorders. The investigation aimed to explore the molecular and cellular mechanisms of JW.

Methods

2% dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) was diluted in drinking water and given to mice for 5 days to establish murine models of experimental colitis, and different doses of JW solution were administered for 14 days. Network pharmacology analysis and weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) were utilized to predict the therapeutic role of JW against experimental colitis and colitis-associated colorectal cancer (CAC). 16S rRNA sequencing and untargeted metabolomics were conducted using murine feces. Western blotting, immunocytochemistry, and wound healing experiments were performed to confirm the molecular mechanisms.

Results

(1) Liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry was utilized to confirm the validity of the JW formula. The high dose of JW treatment markedly attenuated DSS-induced experimental colitis progression, and the targets were enriched in inflammation, infection, and tumorigenesis. (2) The JW targets were related to the survival probability in patients with colorectal cancer, underlying a potential therapeutic value in CRC intervention. (3) Moreover, the JW therapy successfully rescued the decreased richness and diversity of microbiota, suppressed the potentially pathogenic phenotype of the gut microorganisms, and increased cytochrome P450 activity in murine colitis models. (4) Our in vitro experiments confirmed that the JW treatment suppressed caspase3-dependent pyroptosis, hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF1α), and interleukin-1b (IL-1b) in the colon; facilitated the alternative activation of macrophages (Mφs); and inhibited tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα)-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) level in intestinal organoids (IOs).

Conclusion

The JW capsule attenuated the progression of murine colitis by a prompt resolution of inflammation and bloody stool and by re-establishing a microbiome profile that favors re-epithelization and prevents carcinogenesis.

The Effect of Flammulina velutipes Polysaccharide on Immunization Analyzed by Intestinal Flora and Proteomics

Proteomics and intestinal flora were used to determine the mechanism of immune modulatory effects of Flammulina velutipes polysaccharide on immunosuppressed mice. The results showed that compared with the model group, F. velutipes polysaccharide could increase thymus and spleen indices and improve thymus tissue structure in mice; IL-2 and IL-4 contents were significantly increased and IL-6 and TNF-α contents were significantly decreased; serum acid phosphatase (ACP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) activities were increased (P < 0.05); in the liver, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities were increased (P < 0.001), while malondialdehyde (MDA) content was decreased (P < 0.001). Proteomics discovered that F. velutipes polysaccharides may exert immune modulatory effects by participating in signaling pathways such as immune diseases, transport and catabolism, phagosomes and influenza A, regulating the immune-related proteins Transferrin receptor protein 1 (TFRC) and Radical S-adenosyl methionine domain-containing protein 2 (RSAD2), etc. Gut microbial studies showed that F. velutipes polysaccharides could increase the abundance of intestinal flora and improve the flora structure. Compared to the model group, the content of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and the relative abundance of SCFA-producers Bacteroides and Alloprevotella were increased in the F. velutipes polysaccharide administration group, while Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group and f_Lachnospiraceae_Unclassified decreased in relative abundance. Thus, F. velutipes polysaccharide may play an immunomodulatory role by regulating the intestinal environment and improving the balance of flora.

Polysaccharides confer benefits in immune regulation and multiple sclerosis by interacting with gut microbiota

Pharmacological and clinical studies have consistently demonstrated that polysaccharides exhibit great potential on immune regulation. Polysaccharides can interact directly or indirectly with the immune system, triggering cell-cell communication and molecular recognition, leading to immunostimulatory responses. Gut microbiota is adept at foraging polysaccharides as energy sources and confers benefits in the context of immunity and chronic autoimmune disease, such as multiple sclerosis. A compelling set of interconnectedness between the gut microbiota, natural polysaccharides, and immune regulation has emerged. In this review, we highlighted the available avenues supporting the existence of these interactions, with a focus on cytokines-mediated and SCFAs-mediated pathways. Additionally, the neuroimmune mechanisms for gut microbiota communication with the brain in multiple sclerosis are also discussed, which will lay the ground for ameliorate multiple sclerosis via polysaccharide intervention.

Development of Broad-Spectrum Antiviral Agents-Inspiration from Immunomodulatory Natural Products

Developing broad-spectrum antiviral drugs remains an important issue as viral infections continue to threaten public health. Host-directed therapy is a method that focuses on potential targets in host cells or the body, instead of viral proteins. Its antiviral effects are achieved by disturbing the life cycles of pathogens or modulating immunity. In this review, we focus on the development of broad-spectrum antiviral drugs that enhance the immune response. Some natural products present antiviral effects mediated by enhancing immunity, and their structures and mechanisms are summarized here. Natural products with immunomodulatory effects are also discussed, although their antiviral effects remain unknown. Given the power of immunity and the feasibility of host-directed therapy, we argue that both of these categories of natural products provide clues that may be beneficial for the discovery of broad-spectrum antiviral drugs.

Anticancer and Immunomodulatory Effects of Polysaccharides

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death and one of the most important public health problems in the world. And every year, millions of new cancers and hundreds of thousands of cancer-related deaths are reported worldwide. In recent decades, a number of biologically active polysaccharides and polysaccharide-protein complexes have been isolated from plants, lichen, algae, yeast, fungi and mushroom, and due to their antitumor and immunomodulatory properties, these compounds have received considerable attention. Overall, the two key mechanisms by which polysaccharides act on tumor cells are direct action (inhibition of cancer cell growth and induction of programmed cell death/apoptosis) and indirect action (stimulation of immunity). Immunosuppressive effects are recognizable in both cancer patients and tumor bearing animals, suggesting that the immune system plays an important role in the immune surveillance of cancer cells. Thus, enhancement of the host immune response has been evaluated as a possible way of inhibiting tumor growth without damaging the host. In addition to their therapeutic and prophylactic properties, the polysaccharides are effective and less toxic than chemotherapy. The anticancer activity and immunomodulatory effects of most polysaccharides have shown the promising and real potential for the benefits of human health.

Wild simulated ginseng activates mouse macrophage, RAW264.7 cells through TRL2/4-dependent activation of MAPK, NF-κB and PI3K/AKT pathways

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) is a very well-known traditional herbal medicine that has long been used to enhance the body's immunity. Because it is a type of ginseng, it is believed that wild simulated ginseng (WSG) also has immune-enhancing activity. However, study on the immune-enhancing activity of WSG is quite insufficient compared to ginseng.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this study, we evaluated immune-enhancing activity of WSG through macrophage activation to provide a scientific basis for the immune enhancing activity of WSG.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effect of WSG on viability of RAW264.7 cells was evaluated by MTT assay. The NO level was measured by Griess reagent. The expression levels of mRNA or protein in WSG-treated RAW264.7 cells were analyzed by RT-PCR and Western blot, respectively.

RESULTS

WSG increased the production of immunomodulators such as NO, iNOS, COX-2, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α and activated phagocytosis in mouse macrophages RAW264.7 cells. Inhibition of TLR2 and TLR4 reduced the production of immunomodulators induced by WSG. WSG activated MAPK, NF-κB and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways, and inhibition of such signaling activation blocked WSG-mediated production of immunomodulators. In addition, activation of MAPK, NF-κB and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways by WSG was reversed by TLR2 or TLR4 inhibition.

CONCLUSION

Based on the results of this study, WSG is thought to activate macrophages through the production of immunomodulators and phagocytosis activation through TLR2/4-dependent MAPK, NF-κB and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways. Therefore, it is thought that WSG have the potential to be used as an agent for enhancing immunity.

Study on the related factors of post-herpetic neuralgia in hospitalized patients with herpes zoster in Sichuan Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine based on big data analysis

Although various factors were reported to be related to post-herpetic neuralgia (PHN), studies based on adequate and comprehensive data were absent. Data was extracted from cases of hospitalized patients with herpes zoster in dermatology department, Sichuan hospital of traditional Chinese medicine range from December, 2011 to February, 2018, and then cleaned to build prediction model with TREENET algorithms. Following evaluated the prediction model by ROC and confusion matrix, variables importance ranking and variables dependency analysis were performed, resulting in the importance ranking of factors for PHN and the dependency between factors and PHN. Based on strict inclusion and exclusion criteria, 1303 (571 PHN and 732 normal controls) cases and 2958 indicators were selected. Model evaluation showed high ROC value (training sample = 0.985, test samples = 0.752) and high accuracy value (70.27%), which indicated that the model was predictive. After variables importance ranking and variables dependency analysis, 62 variables in the model were associated with the occurrence of PHN. Our study identified 62 variables related to PHN and revealed that various variables were the important risk factors for PHN, including age, MCHC, sodium and UA.

Potential Immunomodulatory Activity of a Selected Strain Bifidobacterium bifidum H3-R2 as Evidenced in vitro and in Immunosuppressed Mice

The microbiota is directly involved in the development and modulation of the intestinal immune system. In particular, members of the genus Bifidobacterium play a primary role in immune regulation. In the present study, Bifidobacterium bifidum H3-R2 was screened from 15 bifidobacterium strains by in vitro experiment, showing a positive tolerance to digestive tract conditions, adhesion ability to intestinal epithelial cells and a regulatory effect on immune cell activity. Immunostimulatory activity of B. bifidum H3-R2 was also elucidated in vivo in cytoxan (CTX)-treated mice. The results showed that the administration of B. bifidum H3-R2 ameliorated the CTX-induced bodyweight loss and imbalanced expression of inflammatory cytokines, enhanced the production of secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA), and promoted splenic lymphocyte proliferation, natural killer (NK) cell activity and phagocytosis of macrophages in immunosuppressed mice. In addition, B. bifidum H3-R2 restored injured intestinal mucosal, and increased the villus length and crypt depth in CTX-treated mice. The results could be helpful for understanding the functions of B. bifidum H3-R2, supporting its potential as a novel probiotic for immunoregulation.

Botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, analytical methods, processing, pharmacology and pharmacokinetics of Bupleuri Radix: A systematic review

Bupleuri Radix (BR) is the dry root of Bupleurum chinense DC. and Bupleurum scorzonerifolium Willd. It has the functions of evacuation and antipyretic, soothing liver and relieving depression and often used to treat cold fever, chest and rib swelling pain, irregular menstruation, uterine prolapse, rectocele and other diseases. In this paper, the botany, traditional application, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicity of BR were reviewed. On the basis of limited literature, the analytical method, quality control, processing method, processing effect and pharmacokinetics of BR were summarized and analyzed for the first time. This review makes an in-depth discussion on the shortcomings of the current research on BR, and puts forward its own views and solutions. This has never been summarized in the previous review of BR. It is of great practical significance for future scholars to find a breakthrough point in the study of BR. So far, its mechanism has not been satisfactorily explained. Moreover, the comprehensive quality evaluation and multi-target network pharmacology of BR need to be further studied. In the future, more in vitro and in vivo experiments are needed to give full play to the therapeutic potential of BR.

The important role of polysaccharides from a traditional Chinese medicine-Lung Cleansing and Detoxifying Decoction against the COVID-19 pandemic

The new coronavirus pneumonia, named COVID-19 by the World Health Organization, has become a pandemic. It is highly pathogenic and reproduces quickly. There are currently no specific drugs to prevent the reproduction and spread of COVID-19. Some traditional Chinese medicines, especially the Lung Cleansing and Detoxifying Decoction (Qing Fei Pai Du Tang), have shown therapeutic effects on mild and ordinary COVID-19 patients. Polysaccharides are important ingredients in this decoction. This review summarizes the potential pharmacological activities of polysaccharides isolated by hot water extraction from Lung Cleansing and Detoxifying Decoction, which is consistent with its production method, to provide the theoretical basis for ongoing research on its application.

Bupleurum polysaccharides ameliorated renal injury in diabetic mice associated with suppression of HMGB1-TLR4 signaling

Bupleurum polysaccharides (BPs) is isolated from Bupleurum smithii var. parvifolium, a key traditional Chinese medicine. The study was to investigate the effects of BPs on diabetic kidney injury. After two intraperitoneal injections of streptozotozin (STZ) 100 mg·kg^-1, renal injury in diabetic mice was induced and BPs was orally administrated at dosages of 30 and 60 mg·kg^-1·d^-1. The STZ injected mice developed renal function damage, renal inflammation and fibrosis known as diabetic kidney disease (DKD). BPs significantly reduced serum creatinine level and urinary albumin excretion rate, with the attenuated swelling of kidneys. BPs treatment obviously alleviated the pathological damage of renal tissue. The progression of renal injury in BPs treated mice was inhibited with less expression of type IV collagen (Col IV), fibronectin (FN) and α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA). The inhibition of inflammation in kidney was associated with the reduced level of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6). BPs administration suppressed the over-expression of toll like receptor 4 (TLR4) and high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) with lowered activity of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) in renal tissue of diabetic mice. Oral administration of BPs effectively prevented the development ofrenal injury in diabetic mice. This study suggested that the protection provided by BPs might affect through the interruption of HMGB1-TLR4 pathway, leading to the inhibition of renal inflammation and fibrotic process.

Structural characterization and anticomplement activity of an acidic polysaccharide containing 3-O-methyl galactose from Juniperus tibetica

A water-soluble acidic polysaccharide containing 3-O-methyl galactose, named YB-PS4, was isolated from the twigs and leaves of Juniperus tibetica Kom. Its structure was characterized by monosaccharide composition analysis, methylation, and NMR spectroscopy. It was concluded that YB-PS4 had a backbone composed of→2,4)-α-Rhap-(1→, →3,5)-α-Araf-(1→, →2,4)-α-Galp-(1 → and →4)-α-GalpA-(1→, with branches of →2)-α-Rhap-(1→,→3)-α-Araf-(1 → and →2)-3-O-Me-α-Galp-(1→. The possible repetitive units were speculated and further analyzed by oligosaccharide analysis. YB-PS4 showed inhibitory effects on complement activation through the classical pathway (CH₅₀ = 94.23 ± 8.90 μg/mL) and alternative pathway (AP₅₀ = 194.76 ± 9.20 μg/mL). Preliminary mechanism study indicated that it interacted with C1q, C2, C3, C4 and C5. These studies pointed a way to understand the active constituents of J. tibetica and provided scientific bases for YB-PS4 as a complement inhibitor.

Advances in Research on Immunoregulation of Macrophages by Plant Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are among the most important members of the biopolymer family. They are natural macromolecules composed of monosaccharides. To date, more than 300 kinds of natural polysaccharide compounds have been identified. They are present in plants, animals, and microorganisms, and they engage in a variety of physiological functions. In the 1950s, due to the discovery of their immunoregulatory and anti-tumor activities, polysaccharides became a popular topic of research in pharmacology, especially in immunopharmacology. Plants are an important source of natural polysaccharides. Pharmacological and clinical studies have shown that plant polysaccharides have many functions, such as immune regulation, anti-tumor activity, anti-inflammatory activity, anti-viral functions, anti-radiation functions, and a hypoglycaemic effect. The immunomodulatory effects of plant polysaccharides have received much attention. Polysaccharides with these effects are also referred to as biological response modifiers (BRMs), and research on them is one of the most active areas of polysaccharide research. Thus, we summarize immunomodulatory effects of botanical polysaccharides isolated from different species of plants on the macrophage. The primary effect of botanical polysaccharides is to enhance and/or activate macrophage immune responses, including increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and enhancing secretion of cytokines and chemokines. Therefore, it is believed that botanical polysaccharides have significant therapeutic potential, and represent a new method for discovery and development of novel immunomodulatory medicine.

Polysaccharides extracted from the roots of Bupleurum chinense DC modulates macrophage functions

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of polysaccharides extracted from Bupleurum chinense DC (BCPs) on macrophage functions. In the in vivo experiment, 1 mL of 5% sodium thioglycollate was injected into the abdomen of the mice on Day 0 and macrophages were harvested on Day 4. The macrophages were cultured in plates and treated with different concentrations of BCPs and stimulus. Effects of BCPs on macrophage functions were assessed by chemotaxis assay, phagocytosis assay and Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). Our results showed the enhanced chemotaxis, phagocytosis and secretion of nitric oxide (NO) and inflammatory cytokines by macrophages when treated with BCPs. However, when chemotaxis and phagocytosis were up-regulated by complement components or opsonized particles, BCPs inhibited these effects. Also, the NO production induced by lipopolysaccharides (LPS) was suppressed by BCPs mildly. Moreover, BCPs had an inhibitory effect on the [Ca²⁺]_i elevation of macrophages. These results suggested that BCPs exerted modulatory effects on macrophage functions, which may contribute to developing novel approaches to treating inflammatory diseases.

Advances on Bioactive Polysaccharides from Medicinal Plants

In recent decades, the polysaccharides from the medicinal plants have attracted a lot of attention due to their significant bioactivities, such as anti-tumor activity, antioxidant activity, anticoagulant activity, antidiabetic activity, radioprotection effect, anti-viral activity, hypolipidemic and immunomodulatory activities, which make them suitable for medicinal applications. Previous studies have also shown that medicinal plant polysaccharides are non-toxic and show no side effects. Based on these encouraging observations, most researches have been focusing on the isolation and identification of polysaccharides, as well as their bioactivities. A large number of bioactive polysaccharides with different structural features and biological effects from medicinal plants have been purified and characterized. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the most recent developments in physiochemical, structural features and biological activities of bioactive polysaccharides from a number of important medicinal plants, such as polysaccharides from Astragalus membranaceus, Dendrobium plants, Bupleurum, Cactus fruits, Acanthopanax senticosus, Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels, Aloe barbadensis Miller, and Dimocarpus longan Lour. Moreover, the paper has also been focused on the applications of bioactive polysaccharides for medicinal applications. Recent studies have provided evidence that polysaccharides from medicinal plants can play a vital role in bioactivities. The contents and data will serve as a useful reference material for further investigation, production, and application of these polysaccharides in functional foods and therapeutic agents.

Vinegar amount in the process affected the components of vinegar-baked Radix Bupleuri and its hepatoprotective effect

Background

Bupleuri Radix (in Chinese Chaihu), the dried roots of Bupleurum Chinense DC, is a traditional Chinese medicine widely used to treat fever, hepatitis, jaundice, nephritis, dizziness. When baked with vinegar, its effect is more focused on liver related disease. This paper was undertaken to determine the best vinegar amount in the processing and explore its key efficacy components.

Methods

Hepatoprotective effects of Radix Bupleuri after processing with different amount of vinegar (1:5, 2:5, 3:5) were investigated on liver hurt rats, and the change of constituents were analyzed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS).

Results

With the increasing amount of vinegar, the hepatoprotective effects of vinegar-baked Radix Bupleuri (VBRB) and the content of saikosaponin b₂ increased.

Conclusion

These results suggested that vinegar amount in the process affected the pharmacological effect of VBRB significantly and saikosaponin b₂ may be the key efficacy component of it.

Houttuyniacordata Thunb. polysaccharides ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Houttuynia cordata (HC) has been used as a folk therapy to treat pulmonary infections. This study aimed to determine the role and mechanism of action of polysaccharides isolated from HC (HCP) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI in the mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

LPS was delivered by the intratracheal route to Balb/c mice 2h before HCP (40, 80 and 160mg/kg) administration.

RESULTS

The number of total cells, protein and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) concentrations in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, the wet/dry weight ratio (w/d) of lungs and pulmonary pathology of each mouse were analyzed, it was found that HCP significantly alleviated ALI induced by LPS. Moreover, in lungs of mice, it was found that the infiltration of inflammatory cells, the expression of Toll-like receptor 4 and complement deposition were significantly decreased by HCP treatment. In vitro assays showed that C5a, a complement activation product, induced significant macrophage migration and treatment with HCP prevented it. The in vitro results also proved that LPS increased nitric oxide and pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, interleukin-6, and interleukin-1β) production, and HCP antagonized these effects of LPS. It was also found that HCP alone augmented secretion of some pro-inflammatory cytokines.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that HCP may alleviate LPS induced lung inflammatory injury, which may be associated with its inhibitory effect on the over activation of complement and macrophages. This suggests a potential role to treat ALI.

Therapeutic Effects of Bupleurum Polysaccharides in Streptozotocin Induced Diabetic Mice

Diabetes mellitus is related to low-grade chronic inflammation and oxidative stress. Bupleurum Polysaccharides (BPs), isolated from Bupleurum smithii var. parvifolium has anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties. However, little is known about its therapeutic effects on diabetes. In this experiment, the effects of BPs on alleviation of diabetes and the underlying mechanisms were investigated. Diabetic mice model was established via successive intraperitoneal injections of streptozotocin (100 mg/kg body weight) for two days. Mice with blood glucose levels higher than 16.8mmol/L were selected for experiments. The diabetic mice were orally administered with BPs (30 and 60 mg/kg) once a day for 35 days. BPs not only significantly decreased levels of blood glucose, but also increased those of serum insulin and liver glycogen in diabetic mice compared to model mice. Additionally, BPs adminstration improved the insulin expression and suppressed the apoptosis in pancreas of the diabetic mice. Histopathological observations further demonstrated that BPs protected the pancreas and liver from oxidative and inflammatory damages. These results suggest that BPs protect pancreatic β cells and liver hepatocytes and ameliorate diabetes, which is associated with its anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties.

Effects of Hyriopsis cumingii polysaccharides on angiogenesis, macrophage chemotaxis, proliferation and phagocytosis

Hyriopsis cumingii polysaccharides (HCPS) showed anti-angiogenic activity and promoting effects on the chemotaxis, proliferation and phagocytosis of peritoneal macrophage.

Lycium ruthenicum polysaccharide attenuates inflammation through inhibiting TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway

Polysaccharide has been reported to possess diverse biological activities, however, the inflammatory activity of polysaccharide isolated from Lycium ruthenicum remains unknown so far. In the present study, we investigated the effects of L. ruthenicum polysaccharide (LRGP3) on inflammatory reaction induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in mouse macrophage RAW264.7 cells and some potential underlying mechanisms. Our results showed that LRGP3 treatment significantly inhibited the LPS-induced NO production and the mRNA expression of iNOS, as well as the level of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). Furthermore, LRGP3 treatment prevented the IκBα degradation and reduced phospho-NF-κB p65 protein expression in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Meanwhile, the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-α, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α were suppressed by LRGP3 in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Taken together, our results suggested that LRGP3 attenuated LPS-induced inflammation via inhibiting TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Traditional Use, Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Quality Control of Species in Genus Bupleurum L

Many species of genus Bupleurum L. have been pharmaceutically used mainly in Asia and Europe for thousand years. Their roots are the most popular ingredients in Chinese materia medica prescriptions for the treatment of inflammatory diseases and auto-immune diseases. A plenty of chemical constituents have been isolated and identified from the species in Bupleurum L., such as saikosaponins, polysaccharides, volatile oils, flavonoids, polyacetylenes, lignins, and coumarins, most of which possess a variety of biological activities, especially for the hepatoprotective effect, antitumor activity, immunoregulation, and febrifuge efficacy. Therefore, the species in genus Bupleurum L. could be potential herbs of immunomodulator, antineoplastic, anti-oxidant, etc. Meanwhile, as potential toxicities have been discovered in some constituents, it is urgent to establish a comprehensive quality evaluation system to ensure the safety and efficiency of herbs. This paper reviews on the phytochemical and pharmacological studies, especially for the toxicology and quality control of the species in Bupleurum L., which is a reference for the species in this genus for safe usage and further development.

Bupleurum polysaccharides attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation via modulating Toll-like receptor 4 signaling

Background

Bupleurum polysaccharides (BPs), isolated from Bupleurum smithii var. parvifolium, possesses immunomodulatory activity, particularly on inflammation. Bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS) triggers innate immune responses through Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) on host cell membrane. The present study was performed to evaluate whether the therapeutic efficacy of BPs on suppression of LPS’s pathogenecity could be associated with the modulating of TLR4 signaling pathway.

Methodology/Principal Findings

LPS stimulated expression and activation of factors in the TLR4 signaling system, including TLR4, CD14, IRAK4, TRAF6, NF-κB, and JNK, determined using immunocytochemical and/or Western blot assays. BPs significantly inhibited these effects of LPS. LPS increased pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, IL-12p40, and IFN-β) and NO production, evaluated using ELISA and Griess reaction assays, respectively. BPs antagonized these effects of LPS. Interestingly, BPs alone augmented secretion of some pro-inflammatory cytokines of non-LPS stimulated macrophages and enhanced phagocytic activity towards fluorescent E.coli bioparticles. In a rat model of acute lung injury (ALI) with pulmonary hemorrhage and inflammation, BPs ameliorated lung injuries and suppressed TLR4 expression.

Significance

The therapeutic properties of BPs in alleviating inflammatory diseases could be attributed to its inhibitory effect on LPS-mediated TLR4 signaling.

Extraction of polysaccharides from Fomes officinalis Ames and their antitumor activity

The aim of this study was to optimize the extraction parameters of Fomes officinalis Ames polysaccharides (FOAPs) and evaluate their antitumor activity. FOAPs were extracted using the hot water extraction, acid extraction and alkali extraction methods, respectively. Alcohol precipitation and acetone washes were conducted to separate and purify the FOAPs. The FOAP content was determined using the phenol-sulfuric acid method. The effects of raw material particle size, extraction time and material-liquid ratio on the yield of FOAPs were investigated, and the effects of FOAPs on the immune function of S180 tumor-bearing mice and their antitumor activity were evaluated. The yield of FOAPs obtained with the hot water extraction method was higher compared with the yields of the other methods. The optimum extraction conditions were as follows: a raw material particle size of 24 mesh; an extraction time of 2.5 h; and a material-liquid ratio of 1 g:12 ml. Under these conditions, the yield of FOAPs was 1.13%. FOAPs significantly inhibited tumor growth and enhanced the immune function in S180 tumor-bearing mice. FOAPs extracted using the hot water extraction method have antitumor activity.

Isolation and characterization of exopolysaccharide with immunomodulatory activity from fermentation broth of Morchella conica

Background and the purpose of this study

Mushroom polysaccharides have traditionally been used for the prevention and treatment of a multitude of disorders like infectious illnesses, cancers and various autoimmune diseases. In vitro and in vivo studies suggest that certain polysaccharides affect immune system function. Morchella conica (M. conica) is a species of rare edible mushroom whose multiple medicinal functions have been proven. Thus, the objective of this study is to isolate and characterize of exopolysaccharide from submerged mycelial culture of M. conica, and to evaluate its immunomodulatory activity.

Methods

A water-soluble Morchella conica Polysaccharides (MCP) were extracted and isolated from the fermentation broth of M. conica through a combination of DEAE-cellulose and Sephacryl S-300 HR chromatograph. NMR and IR spectroscopy has played a developing role in identification of polysaccharide with different structure and composition from fungal and plant sources, as well as complex glycosaminoglycans of animal origin. Thus, NMR and IR spectroscopy were used to analyze the chemical structure and composition of the isolated polysaccharide. Moreover, the polysaccharide was tested for its immunomodulatory activity at different concentrations using in vitro model.

Results

The results showed that MCP may significantly modulate nitric oxide production in macrophages, and promote splenocytes proliferation. Analysis from HPLC, infrared spectra and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy showed that MCP was a homogeneous mannan with an average molecular weight of approximately 81.2 kDa. The glycosidic bond links is →6)-α-D-Man p-(1→.

Conclusion

The results suggested that the extracted MCP may modulate nitric oxide production in macrophages and promote splenocytes proliferation, and it may act as a potent immunomodulatory agent.

Viola yedoensis liposoluble fraction ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in mice

Viola yedoensis is a component of traditional Chinese herb medicine for inflammatory diseases. Chemical constituents of V. yedoensis have been shown to possess antibacterial, anti-HIV, and anticoagulant effects in experimental research; however, their anti-inflammatory properties remain to be demonstrated. In this study, a mouse model of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury was used to investigate the effect of petroleum ether fraction of V. yedoensis (PEVY) on inflammation in vivo. After being shown to have anti-complementary activity in vitro, PEVY was orally administered to the mice at doses of 2, 4, and 8 mg/kg. Treatment with PEVY significantly decreased the wet-to-dry weight ratio of the lung, total cells, red blood cells, protein concentration, and myeloperoxidase activity in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. PEVY markedly attenuated lung injury with improved lung morphology and reduced complement deposition. In addition, PEVY suppressed the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. Taken together, PEVY protects the lung from acute injury, potentially via inhibiting the activation of the complement system and excessive production of proinflammatory mediators.