Evaluation of the immunomodulatory properties in mice and in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of cycloartane type saponins from Astragalus species

An outlook on the versatility of plant saponins: A review

The abundance of saponin-rich plants across different ecosystems indicates their great potential as a replacement for harmful synthetic surfactants in modern commercial products. These organic saponins have remarkable biological and surface-active properties and align with sustainable and eco-friendly practices. This article examines and discusses the structure and properties of plant saponins with high yield of saponin concentrations and their exploitable applications. This highlights the potential of saponins as ethical substitutes for traditional synthetic surfactants and pharmacological agents, with favorable effects on the economy and environment. For this purpose, studies on the relevant capabilities, structure, and yield of selected plants were thoroughly examined. Studies on the possible uses of the selected saponins have also been conducted. This in-depth analysis highlights the potential of saponins as workable and ethical replacements for traditional synthetic medications and surfactants, thus emphasizing their favorable effects on human health and the environment.

Astraoleanosides E-P, oleanane-type triterpenoid saponins from the aerial parts of Astragalus membranaceus Bunge and their β-glucuronidase inhibitory activity

Historically, Astragalus membranaceus Bunge has been used as a beneficial medicinal plant, particularly in the Asian traditional medical systems, for the treatment of various human diseases such as stomach ulcers, diarrhea, and respiratory issues associated with phlegm. In this study, a phytochemical characterization of the aerial parts of A. membranaceusled to the isolation of 29 oleanane-type triterpenoid saponins, including 11 new compounds named astraoleanosides E-P (6-9, 13, 14, 18-22), as well as 18 known ones. The structures of these compounds were elucidated using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and high-resolution mass spectrometry. Among them, astraoleanoside H (9) and cloversaponin III (15) demonstrated the most potent β-glucuronidase inhibitory activities, with IC50 values of 21.20 ± 0.75 and 9.05 ± 0.47 µM, respectively, compared to the positive control d-saccharic acid 1,4-lactone (IC50 = 20.62 ± 1.61 µM). Enzyme kinetics studies were then conducted to investigate the type of inhibition exhibited by these active compounds. In addition, the binding mechanism, key interactions, binding stability, and dynamic behavior of protein-ligand complexes were investigated through in silico approaches, such as molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations. These findings highlight the promising potential of triterpenoid saponins from A. membranaceus as lead compounds for β-glucuronidase inhibitors, offering new possibilities for the development of therapeutic agents targeting various diseases where β-glucuronidase plays a crucial role.

10-Secocycloartane (=9,19-cyclo-9,10-secolanostane) triterpenoid saponins: Huangqiyenins M-X from Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch.) Bge

Phytochemical investigations of the leaves of Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch.) Bge. have led to the isolation of 12 undescribed triterpenoid saponins named huangqiyenins M-X. The structures of the undescribed compounds were determined using NMR and HRESIMS data. The cytotoxicity of these compounds against the RKO and HT-29 colon cancer cell lines was evaluated. Among these compounds, huangqiyenin W exhibited the highest cytotoxic activity against RKO colon cancer cells, whereas huangqiyenin Q and W showed moderate cytotoxic activity against HT-29 colon cancer cells. The network pharmacology results indicated that STAT3, IL-2 and CXCR1 are the correlated targets of huangqiyenin W against colon cancer, with AGE-RAGE and Th17 cell differentiation as the key signaling pathways.

Immunomodulatory Effect of Phytoactive Compounds on Human Health: A Narrative Review Integrated with Bioinformatics Approach

BACKGROUND

Immunomodulation is the modification of immune responses to control disease progression. While the synthetic immunomodulators have proven efficacy, they are coupled with toxicity and other adverse effects, and hence, the efforts were to identify natural phytochemicals with immunomodulatory potential.

OBJECTIVE

To understand the immunomodulatory properties of various phytochemicals and investigate them in Echinacea species extracts using an in silico approach.

METHODOLOGY

Several scientific database repositories were searched using different keywords: "Phytochemicals," "Alkaloids," "Polyphenols," "Flavonoids," "Lectins," "Glycosides," "Tannins," "Terpenoids," "Sterols," "Immunomodulators," and "Human Immune System" without any language restriction. Additionally, the study specifically investigated the immunomodulatory properties of Echinacea species extracts using gene expression analysis of GSE12259 from NCBI-GEO through the Bioconductor package GEOquery and limma.

RESULTS

A total of 182 studies were comprehensively analyzed to understand immunomodulatory phytochemicals. The in silico analysis highlighted key biological processes (positive regulation of cytokine production, response to tumor necrosis factor) and molecular functions (cytokine receptor binding, receptor-ligand activity, and cytokine activity) among Echinacea species extracts contributing to immune responses. Further, it also indicated the association of various metabolic pathways, i.e., pathways in cancer, cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, NF-kappa B, PI3K-Akt, TNF, MAPK, and NOD-like receptor signaling pathways, with immune responses. The study revealed various hub targets, including CCL20, CCL4, GCH1, SLC7A11, SOD2, EPB41L3, TNFAIP6, GCLM, EGR1, and FOS.

CONCLUSION

The present study presents a cumulative picture of phytochemicals with therapeutic benefits. Additionally, the study also reported a few novel genes and pathways in Echinacea extracts by re-analyzing GSE 12259 indicating its anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, and immunomodulatory properties.

Astragalus membranaceus as a Drug Candidate for Inflammatory Bowel Disease: The Preclinical Evidence

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a group of chronic inflammatory disorders that include Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). Today, IBD has no successful treatment. As a result, it is of paramount importance to develop novel therapeutic agents for IBD prevention and treatment. Astragalus membranaceus (AMS) is a traditional Chinese medicine found in the AMS root. Modern pharmacological studies indicate that AMS and its constituents exhibit multiple bioactivities, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, immune regulatory, anticancer, hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, hepatoprotective, expectorant, and diuretic effects. AMS and its active constituents, which have been reported to be effective in IBD treatment, are believed to be viable candidate drugs for IBD treatment. These underlying mechanisms are associated with anti-inflammation, anti-oxidation, immunomodulation, intestinal epithelial repair, gut microbiota homeostasis, and improved energy metabolism. In this review, we summarize the efficacy and underlying mechanisms involved in IBD treatment with AMS and its active constituents in preclinical studies.

Inhibiting Angiogenesis by Anti-Cancer Saponins: From Phytochemistry to Cellular Signaling Pathways

Saponins are one of the broadest classes of high-molecular-weight natural compounds, consisting mainly of a non-polar moiety with 27 to 30 carbons and a polar moiety containing sugars attached to the sapogenin structure. Saponins are found in more than 100 plant families as well as found in marine organisms. Saponins have several therapeutic effects, including their administration in the treatment of various cancers. These compounds also reveal noteworthy anti-angiogenesis effects as one of the critical strategies for inhibiting cancer growth and metastasis. In this study, a comprehensive review is performed on electronic databases, including PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and ProQuest. Accordingly, the structural characteristics of triterpenoid/steroid saponins and their anti-cancer effects were highlighted, focusing on their anti-angiogenic effects and related mechanisms. Consequently, the anti-angiogenic effects of saponins, inhibiting the expression of genes related to vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and hypoxia-inducible factor 1-α (HIF-1α) are two main anti-angiogenic mechanisms of triterpenoid and steroidal saponins. The inhibition of inflammatory signaling pathways that stimulate angiogenesis, such as pro-inflammatory cytokines, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPKs), and phosphoinositide 3-kinases/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt), are other anti-angiogenic mechanisms of saponins. Furthermore, the anti-angiogenic and anti-cancer activity of saponins was closely related to the binding site of the sugar moiety, the type and number of their monosaccharide units, as well as the presence of some functional groups in their aglycone structure. Therefore, saponins are suitable candidates for cancer treatment by inhibiting angiogenesis, for which extensive pre-clinical and comprehensive clinical trial studies are recommended.

Astragalus Saponins, Astragaloside VII and Newly Synthesized Derivatives, Induce Dendritic Cell Maturation and T Cell Activation

Astragaloside VII (AST VII), a triterpenic saponin isolated from Astragalus species, shows promise as a vaccine adjuvant, as it supported a balanced Th1/Th2 immune response in previous in vivo studies. However, the underlying mechanisms of its adjuvant activity have not been defined. Here, we investigated the impact of AST VII and its newly synthesized semi-synthetic analogs on human whole blood cells, as well as on mouse bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs). Cells were stimulated with AST VII and its derivatives in the presence or absence of LPS or PMA/ionomycin and the secretion of cytokines and the expression of activation markers were analyzed using ELISA and flow cytometry, respectively. AST VII and its analogs increased the production of IL-1β in PMA/ionomycin-stimulated human whole blood cells. In LPS-treated mouse BMDCs, AST VII increased the production of IL-1β and IL-12, and the expression of MHC II, CD86, and CD80. In mixed leukocyte reaction, AST VII and derivatives increased the expression of the activation marker CD44 on mouse CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. In conclusion, AST VII and its derivatives strengthen pro-inflammatory responses and support dendritic cell maturation and T cell activation in vitro. Our results provide insights into the mechanisms of the adjuvant activities of AST VII and its analogs, which will be instrumental to improve their utility as a vaccine adjuvant.

Alleviation of liver cirrhosis and associated portal-hypertension by Astragalus species in relation to their UPLC-MS/MS metabolic profiles: a mechanistic study

Liver cirrhosis is a late-stage liver disease characterized by excessive fibrous deposition triggering portal-hypertension (PH); the prime restrainer for cirrhosis-related complications. Remedies that can dually oppose hepatic fibrosis and lower PH, may prevent progression into decompensated-cirrhosis. Different Astragalus-species members have shown antifibrotic and diuretic actions with possible subsequent PH reduction. However, A.spinosus and A.trigonus were poorly tested for eliciting these actions. Herein, A.spinosus and A.trigonus roots and aerial parts extracts were subjected to comprehensive metabolic-fingerprinting using UHPLC-MS/MS resulting in 56 identified phytoconstituents, followed by chemometric untargeted analysis that revealed variable metabolic profiles exemplified by different species and organ types. Consequently, tested extracts were in-vivo evaluated for potential antifibrotic/anticirrhotic activity by assessing specific markers. The mechanistic prospective to induce diuresis was investigated by analyzing plasma aldosterone and renal-transporters gene-expression. Serum apelin and dimethylarginine-dimethylaminohydrolase-1 were measured to indicate the overall effect on PH. All extracts amended cirrhosis and PH to varying extents and induced diuresis via different mechanisms. Further, An OPLS model was built to generate a comprehensive metabolic-profiling of A.spinosus and A.trigonus secondary-metabolites providing a chemical-based evidence for their efficacious consistency. In conclusion, A.spinosus and A.trigonus organs comprised myriad pharmacologically-active constituents that act synergistically to ameliorate cirrhosis and associated PH.

Promoting Plant-Based Therapies for Chronic Kidney Disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is debilitating, increasing in incidence worldwide, and a financial and social burden on health systems. Kidney failure, the final stage of CKD, is life-threatening if untreated with kidney replacement therapies. Current therapies using commercially-available drugs, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor blockers and calcium channel blockers, generally only delay the progression of CKD. This review article focuses on effective alternative therapies to improve the prevention and treatment of CKD, using plants or plant extracts. Three mechanistic processes that are well-documented in CKD pathogenesis are inflammation, fibrosis, and oxidative stress. Many plants and their extracts are already known to ameliorate kidney dysfunction through antioxidant action, with subsequent benefits on inflammation and fibrosis. In vitro and in vivo experiments using plant-based therapies for pre-clinical research demonstrate some robust therapeutic benefits. In the CKD clinic, combination treatments of plant extracts with conventional therapies that are seen as relatively successful currently may confer additive or synergistic renoprotective effects. Therefore, the aim of recent research is to identify, rigorously test pre-clinically and clinically, and avoid any toxic outcomes to obtain optimal therapeutic benefit from medicinal plants. This review may prove to be a filtering tool to researchers into complementary and alternative medicines to find out the current trends of using plant-based therapies for the treatment of kidney diseases, including CKD.

Immunomodulatory properties of triterpenes

The immune system is one of the main defence mechanisms of the human body. Inadequacy of this system or immunodeficiency results in increased risk of infections and tumours, whereas over-activation of the immune system causes allergic or autoimmune disorders. A well-balanced immune system is important for protection and for alleviation of these diseases. There is a growing interest to maintain a well-balanced immune system, especially after the Covid-19 pandemic. Many biological extracts, as well as natural products, have become popular due to their wide array of immunomodulatory effects and influence on the immune system. Triterpenes, one of the secondary metabolite groups of medicinal plants, exhibit immunomodulatory properties by various mechanisms. Different triterpenes, including components of commonly consumed plants, can promote some protection and alleviation of disease symptoms linked with immune responses and thus enhance overall well-being. This review aims to highlight the efficacy of triterpenes in light of the available literature evidence regarding the immunomodulatory properties of triterpenes. We have reviewed widely investigated immunomodulatory triterpenes; oleanolic acid, glycyrrhizin, glycyrrhetinic acid, pristimerin, ursolic acid, boswellic acid, celastrol, lupeol, betulin, betulinic acid, ganoderic acid, cucumarioside, and astragalosides which have important immunoregulatory properties. In spite of many preclinical and clinical trials were conducted on triterpenes related to their immunoregulatory actions, current studies have several limitations. Therefore, especially more clinical studies with optimal design is essential.

Efficacy of Ninjin'yoeito in treating severe coronavirus disease 2019 in patients in an intensive care unit

Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19), an infectious disease associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), is a global emergency with high mortality. There are few effective treatments, and many severe patients are treated in an intensive care unit (ICU). The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether the Japanese Kampo medicine ninjin'yoeito (NYT) is effective in treating ICU patients with COVID-19. Nine patients with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection admitted to the ICU were enrolled in this study. All patients underwent respiratory management with invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV) and enteral nutrition. Four patients received NYT (7.5 g daily) from an elemental diet tube. We retrospectively examined the prognostic nutritional index (PNI), length of IMV, length of ICU stay, length of hospital stay, rate of tracheostomy, and mortality rate. The median age of the enrolled participants was 60.0 years (4 men and 5 women). The median body mass index was 27.6. The most common comorbidity was diabetes (4 patients, 44%), followed by hypertension (3 patients, 33%) and chronic kidney disease (2 patients, 22%). The median length of IMV, ICU stay, and hospital stay were all shorter in the NYT group than in the non-NYT group (IMV; 4.0 days vs 14.3 days, ICU; 5.3 days vs 14.5 days, hospital stay; 19.9 days vs 28.2 days). In the NYT and non-NYT groups, the median PNI at admission was 29.0 and 31.2, respectively. One week after admission, the PNI was 30.7 in the NYT group and 24.4 in non-NYT group. PNI was significantly (p = 0.032) increased in the NYT group (+13.6%) than in the non-NYT group (-22.0%). The Japanese Kampo medicine NYT might be useful for treating patients with severe COVID-19 in ICU. This study was conducted in a small number of cases, and further large clinical trials are necessary.

Prunetin inhibits nitric oxide activity and induces apoptosis in urinary bladder cancer cells via CASP3 and TNF-α genes

BACKGROUND

Urinary bladder cancer (UBC) is considered one of the most prevalent malignant tumors worldwide. Complementary and integrative approaches for the treatment of bladder cancer, such as the intake of isoflavonoid phytoestrogens, are of increasing interest due to the risk of mortality and long-term morbidity associated with surgical procedures. The biological effects of prunetin, one of the less-studied phytoestrogens, have not yet been examined in this respect. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the efficacy of prunetin on UBC cells (RT-4). METHODS AND RESULTS: The cytotoxicity and nitric oxide synthase activities of prunetin were determined in cell cultures. The expression of apoptosis-related genes was determined with RT-PCR. Cell cycle assays were performed using a flow cytometer and cellular apoptotic rate was measured. The results suggested that prunetin has cytotoxic effects at 21.11 µg/mL on RT-4 cells. Flow cytometry analysis showed that prunetin induced apoptosis and arrested th cell cycle in the G₀/G₁ phase. Prunetin exposure was associated with increases in CASP3 and TNF-α gene expression in RT-4 cells at doses of 21.11 and 42.22 µg/mL, respectively. Strong nitric oxide inhibition was observed at IC₅₀ of 5.18 µg/mL under macrophage mediated inflammatory circumstances.

CONCLUSIONS

Prunetin possesses anti-cancer properties and may be a candidate compound for the prevention of UBC. This is the first study that evaluated prunetin for its in vitro antitumor activities, clarified its possible apoptotic molecular mechanism and provided novel insights into its anti-inflammatory nature and effects on the expression of related key genes.

Anti-Inflammatory and Antibacterial Potential of Qicao Rukang Powder in Bovine Subclinical Mastitis

Background

Subclinical mastitis is one of the most common reproductive diseases in dairy cows. Qicao Rukang powder is a Chinese herbal compound mixture developed to treat subclinical mastitis in dairy cows by clearing heat, tonifying qi, and improving blood and milk circulation. The study aimed to determine the anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial efficacy of Qicao Rukang powder in treating subclinical mastitis in dairy cows at the manufacturer's recommended dose.

Methods

Forty (40) Holstein dairy cows with milk somatic cell count (SCC) ≥ 500,000 cellml⁻¹ were randomly assigned to treatment (n = 20) and control (n = 20) groups. Cows in the treatment group were administered with 150 grams of Qicao Rukang powder orally for five days, while the control group received no treatment. The authors analyzed the milk SCC, milk composition, bacteriological cure rate of the drug, blood serum levels of interleukins (IL-6, IL-1β, and IL-8), tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), and interferon gamma (INF-γ) quantified by using ELISA kits on day 0 and day 6.

Results

SCC of the treated group reduced very significantly (P < 0.001) compared with the control group. Milk fat, protein, and total solids increased significantly (P < 0.05) after treatment, whereas lactose and milk urea nitrogen levels showed a nonsubstantial rise. The bacteriological cure percentage of Qicao Rukang powder therapy was 77.8% for Aeromonas spp. (14 of 18), 75% for Pseudomonas spp. (6 of 8), and 100% for Acinetobacter spp. and Enterococcus spp. giving 81.8% cured for all isolates (27 of 33). Only 26.7% (8 of 30) of untreated cows recovered spontaneously. Analysis of IL-1β, IL-6, and INF-γ in the blood serum of the treated group revealed a significant decrease (P < 0.01) with nonsignificant rises in TNF-α and IL-8 levels.

Conclusions

This research demonstrates that Qicao Rukang powder has potent antibacterial and anti-inflammatory actions, supporting its use as an alternative to conventional treatment for subclinical dairy cow mastitis. However, further investigations will be required to explain the role of the active ingredients and the mechanisms involved in the pharmacological activities of the Qicao Rukang powder.

Investigation of Photoprotective, Anti-Inflammatory, Antioxidant Capacities and LC-ESI-MS Phenolic Profile of Astragalus gombiformis Pomel

Plant-derived compounds have recently been gaining popularity as skincare factors due to their ability to absorb ultraviolet radiations and their anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. In this light, this work aimed to evaluate in vitro the pharmacological activities of the butanolic extract prepared from the aerial parts of Astragalus gombiformis Pomel, an endemic species to southern Algeria. The sun protection factor was used to assess the photoprotective effect (SPF), the protein denaturation method to determine the anti-inflammatory activity, and brine shrimp nauplii and OxHLIA assay, respectively, to assess the cytotoxicity and antioxidant capacity of A. gombiformis. In addition, LC–ESI–MS analysis was employed for the characterization of the phenolic constituents of A. gombiformis. The results showed that A. gombiformis had high capacity for absorbing UV radiations with an SPF of 37.78 ± 0.85 and significant anti-inflammatory activity with a percentage inhibition of 75.38% which is close to that of diclofenac and ketoprofen. In addition, A. gombiformis was found to have effective cytotoxicity against Artemia nauplii with a DC50 value of about 44.7 µg/mL, but a weak hemolytic effect against human erythrocytes. LC–ESI–MS results detected the presence of 17 phenolic compounds with a predominance of cirsiliol, silymarin, quercitrin (quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside), and kaempferol. Taken together, these results suggest that A. gombiformis extract could be used as a skincare agent in cosmetic formulations, providing excellent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory protection, allowing the treatment of skin conditions, as well as a pharmaceutical agent with multidimensional applications.

Development of Broad-Spectrum Antiviral Agents-Inspiration from Immunomodulatory Natural Products

Developing broad-spectrum antiviral drugs remains an important issue as viral infections continue to threaten public health. Host-directed therapy is a method that focuses on potential targets in host cells or the body, instead of viral proteins. Its antiviral effects are achieved by disturbing the life cycles of pathogens or modulating immunity. In this review, we focus on the development of broad-spectrum antiviral drugs that enhance the immune response. Some natural products present antiviral effects mediated by enhancing immunity, and their structures and mechanisms are summarized here. Natural products with immunomodulatory effects are also discussed, although their antiviral effects remain unknown. Given the power of immunity and the feasibility of host-directed therapy, we argue that both of these categories of natural products provide clues that may be beneficial for the discovery of broad-spectrum antiviral drugs.

Potential therapeutic applications of phytoconstituents as immunomodulators: Pre-clinical and clinical evidences

Autoimmune and infectious diseases are the major public health issues and have gained great attention in the last few years for the search of new agents with therapeutic benefits on the host immune functions. In recent years, natural products (NPs) have been studied broadly for their multi-targeted activities under pathological conditions. Interestingly, several attempts have been made to outline the immunomodulatory properties of NPs. Research on in-vitro and in-vivo models have shown the immunomodulatory activity of NPs, is due to their antiinflammatory property, induction of phagocytosis and immune cells stimulation activity. Moreover, studies on humans have suggested that phytomedicines reduce inflammation and could provide appropriate benefits either in single form or complex combinations with other agents preventing disease progression, subsequently enhancing the efficacy of treatment to combat multiple malignancies. However, the exact mechanism of immunomodulation is far from clear, warranting more detailed investigations on their effectiveness. Nevertheless, the reduction of inflammatory cascades is considered as a prime protective mechanism in a number of inflammation regulated autoimmune diseases. Altogether, this review will discuss the biological activities of plant-derived secondary metabolites, such as polyphenols, alkaloids, saponins, polysaccharides and so forth, against various diseases and their potential use as an immunomodulatory agent under pathological conditions.

Evaluation of adjuvant activity of Astragaloside VII and its combination with different immunostimulating agents in Newcastle Disease vaccine

Astragaloside VII (AST-VII), a major cycloartane saponin isolated from Turkish Astragalus species, turned out to be one of the most active metabolites demonstrating Th1/Th2 balanced immune response. As Quillaja saponins are extensively used in adjuvant systems, this study made an attempt to improve AST-VII based adjuvant systems by using different immunostimulatory/delivery agents (monophosphoryllipid A (MPL), Astragalus polysaccharide (APS) and squalene) and to induce cellular and humoral immune response against a viral vaccine. For this purpose, Newcastle Disease vaccine (NDV) was chosen as a model vaccine. Swiss albino mice were immunized subcutaneously with LaSota vaccines in the presence/absence of AST-VII or developed adjuvant systems. AST-VII administration both in live/inactivated LaSota vaccines induced neutralizing and NDV specific IgG, IgG1 and IgG2b antibodies response as well as IL-2 and IL-4 production. APS based delivery systems enhanced the production of neutralizing antibody and the minor augmentation of IFN-γ and IL-2 levels. Squalene emulsion (SE) alone or combined with AST-VII were effective in NDV restimulated splenocyte proliferation. As a conclusion, AST-VII and AST-VII containing adjuvant systems demonstrated Th1/Th2 balanced antibody and cellular immune responses in NDV vaccines. Thus, these systems could be developed as vaccine adjuvants in viral vaccines as alternative to saponin-based adjuvants.

Exploring the multifocal role of phytochemicals as immunomodulators

A well-functioning immune system of the host body plays pivotal role in the maintenance of ordinary physiological and immunological functions as well as internal environment. Balanced immunity enhances defense mechanism against infection, diseases and unwanted pathogens to avoid hypersensitivity reactions and immune related diseases. The ideal immune responses are the results of corrective interaction between the innate immune cells and acquired components of the immune system. Recently, the interest towards the immune system increased as significant target of toxicity due to exposure of chemicals, drugs and environmental pollutants. Numerous factors are involved in altering the immune responses of the host such as sex, age, stress, malnutrition, alcohol, genetic variability, life styles, environmental-pollutants and chemotherapy exposure. Immunomodulation is any modification of immune responses, often involved induction, amplification, attenuation or inhibition of immune responses. Several synthetic or traditional medicines are available in the market which promptly have many serious adverse effects and create pathogenic resistance. Phytochemicals are naturally occurring molecules, which significantly play an imperative role in modulating favorable immune responses. The present review emphasizes on the risk factors associated with alterations in immune responses, and immunomodulatory activity of phytochemicals specifically, glycosides, alkaloids, phenolic acids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins and sterols and sterolins.

Adjuvant potency of Astragaloside VII embedded cholesterol nanoparticles for H3N2 influenza vaccine

Adjuvants are substances that increase the immune response to a given antigen. In the development of novel vaccine adjuvants/systems, saponins are one of the most attractive molecules due to their altered immunomodulatory activities. In this study, we tried to develop PEG (polyethylene glycol)/cholesterol-based lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) to deliver the Astragaloside VII (AST-VII) and potentiate adjuvant properties of AST-VII for the influenza vaccine. In the formation of PEG/cholesterol/AST-VII-based LNPs (PEG300: Chol-AST-VII LNPs), 3 different primary solvents (acetone, ethanol, and chloroform) were evaluated, employing their effects on hydrodynamic particle size, distribution, surface chemistry, and colloidal stability. Prepared nanoparticles were simply admixtured with inactivated influenza antigen (H3N2) and applied to PMA (phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate)-ionomycin treated human whole blood to evaluate their cytokine release profile. PEG300: Chol-AST-VII LNPs (80.2 ± 7.7 nm) were obtained using chloroform as a desolvation agent. Co-treatment of PMA-ionomycin with AST-VII and PEG300: Chol-AST-VII LNPs significantly increased the levels of IL-2 and IFN-g, compared to PMA-ionomycin alone. In the presence of H3N2, AST-VII was able to augment IL-17A, while PEG300: Chol-AST-VII LNPs stimulated the production of IFN-g. Hemolysis was only observed in PEG300: Chol-AST-VII LNPs (250 μg/mL) treatment. AST-VII and AST-VII-integrated LNPs could be used as efficacious adjuvants for an inactivated H3N2 vaccine in vitro, and cytokine response through Th1/Th17 route was reported.

Polyphenol Profile and Biological Activity Comparisons of Different Parts of Astragalus macrocephalus subsp. finitimus from Turkey

The members of the genus Astragalus have great interest as traditional drugs in several folk systems including Turkey. In this sense, the present paper was aimed to explore the biological properties and chemical profiles of different parts (aerial parts, leaves, flowers, stems, and roots) of A. macrocephalus subsp. finitimus. Antioxidant (radical quenching, reducing power, and metal chelating) and enzyme inhibitory (α-amylase and tyrosinase) effects were investigated for biological properties. Regarding chemical profiles, individual phenolic compounds were detected by LC-MS, as well as total amounts. The leaves extract exhibited the strongest antioxidant abilities when compared with other parts. However, flowers extract had the best metal chelating ability. Hyperoside, apigenin, p-coumaric, and ferulic acids were identified as main compounds in the tested parts. Regarding enzyme inhibitory properties, tyrosinase inhibitory effects varied from IC₅₀: 1.02 to 1.41 mg/mL. In addition, the best amylase inhibition effect was observed by leaves (3.36 mg/mL), followed by aerial parts, roots, stems, and flowers. As a result, from multivariate analysis, the tested parts were classified in three cluster. Summing up the results, it can be concluded that A. macrocephalus subsp. finitimus could be a precious source of natural bioactive agents in pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and cosmeceutical applications.

Cycloarta-23-ene-3beta,25-diol a pentacyclic steroid from Euphorbia spinidens, as COX inhibitor with molecular docking, and in vivo study of its analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities in male swiss mice and wistar rats

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Euphorbia is a large genus of flowering plants. In Iran, some plants of this family have been used in the treatment of inflammatory disorders and also to relieve back pain. Euphorbia spinidens is a rich source of Cycloarta-23-ene-3beta,25-diol. Cycloartane structures are the starting material for the synthesis of plant steroids, and the aim of this study is to demonstrate COX inhibitory activity, molecular docking and in vivo approach of anti-inflammatory activity of cycloartane compound isolated from Euphorbia spinidens.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Plant material was extracted with acetone-chloroform and submitted to column chromatography for fractionation. Based on preliminary ¹H-NMR spectra, cycloartane fraction was selected and purified by repeated recycle HPLC system. The structure and purity of compound were determined by ¹H and ¹³C-NMR, HPTLC, and mass spectra. Inhibitory activities of the tested compounds on COX-1 and COX-2 were evaluated by a colorimetric COX (ovine) inhibitor screening method. Vero cells were used to assess the toxicity against the normal cells, and calculate the selectivity index. COX inhibitory activity results were evaluated and confirmed by molecular docking experiments. In the in vivo approach, analgesic activity was assessed by acetic acid-induced abdominal writhing and formalin tests. Croton oil-induced ear edema in mice and carrageenan-induced rat paw edema in rats were used to evaluate anti-inflammatory activity. Pain tests were carried out on male Swiss mice (25-35 g). Male Wistar rats (160-200 g) were used for the carrageenan test.

RESULTS

Cycloart-23-ene-3β,25-diol showedin vitro cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 inhibitory activities with more selectivity for COX-2. Molecular docking by predicting binding energies in COX protein receptors confirmed in vitro COX inhibitory results, and determined the best position for ligand in COX receptors along with its residue interactions in receptor pockets, which must be considered for designing of their inhibitors. In the in vivo studies, cycloartane inhibited significantly acetic acid-induced abdominal contractions and formalin-induced licking behavior at a dose of 200 mg/kg. The same dose reduced croton oil ear edema in mice and carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats.

CONCLUSION

Therefore, according to these findings, cycloart-23-ene-3beta,25-diol showed promising analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects with low toxicity against normal cells and can be suggested as a template lead for designing anti-inflammatory compounds with good selectivity index, and potency for COX-2 inhibitory activity.

The Chemical Structure and Bioactivity of Cycloartane-type Compounds

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For decades now, compounds in the cycloartane-type series have been shown to have versatile pharmacological activities. However, no extensive review has been written to summarize these health-beneficial activities. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to systematically highlight the biological activities of these compounds, including their antitumor and anti-osteoporosis effects, their effects on receptors, cytokine release, and chronic renal failure, as well as their tyrosinase inhibitory, anticomplement, anti-parasite, anti-HIV, and antituberculosis activities. In this review, we have summarized the structures of over 200 compounds based on their characteristics and described their structureactivity relationships (SARs), and potential mechanisms of action.

Cytotoxic, antimicrobial and nitric oxide inhibitory activities of supercritical carbon dioxide extracted Prunus persica leaves

Different parts of Prunus persica as fruits, flowers, leaves and kernels have been consumed with dietary and therapeutic purposes traditionally. During fruit production, remarkable amount of leaves which can hold important bioactive groups as phenolics, have been left unutilized. The aim of this study was to investigate cytotoxic, antimicrobial and nitric oxide inhibitory activities of supercritical carbondioxide extracts of Prunus persica leaves. Among studied cell lines, supercritical carbon dioxide extract which was processed at 150 bar, 60 °C, and 6% co-solvent ethanol, exhibited remarkable cytotoxic activity against HeLa, MPanc-96 and MCF-7 cell lines with IC₅₀ values of 12.22 µg/ml, 28.17 µg/ml and 35.51 µg/ml respectively, whereas IC₅₀ value of conventional solvent extract was above 50 µg/ml. Minimum inhibitory concentration values determined for antibacterial and antifungal activities against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium and Candida albicans were found as 62.50 µg/ml. Strong nitric oxide inhibition was achieved with IC₅₀ of 9.30 µg/ml. The promising results revealed that Prunus persica leaves may have remarkable potential as supplement both for drug and food industries. This study is the first report revealing cytotoxic, antimicrobial and nitric oxide inhibitory activity of supercritical carbon dioxide extract of Prunus persica leaves.

Development of adjuvant nanocarrier systems for seasonal influenza A (H3N2) vaccine based on Astragaloside VII and gum tragacanth (APS)

Adjuvants are chemical/biological substances that are used in vaccines to increase the immunogenicity of antigens. A few adjuvants have been developed for use in human vaccines because of their limitations including lack of efficacy, unacceptable local or systemic toxicity, the difficulty of manufacturing, poor stability, and high cost. For that reasons, novel adjuvants/adjuvant systems are under search. Astragaloside VII (AST-VII), isolated from Astragalus trojanus, exhibited significant cellular and humoral immune responses. The polysaccharides (APS) obtained from the roots of Astragalus species have been used in traditional Chinese medicine and possess strong immunomodulatory properties. In the present study, the immunomodulatory effects of a newly developed nanocarrier system (APNS: APS containing carrier) and its AST-VII containing formulation (ANS: AST-VII + APNS), on seasonal influenza A (H3N2) vaccine were investigated. Inactivated H3N2 alone or its combinations with test compounds/formulations were intramuscularly injected into Swiss albino mice. Four weeks after immunization, the immune responses were evaluated in terms of antibody and cytokine responses as well as splenocyte proliferation. APNS demonstrated Th2 mediated response by increasing IgG1 antibody titers, whereas ANS showed response towards Th1/Th2 balance and Th17 by producing of IFN-γ, IL-17A and IgG2a. Based on these results, we propose that APNS and ANS are good candidates to be utilized in seasonal influenza A vaccines as adjuvants/carrier systems.

Comparative pharmacokinetic study on three formulations of Astragali Radix by an LC-MS/MS method for determination of formononetin in human plasma

Astragali Radix (AR) is a widely used traditional Chinese medicine for healing the cardiovascular, liver and immune systems. Recently, superfine pulverizing technology has been applied to developing novel formulations to improve bioavailability of the active constituents in herbs, such as ultrafine granular powder of AR. In this study, a universal and sensitive quantitative method based on LC-MS/MS was employed for determining formononetin, the main flavonoid in AR, in human plasma for comparative pharmacokinetics of three oral formulations of AR. Formononetin and IS (quercetin) were extracted by ethyl acetate from human plasma and were separated on a C₁₈ column with a mobile phase consisting of acetonitrile and 0.1% formic acid. Positive-ion electrospray-ionization mode was applied in mass spectrometric detection. The quantitative method was validated with regards to selectivity, linearity, accuracy and precision, matrix effect, extraction recovery and stability, and was applied to comparing the pharmacokinetics of ultrafine granular powder (UGP), ultrafine powder (UP) and traditional decoction pieces (TDP) of AR after oral administration. The peak concentration and areas under the concentration-time curve of formononetin in UGP and UP were significantly higher than those of TDP. UGP and UP could significantly improve the bioavailability of AR in human compared with TDP after oral administration.

Identification of miRNAs and Their Response to Cold Stress in Astragalus Membranaceus

Astragalus membranaceus is an important medicinal plant widely cultivated in East Asia. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenous regulatory molecules that play essential roles in plant growth, development, and the response to environmental stresses. Cold is one of the key environmental factors affecting the yield and quality of A. membranaceus, and miRNAs may mediate the gene regulation network under cold stress in A. membranaceus. To identify miRNAs and reveal their functions in cold stress response in A. membranaceus, small RNA sequencing was conducted followed by bioinformatics analysis, and quantitative real time PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis was performed to profile the expression of miRNAs under cold stress. A total of 168 conserved miRNAs belonging to 34 families and 14 putative non-conserved miRNAs were identified. Many miRNA targets were predicted and these targets were involved in diversified regulatory and metabolic pathways. By using qRT-PCR, 27 miRNAs were found to be responsive to cold stress, including 4 cold stress-induced and 17 cold-repressed conserved miRNAs, and 6 cold-induced non-conserved miRNAs. These cold-responsive miRNAs probably mediate the response to cold stress by regulating development, hormone signaling, defense, redox homeostasis, and secondary metabolism in A. membranaceus. These cold-corresponsive miRNAs may be used as the candidate genes in further molecular breeding for improving cold tolerance of A. membranaceus.

Effects of astragalus injection on different stages of early hepatocarcinogenesis in a two-stage hepatocarcinogenesis model using rats

To clarify the suppressive effects of astragalus injection (AI) on different stages of early hepatocarcinogenesis induced by weak promotion, SD rats initiated with a single intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of N-diethylnitrosamine (DEN) at 200 mg/kg body weight and promoted with 0.5% piperonyl butoxide (PBO) in diet were repeatedly administered AI at 5 ml/kg body weight/day in the early postinitiation (EPI) or late postinitiation (LPI) period for 2 or 8 weeks, respectively. The number and area of glutathione S-transferase placental form (GST-P)-immunoreactive ⁽⁺⁾ foci tended to increase in the DEN+PBO group compared with the DEN-alone group. Among the PBO-promoted groups, number and area of GST-P⁺ foci did not visibly change in the DEN+PBO+AI-EPI group compared with the DEN+PBO group. In contrast, number and area of GST-P⁺ foci tended to decrease in the DEN+PBO+AI-LPI group compared with the DEN+PBO group. Number of Ki67⁺ cells was increased in the DEN+PBO group compared with the DEN-alone group and was decreased in both AI-administered groups compared with the DEN+PBO group. Gene expression analysis revealed that the DEN+PBO+AI-LPI group showed increased transcript levels of Ccne1, Cdkn1b, Rb1, Bax, Bcl2, Casp3, and Casp9 compared with the DEN+PBO group; however, the DEN+PBO+AI-EPI group did not show changes in the transcript levels of any genes examined compared with the DEN+PBO. These results suggest that AI administration during the LPI period caused weak suppression of hepatocarcinogenesis under weak promotion with a low PBO dose by the mechanism involving facilitation of cell cycle suppression causing G1/S arrest and apoptosis via the mitochondrial pathway. In addition, the results suggest that AI administration during the EPI period has no effect on weakly promoted hepatocarcinogenesis.

Comparison and application of fluorescence EEMs and DRIFTS combined with chemometrics for tracing the geographical origin of Radix Astragali

Selection of the appropriate method for traceability may be of great interest for the characterization of food authenticity and to reveal falsifications. The possibility of tracing the geographical origins of Radix Astragali based on diffuse reflectance mid-infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS) technique and fluorescence fingerprints (EEMs) technique was investigated in this work. DRIFTS technique combined with PCA and PLS-DA and EEMs technique combined with M-PCA and N-PLS-DA were used to determine the geographical origin of Radix Astragali samples, respectively. DRIFTS-PLS-DA provided total recognition rates of 98.4% for all Radix Astragali samples in the training sets and 94.6% in the predicted sets. Compared with the DRIFTS, EEMs combined with chemometrics obtained more accurate recognition results. The total recognition rates (RRs) of the training sets and prediction sets obtained with EEMs-N-PLS-DA were all 100%. The good classification results of fluorescence fingerprints technique should be attributed mainly to two reasons. One reason is that three-dimensional fluorescence spectrum can provide more information than two-dimensional DRIFTS, and the other reason is that fluorescence spectrum has higher sensitivity and selectivity than the DRIFTS. Therefore, fluorescence fingerprint (EEMs) technique combined with chemometrics results more adequate for tracing the food geographical origin. It should be noted that the more the analysis target contains fluorescent substances, the more accurate results are obtained by using the fluorescent fingerprint method. Conversely, if the classification object contains very few fluorescent substances, the classification result may not be as good as the DRIFTS method. Furthermore, due to relatively cumbersome operation of fluorescence method, EEMs fluorescence method is unsuitable for rapid analysis as compared to infrared method.

Use of Chinese Herbal Medicine Improves Chemotherapy-Induced Thrombocytopenia among Gynecological Cancer Patients: An Observational Study

Background

Chemotherapy-induced thrombocytopenia (CIT) is a serious complication among patients with gynecological malignancies, yet management options are limited. This study aimed at reporting the potential of the Chang Gung platelet elevating formula (CGPEF), a prescription with a fixed proportion of Chinese herbs, for improving CIT among gynecologic cancer patients.

Materials

From 1/1/2007 to 31/12/2009, a total of 23 patients with two consecutive CIT episodes (≤ 100×10³ /μL) (last cycle: C0; index cycle: C1) received the CGPEF from the nadir of platelet count of C1 and through the subsequent chemotherapy cycles (C2 and beyond). The CGPEF was taken orally four times a day. The evolution of platelet counts of 18 patients after administration of CGPEF was analyzed (2 patients had different chemotherapy regimens after CGPEF, two patients discontinued CGPEF due to the flavor and the amount of CGPEF, and one patient had no further chemotherapy).

Results

Most of the patients had recurrent ovarian cancer (11/18, 61%) with a median of 2.5 previous chemotherapy regimens, and carboplatin-based regimens were the most commonly used for these patients (13/18, 72%). The trend of successive CIT could be reversed after taking CGPEF. Also, the platelet nadir was higher after CGPEF treatment (16.5×10³/μL versus 32×10³/μL, before and after CGPEF treatment, resp., p = 0.002). Moreover, the chemotherapy interval decreased from 30.5 days to 24 days. No thrombocytosis, clinical bleeding, thromboembolism, or other adverse events were found among these patients.

Conclusions

The CGPEF is worthy of further large-scale, well-designed clinical trials for CIT among gynecological cancer patients.

Cycloartane-type sapogenol derivatives inhibit NFκB activation as chemopreventive strategy for inflammation-induced prostate carcinogenesis

Chronic inflammation is associated to 25% of cancer cases according to epidemiological data. Therefore, inhibition of inflammation-induced carcinogenesis can be an efficient therapeutic approach for cancer chemoprevention in drug development studies. It is also determined that anti-inflammatory drugs reduce cancer incidence. Cell culture-based in vitro screening methods are used as a fast and efficient method to investigate the biological activities of the biomolecules. In addition, saponins are molecules that are isolated from natural sources and are known to have potential for tumor inhibition. Studies on the preparation of analogues of cycloartane-type sapogenols (9,19-cyclolanostanes) have so far been limited. Therefore we have decided to direct our efforts toward the exploration of new anti-tumor agents prepared from cycloastragenol and its production artifact astragenol. The semi-synthetic derivatives were prepared mainly by oxidation, condensation, alkylation, acylation, and elimination reactions. After preliminary studies, five sapogenol analogues, two of which were new compounds (2 and 3), were selected and screened for their inhibitory activity on cell viability and NFκB signaling pathway activity in LNCaP prostate cancer cells. We found that the astragenol derivatives 1 and 2 as well as cycloastragenol derivatives 3, 4, and 5 exhibited strong inhibitory activity on NFκB signaling leading the repression of NFκB transcriptional activation and suppressed cell proliferation. The results suggested that these molecules might have significant potential for chemoprevention of prostate carcinogenesis induced by inflammatory NFκB signaling pathway.

Astragaloside VI and cycloastragenol-6-O-beta-D-glucoside promote wound healing in vitro and in vivo

BACKGROUND

Astragalus genus includes most of the common, historical herbal medicines that have various applications in Asian countries. However, clinical data and mechanistic insights into their actions are still lacking.

PURPOSE

In this study, we aimed to examine the effects of astragalosides on wound healing in vitro and in vivo, as well as the underlying mechanisms of these actions.

METHODS

The wound healing activity of astragalosides was investigated in human HaCaT keratinocytes, human dermal fibroblast (HDF) cells, and murine models of wound healing.

RESULTS

All eight astragalosides studied enhanced epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) activity in HaCaT cells. Among them, astragaloside VI (AS-VI) showed the strongest EGFR activation. Consistently, AS-VI and cycloastragenol-6-O-beta-D-glucoside (CMG), which is the major metabolite of astragalosides, enhanced extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activity in a concentration-dependent manner. In agreement, both compounds induced EGFR-dependent cell proliferation and migration in HaCaT and HDF cells. In addition, we showed that AS-VI and CMG accelerated the healing of both sterile and infected wounds in vivo. These effects were associated with increased angiogenesis in the scar tissue.

CONCLUSION

AS-VI and CMG increased the proliferation and migration of skin cells via activation of the EGFR/ERK signalling pathway, resulting in the improvement of wound healing in vitro and in vivo. These findings indicate the therapeutic potential of AS-VI and CMG to accelerate wound healing; additionally, they suggest the mechanistic basis of this activity.

Anti-Aging Implications of Astragalus Membranaceus (Huangqi): A Well-Known Chinese Tonic

Owing to a dramatic increase in average life expectancy and the Family Planning program of the 1970s - 1990s, China is rapidly becoming an aging society. Therefore, the investigation of healthspan-extending drugs becomes more urgent. Astragalus membranaceus (Huangqi) is a major medicinal herb that has been commonly used in many herbal formulations in the practice of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) to treat a wide variety of diseases and body disorders, or marketed as life-prolonging extracts for human use in China, for more than 2000 years. The major components of Astragalus membranaceus are polysaccharides, flavonoids, and saponins. Pharmacological research indicates that the extract component of Astragalus membranaceus can increase telomerase activity, and has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunoregulatory, anticancer, hypolipidemic, antihyperglycemic, hepatoprotective, expectorant, and diuretic effects. A proprietary extract of the dried root of Astragalus membranaceus, called TA-65, was associated with a significant age-reversal effect in the immune system. Our review focuses on the function and the underlying mechanisms of Astragalus membranaceus in lifespan extension, anti-vascular aging, anti-brain aging, and anti-cancer effects, based on experimental and clinical studies.

Anti-Inflammatory and Immunostimulatory Activities of Astragalosides

Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch) Bge (Huang-Qi) is a well-known herbal medicine with tonic property and has been widely used to treat cancer and other immune disorders in China and Southeast Asia for thousands of years. Accumulating evidence suggests that Huang-Qi possesses both immune-boosting and anti-inflammatory/immune-regulatory effects clinically, leaving the mechanism elusive. Recently, we discovered that Astragaloside (ASI), a major active component of Huang-Qi, is able to increase CD45 phosphatase activity. In this paper, we reviewed the recent progress of ASIs in immunoregulatory and anti-inflammatory activities, including the induction of T-cell activation, regulation of effector/regulatory T-cell balance, enhancement of CD45 phosphatase activity, inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokine and, NF-[Formula: see text]B pathway. Finally, we hypothesized that inducing interferon-[Formula: see text] (IFN-[Formula: see text]) activity by activating CD45 protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTPase) may be involved in the protective role of ASI in two contrary immune-associated diseases. These pharmacological properties highlight the traditional uses of Astragalus and provide a new direction for subsequent research and the clinical application of this traditional herbal.

Secondary metabolites from Astragalus karjaginii BORISS and the evaluation of their effects on cytokine release and hemolysis

A new cycloartane sapogenol and a new cycloartane xyloside were isolated from Astragalus karjaginii BORISS along with thirteen known compounds. The structures of the new compounds were established as 3-oxo-6α,16β,24(S),25-tetrahydroxycycloartane (1) and 6-O-β-d-xylopyranosyl-3β,6α,16β,24(S),25-pentahydroxycycloartane (2) by 1D- and 2D-NMR experiments as well as ESIMS and HRMS analyses. The presence of the keto function at position 3 was reported for the first time for cyclocanthogenol sapogenin of Astragalus genus. In vitro immunomodulatory effects of the new compounds (1 and 2) along with the n-BuOH and MeOH extracts of A. karjaginii at two different doses (3 and 6μg) were tested on human whole blood for in vitro cytokine release (IL-2, IL-17A and IFN-γ) and hemolytic activities. The results confirmed that compound 2, a monodesmosidic saponin, had the strongest effect on the induction of both IL-2 (6μg, 6345.41±0.12pg/mL (×5), P<0.001) and a slight effect upon IL-17A (3μg, 5217.85±0.72pg/mL, P<0.05) cytokines compared to the other test compounds and positive controls (AST VII: Astragaloside VII; and QS-21: Quillaja saponin 21). All tested extracts and molecules also induced release of IFN-γ remarkably ranging between 5031.95±0.05pg/mL, P<0.001 for MeOH extract (6μg) and 5877.08±0.06pg/mL, P<0.001 for compound 1 (6μg) compared to QS-21 (6μg, 5924.87±0.1pg/mL, P<0.001). Administration of AST VII and other test compounds did not cause any hemolytic activity, whereas QS-21 resulted a noteworthy hemolysis.

Immunomodulatory, hemolytic properties and cytotoxic activity potent of triterpenoid saponins from Cephalaria balansae

Phytochemical investigations on n-butanol extract of Cephalaria balansae Raus. (Caprifoliaceae) led to the isolation of four previously undescribed triterpenoid saponins based on hederagenin type aglycone, namely, balansoides A-D, along with ten known compounds. Their structures were proposed based on 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic data, HRESIMS analysis and chemical evidence as 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 3)-β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1 → 3)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-α-L-arabinopyranosyl hederagenin, 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 3)-β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1 → 3)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-α-L-arabinopyranosyl hederagenin 28-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl ester, 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 3)-β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1 → 3)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-α-L-arabinopyranosyl hederagenin 28-O-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1 → 6)-β-D-glucopyranosyl ester and 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 3)-β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1 → 3)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-α-L-arabinopyranosyl hederagenin 28-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1 → 6)-β-D-glucopyranosyl ester. The four saponins were evaluated for their potential cytotoxic activity against HEK-293, A-549, HeLa cells and for hemolytic properties on human blood cells. Balansoide A displayed significant inhibitory effects on cancerous A-549 and HeLa cells, and non-cancerous HEK-293 cells with IC₅₀ values of 12, 15 and 8 μM, respectively. Balansoides A-D together with n-butanol extract exhibited considerable hemolysis in human erythrocyte cells. Immunomodulatory properties of balansoides A-D were also evaluated in activated whole blood cells by PMA plus ionomycin. While balansoides A-C increased IL-1β concentration with values of 1004.47, 991.57 and 966.50 pg/ml, only balansoide B augmented a slight IFN-γ secretion with value of 5219.14 pg/ml. None of the compounds changed IL-2 levels significantly.

[Effect of Astragali and Angelica particle on proteinuria in Chinese patients with primary glomerulonephritis]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of the traditional Chinese herbs Astragali and Angelicae Sinensis (A & As) particle [contains Huangqi (Radix Astragali Mongolica), Danggui (Radix Angelicae Sinensis), Huzhanggeng (Rhizoma Polygoni Cuspidati) and Danshen (Radix Salviae Miltiorrhizae)] on proteinuria in glomerulonephritis patients with stage 2 chronic kidney disease.

METHODS

A prospective, multi-center, and randomized controlled clinical trial was performed for 24 weeks. From March 2011 to April 2012, 158 patients from nine hospitals in China participated. They were randomized into the A & As group (79 cases, A & As particle 15.2 g/day) and losartan group (79 cases, losartan 50 mg/day). At each follow-up visit, clinical data including blood pressure, urinalysis, 24-h-urinary protein excretion, serum albumin and serum creatinine were collected.

RESULTS

All 158 patients completed the follow-up. Proteinuria in the losartan group exhibited a biphasic time-dependent decline with a significant steady reduction from baseline to week 12 (P = 0.0014), and a platform level during the remaining 12-week follow-up (P > 0.05). In contrast, there was a continual significant decrease of proteinuria in the A & As group (P < 0.001). When compared with the losartan results, proteinuria in the A & As group from week 16 to week 24 was significantly reduced (P < 0.001). Stable eGFRs and blood pressure were also observed in both groups. Medication side effects were minimal and non-fatal.

CONCLUSION

For Chinese glomerulonephritis patients with stage 2 chronic kidney disease, therapy with A & As particles may provide effective anti-proteinuria treatment.

Cycloartane-type triterpenoids from Astragalus hoantchy French

A new cycloartane-type triterpenoid, 3β-acetoxy-9β,19-cyclolanost-24E-ene-1α,16β-diol-27-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (1), together with three known ones (2-4) were isolated from the aerial parts of Astragalus hoantchy. The structure of compound 1 was elucidated by detailed spectroscopic analyses including 1D and 2D NMR, HRESIMS, and IR experiments. All of the four compounds were isolated from A. hoantchy for the first time. The antifungal activities of compounds 1-4 against a phytopathogenic fungus (Alternaria solani) were evaluated with the result that compound 3 exhibited a moderate activity with an IC₅₀ value of 284 μg/mL.

Simultaneous determination of calycosin-7-O-β-D-glucoside, ononin, calycosin, formononetin, astragaloside IV, and astragaloside II in rat plasma after oral administration of Radix Astragali extraction for their pharmacokinetic studies by ultra-pressure liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry

A sensitive and reliable ultra-pressure liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS) was developed and validated for simultaneous quantification of six main bioactive components, i.e., calycosin-7-O-β-D-glucoside, ononin, calycosin, formononetin, astragaloside IV, and astragaloside II in rat plasma after oral administration of the 95 % ethanol extraction from Radix Astragali. Plasma samples were extracted with Waters Oasis(TM) HLB 1 cc (30 mg) Extraction Cartridges (SPE) separated on an UPLC™ BEH C18 column and detected by MS with electro spray ionization interface in positive selective ion monitoring mode. Calibration curves offered linear ranges of two orders of magnitude with r (2) > 0.99. The method had the lower limit quantification of 1.30, 0.73, 1.17, 2.33, 0.63, and 0.83 ng/mL for ononin, calycosin, calycosin-7-O-β-D-glucoside, formononetin, astragaloside IV, and astragaloside II, respectively, with precision less than 10 %. The RSD of intra- and inter-day variations ranged from 1.66 to 6.46 and 3.39 to 6.58 %. This developed method was applied subsequently to pharmacokinetic studies of the six compounds in rats successfully. The proposed method was for the first time to compare the pharmacokinetic difference between calycosin-7-O-β-D-glucoside and calycosin in rat plasma, so as between ononin and formononetin, and studied to the astragaloside II pharmacokinetics in rat plasma.

Study of pharmacokinetic profiles and characteristics of active components and their metabolites in rat plasma following oral administration of the water extract of Astragali radix using UPLC-MS/MS

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Astragali radix is one of the well-known traditional Chinese herbal medicine, and possesses various biological functions, such as hepatoprotective and anticancer. In present study, to investigate the metabolism and pharmacokinetics of the major constituents of A. radix, a sensitive ultra-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method with shorter chromatographic running time was developed and validated for simultaneous quantification of formononetin, ononin, calycosin, calycosin-7-β-glucoside, astragaloside IV and their glucuronide metabolites in rat plasma after oral administration of water extract of A. radix at two different doses.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The chromatographic separation was achieved on a C18 column with gradient elution by using a mixture of 0.1% formic acid aqueous solution and acetonitrile as the mobile phase at a flow rate of 0.3mL/min. A tandem mass spectrometric detection was conducted using multiple-reaction monitoring (MRM) via electrospray ionization (ESI) source in positive ionization mode. Samples were pre-treated by a single-step protein precipitation with methanol, and erlotinib was used as internal standard (IS).

RESULTS

The current UPLC-MS/MS assay was validated for linearity, intra-day and inter-day precisions, accuracy, extraction recovery, matrix effects and stability. The lowest limit of quantifications (LLOQ) were 1ng/mL for all analytes. After oral administration, the plasma concentrations of the glucuronides, especially calycosin-3'-glucuronide, were much higher than the parent compounds. The mean half-life (t1/2) was between 1 and 5h, and the metabolites were eliminated faster than the parent constituents. The median (range) time to reach maximum plasma concentration (Tmax) was between 0.5 and 1h.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study of the pharmacokinetic study of bioactive compounds and their glucuronides in male rat plasma after oral administration of water extract of A. radix. The results demonstrated the biotransformation between the bioactive isoflavonoids and their glucuronides was extensive in rats and provided a significant basis for better understanding the absorption and metabolism mechanism of A. radix. Furthermore, this study could suggest that future studies should focus on the metabolites and biotransformation between the bioactive constituents when conducting a drug efficacy study.

Recent Advances in Traditional Chinese Medicine for Kidney Disease

Because current treatment options for chronic kidney disease (CKD) are limited, many patients seek out alternative therapies such as traditional Chinese medicine. However, there is a lack of evidence from large clinical trials to support the use of traditional medicines in patients with CKD. Many active components of traditional medicine formulas are undetermined and their toxicities are unknown. Therefore, there is a need for research to identify active compounds from traditional medicines and understand the mechanisms of action of these compounds, as well as their potential toxicity, and subsequently perform well-designed, randomized, controlled, clinical trials to study the efficacy and safety of their use in patients with CKD. Significant progress has been made in this field within the last several years. Many active compounds have been identified by applying sophisticated techniques such as mass spectrometry, and more mechanistic studies of these compounds have been performed using both in vitro and in vivo models. In addition, several well-designed, large, randomized, clinical trials have recently been published. We summarize these recent advances in the field of traditional medicines as they apply to CKD. In addition, current barriers for further research are also discussed. Due to the ongoing research in this field, we believe that stronger evidence to support the use of traditional medicines for CKD will emerge in the near future.

Anti-inflammatory, analgesic and anti-pyretic activities of standardized root extract of Jasminum sambac

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The plant Jasminum sambac L. (Oleaceae) is cultivated throughout India. The leaves and roots of the plant are used traditionally in the treatment of inflammation, fever and pain. The leaves of the plant have been reported to posses significant anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities.

OBJECTIVE

To scientifically validate anti-inflammatory, analgesic and anti-pyretic activities of roots from Jasminum sambac.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethanol root extract of Jasminum sambac (EJS) was standardized using HPTLC and was subjected to acute oral toxicity study. Further, analgesic activity of EJS at 100, 200 and 400mg/kg, p.o. was evaluated using writhing test on Swiss albino mice and tail-flick test on Charles Foster albino rats. Anti-inflammatory activity of EJS was assessed by carrageenan-induced rat paw edema, cotton pellet-induced granuloma and Freund׳s adjuvant-induced arthritis models, while antipyretic activity was evaluated using Brewer׳s yeast induced pyrexia. In addition, biochemical parameters such as alkaline phosphatase (ALP), aspartate transaminase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT), lipid peroxidation (LPO), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) in blood serum and edematous tissue of rats exposed to acute (carrageenan) and granulomatous tissue in sub-chronic (cotton pellet granuloma) inflammation models were also evaluated.

RESULTS

Phytochemical analysis of EJS revealed the presence of flavonoids, phenols, saponins, tannins and carbohydrates in major quantities, while the quantity of hesperidin in EJS (using HPTLC) was found to be 4.25%w/w. EJS at 400mg/kg, p.o. reduced writhing count up to 49.21%, whereas in tail-flick test, EJS in a dose dependent manner increased latency in flicking tail. EJS at 400mg/kg, p.o. showed significant anti-inflammatory activity after 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 6thh of treatment in carrageenan-induced edema, while a 33.58% inhibition in cotton pellet induced granuloma formation was observed at same dose level. EJS significantly (p<0.001) inhibited adjuvant-induced arthritis and also showed significant antipyretic activity. Further, a significant reversal in alterations of all the biochemical parameters (except ALP) in tissues was also observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The study confirms the anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activity of EJS which may be attributed to the presence of various phytoconstituents quantified especially hesperidin which have already been reported for its significant role in the treatment of inflammation and associated problems.

A review of recent research progress on the astragalus genus

Astragalus L., is one of the largest genuses of flowering plants in the Leguminosae family. Roots of A. membranaceus Bge. var. mongholicus (Bge.) Hsiao, A. membranaceus (Fisch.) Bge. and its processed products are listed in the China Pharmacopeia for “qi deficiency” syndrome treatment. However, more and more researches on other species of Astragalus have been conducted recently. We summarize the recent researches of Astragalus species in phytochemistry and pharmacology. More than 200 constituents, including saponins and flavonoids, obtained from 46 species of Astragalus genus were collected for this article. In pharmacological studies, crude extracts of Astragalus, as well as isolated constituents showed anti-inflammatory, immunostimulant, antioxidative, anti-cancer, antidiabetic, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, and antiviral activities. The goal of this article is to provide an overview of chemical and pharmacological studies on the Astragalus species over the last 10 years, which could be of value to new drug or food supplement research and development.

The standardized BHH10 extract, a combination of Astragalus membranaceus, Cinnamomum cassia, and Phellodendron amurense, reverses bone mass and metabolism in a rat model of postmenopausal osteoporosis

Jasin-hwan-gagambang (BHH10), a modified prescription of Jasin-hwan, contains Astragalus membranaceus, Cinnamomum cassia, and Phellodendron amurense, and it has been traditionally used to treat osteoporosis and other inflammatory diseases. In this study, we systematically investigated the protective effects of BHH10 in ovariectomy (OVX)-induced rats. Sprague–Dawley rats were randomly divided into sham and OVX subgroups. The rats in the OVX group were treated with vehicle, BHH10, alendronate (ALN), and 17β-estradiol (E2). BHH10 treatment significantly inhibited OVX-induced increases in body weight and uterus atrophy. In addition, it significantly increased the bone mineral density (BMD) and prevented a decrease in trabecular bone volume, connectivity density, trabecular number, thickness, and separation at the total femur and femur neck. The OVX rats showed significant decreases in the serum levels of calcium and phosphorous and significant increases in the serum levels of cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, alkaline phosphatase, osteocalcin, C-telopeptide type 1 collagen, and bone morphogenetic protein-2. These changes were significantly reduced to near sham levels by administration of BHH10 to OVX rats. BHH10-treated rats had a greater bone mass, a better structural architecture of the bone, and higher levels of biochemical markers of the bone than did the ALN-treated or E2-treated rats. These results suggest that BHH10 reverses osteoporosis in OVX rats by stimulating bone formation or regulating bone resorption and is not associated with toxicity. © 2014 The Authors. Phytotherapy Research published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Integrated analysis for identifying radix astragali and its adulterants based on DNA barcoding

Radix Astragali is a popular herb used in traditional Chinese medicine for its proimmune and antidiabetic properties. However, methods are needed to help distinguish Radix Astragali from its varied adulterants. DNA barcoding is a widely applicable molecular method used to identify medicinal plants. Yet, its use has been hampered by genetic distance, base variation, and limitations of the bio-NJ tree. Herein, we report the validation of an integrated analysis method for plant species identification using DNA barcoding that focuses on genetic distance, identification efficiency, inter- and intraspecific variation, and barcoding gap. We collected 478 sequences from six candidate DNA barcodes (ITS2, ITS, psbA-trnH, rbcL, matK, and COI) from 29 species of Radix Astragali and adulterants. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence was demonstrated as the optimal barcode for identifying Radix Astragali and its adulterants. This new analysis method is helpful in identifying Radix Astragali and expedites the utilization and data mining of DNA barcoding.

Bioactive components on immuno-enhancement effects in the traditional Chinese medicine Shenqi Fuzheng Injection based on relevance analysis between chemical HPLC fingerprints and in vivo biological effects

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Shenqi Fuzheng Injection (SFI) is an injectable traditional Chinese herbal formula comprised of two Chinese herbs, Radix codonopsis and Radix astragali, which were commonly used to improve immune functions against chronic diseases in an integrative and holistic way in China and other East Asian countries for thousands of years.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This present study was designed to explore the bioactive components on immuno-enhancement effects in SFI using the relevance analysis between chemical fingerprints and biological effects in vivo. According to a four-factor, nine-level uniform design, SFI samples were prepared with different proportions of the four portions separated from SFI via high speed counter current chromatography (HSCCC). SFI samples were assessed with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for 23 identified components. For the immunosuppressed murine experiments, biological effects in vivo were evaluated on spleen index (E1), peripheral white blood cell counts (E2), bone marrow cell counts (E3), splenic lymphocyte proliferation (E4), splenic natural killer cell activity (E5), peritoneal macrophage phagocytosis (E6) and the amount of interleukin-2 (E7). Based on the hypothesis that biological effects in vivo varied with differences in components, multivariate relevance analysis, including gray relational analysis (GRA), multi-linear regression analysis (MLRA) and principal component analysis (PCA), were performed to evaluate the contribution of each identified component.

RESULTS

The results indicated that the bioactive components of SFI on immuno-enhancement activities were calycosin-7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (P9), isomucronulatol-7,2'-di-O-glucoside (P11), biochanin-7-glucoside (P12), 9,10-dimethoxypterocarpan-3-O-xylosylglucoside (P15) and astragaloside IV (P20), which might have positive effects on spleen index (E1), splenic lymphocyte proliferation (E4), splenic natural killer cell activity (E5), peritoneal macrophage phagocytosis (E6) and the amount of interleukin-2 (E7), while 5-hydroxymethyl-furaldehyde (P5) and lobetyolin (P13) might have negative effects on E1, E4, E5, E6 and E7. Finally, the bioactive HPLC fingerprint of SFI based on its bioactive components on immuno-enhancement effects was established for quality control of SFI.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, this study provided a perspective to explore the bioactive components in a traditional Chinese herbal formula with a series of HPLC and animal experiments, which would be helpful to improve quality control and inspire further clinical studies of traditional Chinese medicines.

Astragalus membranaceus inhibits peritoneal fibrosis via monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1 and the transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) pathway in rats submitted to peritoneal dialysis

Inflammation and transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) contribute to the development of peritoneal fibrosis (PF), which is associated with peritoneal dialysis (PD). Astragalus membranaceus (Astragalus) has anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic effects in many diseases. The goal of this study was to determine the anti-fibrotic effects of Astragalus on the PF response to PD. A rat model of PD was induced using standard PD fluid, and PF was verified by HE and Masson’s staining, as well as through the expression of fibroblast surface protein (FSP) and collagen III. The expression levels of monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1, F4/80 (macrophage/monocyte marker in rat), TGF-β1 and the downstream proteins phospho-SMAD 2/3 in dialyzed peritoneal tissue treated with or without Astragalus was evaluated using immunohistochemistry analysis. Overall correlations between MCP-1 and TGF-β1 staining were analyzed using both the Spearman and Pearson methods. The results showed that Astragalus could inhibit the recruitment and activation of monocytes/macrophages, thereby reducing the production of TGF-β1 in the dialyzed peritoneal membrane. PF was also significantly decreased following treatment with Astragalus. MCP-1 expression had a strong positive correlation with TGF-β1 sensitivity, suggesting that the anti-fibrotic function of Astragalus was mediated by MCP-1 and the TGF-β1 pathway. Our results indicate that Astragalus could be a useful agent against PD-induced PF.