Potential antifertility agents from plants: a comprehensive review

Recent Progress on Prangos (Apiaceae) Species Used in Traditional Herbal Medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Plants have been used for a long time in traditional medicine to treat many diseases. The genus Prangos belongs to the Apiaceae family and has various medicinal and aromatic species. Since ancient times, Prangos species have been employed extensively in traditional medicine for different purposes and are especially popular for their aphrodisiac effects.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The goal of this paper is to represent a systematic review of the species in the genus Prangos, including their botanical characteristics, uses in traditional medicine, phytochemical constituents, the composition of the essential oils produced, and the biological properties.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The articles and keywords regarding traditional uses and bioactivities of Prangos species were evaluated using electronic databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect. Use of the World Flora Online (WFO) - The Plant List, The International Plant Names Index, the World Checklist of Vascular Plants (2024), and ChemDraw Professional helped complete this compilation.

RESULTS

Phytochemical investigations have indicated that coumarins are characteristic constituents of Prangos species, especially prenylated and furanocoumarins, and also flavonoids, terpenoids, and phytosterols occur in this genus. In addition, the essential oils of these plants have been examined. The biological properties of the Prangos species seem worthy of further investigation. Also, some information about the toxicity of these species and their use as ingredients in food products is presented.

CONCLUSIONS

This review highlights the evaluation of traditional knowledge, phytochemical profiles, biological activities, and potential uses of Prangos species as foods and spices. Many pharmacological activities have been performed related to their traditional uses, but frequently, the exact mechanism of action remains scientifically unproven. This review has compiled data on the phytochemistry, the active secondary metabolites, the biological properties, and recent advances in Prangos species.

Support for criminalization of self-managed abortion (SMA): A national representative survey

OBJECTIVE

Since the U.S. Supreme Court eliminated the federal right to abortion, there is a heightened need to understand public opinion about the criminalization of people who attempt to end their pregnancies outside the formal healthcare setting, referred to as self-managed abortion (SMA). We assessed U.S. attitudes about whether three forms of SMA should be legal, reported or punished: 1) using abortion pills obtained outside the healthcare system, 2) using other medications, drugs, herbs, or by drinking alcohol, and 3) using traumatic methods (inserting an object in their body or hitting their stomach).

METHODS

From December 2021 to January 2022, we administered a national probability-based online survey to English- and Spanish-speaking people assigned female (AFAB, ages 15-49) or male at birth (AMAB, ages 18-49) regarding their attitudes about criminalizing SMA, using Ipsos' KnowledgePanel. We estimated weighted proportions and conducted multivariable regression analyses to identify characteristics associated with support for SMA legality and punishment (reporting to authorities, paying a fine or going to jail).

RESULTS

A total of 7,016 AFAB and 360 AMAB completed the survey. People were less likely (p < .05) to agree that SMA using abortion pills should be illegal (34% of AFAB and 43% of AMAB) than other forms of SMA (36-48%), although over one-fifth were unsure (AFAB, 20-23% and AMAB, 24-27%). People were less likely to agree SMA using abortion pills should be criminalized than SMA using other drugs, medications, herbs, alcohol or by using traumatic methods. In multivariable analyses, AMAB and Christian religion were associated with agreeing that SMA using abortion pills should be illegal; people who identified as Hispanic/Latinx ethnicity and experienced medical mistreatment were less likely to agree SMA with medication abortion pills should be illegal.

CONCLUSIONS

Public support for criminalizing SMA is complex and varied by SMA method and form of punishment.

Mexican traditional medicines for women's reproductive health

Like China, Mexico has a traditional system of medicine dating back almost 5000 years that incorporates the healing practices of pre-Columbian civilizations, including the Maya and Aztec. Mexican Traditional Medicine (MTM) women depend on MTM practices and herbal medicines for their primary healthcare needs as limited access and high costs of Western medicine is a significant problem. The aims of this work were to determine the medicinal plants more commonly used in MTM for women's reproductive health issues and assess the clinical data supporting their use. Data from multiple sources was compiled and information on plants commonly used by women in Mexico MTM for the treatment of fertility and menstruation issues, pregnancy, and menopause was analyzed. Analysis of the data show that 185 species of plants representing > 60 families were used for a wide range of reproductive health issues. Some of these plants have been used in MTM for fertility regulation in women of which 35 species were used as emmenagogues and abortifacients. Approximate 40 species were used for the symptoms of premenstrual syndrome, heavy menstrual bleeding, and dysmenorrhea. In terms of pregnancy, 35 species were used for postpartum care and to facilitate breastfeeding, 16 species were used as oxytocic agents to induce labor and speed birth, and six plant species were used to prevent miscarriage. Fourteen plant species were reported to treat infertility or promote fertility, and seven species were used to treat uterine prolapse. Three plants species were reported to treat menopause and two plants were used for osteoporosis. Analysis of the clinical data for commonly used medicinal plants showed some clinical support for the use of these plants in MTM. In Mexico, women use medicinal plants for almost every aspect of reproductive health. While some plants have clinical data, most medicinal plants used in MTM have no safety or efficacy data available and could serve as the basis of future investigations.

Guaianolide Derivatives from the Invasive Xanthium spinosum L.: Evaluation of Their Allelopathic Potential

Ziniolide, xantholide B (11α-dihydroziniolide), and 11β-dihydroziniolide, three sesquiterpene lactones with 12,8-guaianolide skeletons, were identified as volatile metabolites from the roots of Xanthium spinosum L., an invasive plant harvested in Corsica. Essential oil, as well as hydrosol and hexane extracts, showed the presence of guaianolide analogues. The study highlights an analytical strategy involving column chromatography, GC-FID, GC-MS, NMR (1D and 2D), and the hemi-synthesis approach, to identify compounds with incomplete or even missing spectral data from the literature. Among them, we reported the 1H- and 13C-NMR data of 11β-dihydroziniolide, which was observed as a natural product for the first time. As secondary metabolites were frequently involved in the dynamic of the dispersion of weed species, the allelopathic effects of X. spinosum root's volatile metabolites were assessed on seed germination and seedling growth (leek and radish). Essential oil, as well as hydrosol- and microwave-assisted extracts inhibited germination and seedling growth; root metabolite phytotoxicity was demonstrated. Nevertheless, the phytotoxicity of root metabolites was demonstrated with a more marked selectivity to the benefit of the monocotyledonous species compared to the dicotyledonous species. Ziniolide derivatives seem to be strongly involved in allelopathic interactions and could be the key to understanding the invasive mechanisms of weed.

A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Inhibitory Effects of Plant-Derived Sterilants on Rodent Population Abundance

Owing to their low minimal environmental risk and other ethical considerations, plant-derived sterilants are used to control rodent populations. However, the effects of plant-derived sterilants are not immediate, and their efficacy on rodent control is controversial, which negatively affects sterilant research and application. Here, a meta-analysis of the available literature was conducted to evaluate the effects of two plant-derived sterilants, triptolide and curcumol, on rodent populations. Using a random-effects and a fixed-effects model, we calculated the weighted mean difference (WMD) and relative risk (RR) and their corresponding 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs). After the application of plant-derived sterilants, the rodent population density tended to decrease. Three outcome-related measures in rodents, i.e., capture rate (RR = 0.31, 95% CI [0.20, 0.47]), pregnancy rate (RR = 0.49, 95% CI [0.40, 0.61]), and sperm survival rate (WMD = −17.53, 95% CI [−28.96, −6.06]), significantly decreased, as shown by a significant reduction of ovarian, uterine, and testicular organ coefficients. However, the number of effective rodent holes did not change significantly after the interventions, indicating that the studied sterilants did not directly eradicate the rodent populations. This study provides a theoretical basis for elucidating the inhibitory mechanisms of plant-derived sterilants on rodent populations and for the rational use of these sterilants.

The Potential of Jatropha variegata Fruits as a Natural Contraceptive: Antifertility Activity and Phytochemical Analysis

Background

Jatropha variegata (family, Euphorbiaceae) is native to Yemen, where it is commonly known as the Ebki shrub. The fruits of the plant are traditionally ingested by local women as a natural method of contraception. This study was undertaken to investigate the phytochemical content of the methanol extract of J. variegata fruits and to evaluate its antifertility potential.

Methods

Isolation of the chemical constituents was performed by chromatographic techniques, and the chemical structures of these compounds were identified by spectroscopy. The antifertility activity of the methanol extract was assessed in two experimental rat models to explore both the anti-implantation and the estrogenic/antiestrogenic activities in females. In these models, the number of successful implants, the size of litter, and body/ovary weights were all recorded. The development of ovarian follicles was also monitored via histological staining.

Results

Phytochemical work on the fruit extract of J. variegata led to the isolation of two oils (JF1 and JF2) and methyl elaidate. GC-MS analysis of the JF1 oil revealed that the major chemical constituents were fatty acid esters (43.77%), hydrocarbon alkanes (20.65%), and terpenoids (4.65%), while terpenoids (28.8%), fatty acids and their esters, (29.47%), and phytosterol (10.49%) were the major components found in the JF2 oil. The methanol extract of J. variegata fruit exhibited 50% and 93% abortifacient activity at 150 and 300 mg/kg doses, respectively. The extract also showed significant estrogenic activity as evidenced by the increase in rat ovary weight at a dose of 300 mg/kg compared to the control group. Histological analyses further confirmed this estrogenic activity.

Conclusions

J. variegata fruits possess an antifertility activity that appeared to result from its antiembryo implantation potential and from its estrogenic activity. The bioactive constituents involved in these activities may need to be further explored and exploited in the pursuit of newer contraceptives.

Oral hygiene in Namibia: A case of chewing sticks

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Chewing sticks have served as the primary form of dental care for rural communities in resource-poor settings for millennia. They are one of the most important under-researched, non-timber forest products in Namibia. This review provides an overview of plants that are used as chewing sticks in Namibia and highlights pharmacological as well as phytochemical studies conducted on them.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This review aims to present a summary of studies that have been done on the ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, biological activity as well as evidence on the scientific validation and geographical distribution of chewing sticks in Namibia. It also highlights research gaps and provides an impetus for the scientific investigations of these plant species.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Literature searches using keywords including oral hygiene, chewing sticks, ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, antimicrobial, antioxidants, anti-inflammatory activities and toxicity studies, chewing sticks, and distribution in Namibia on various electronic search engines was conducted.

RESULTS

Of the 41 plant species identified, Cordia sinensis Lam., Faidherbia albida (Delile) A.Chev. and Harpagophytum zeyheri Decne. are used for both gargling and as mouthwash. The plant families Fabacae, Ebenaceae, and Burseraceae account for 22.0%, 12.2%, and 7.30% of plant species recorded as chewing sticks in Namibia respectively. This study revealed a significant relationship between plant family and scientific validation. Species belonging to Burseraceae, Apocynaceae, Montiniaceae, and Cucurbitaceae families have only been partially validated. The Kunene region, home to the Ovahimba ethnic group, had the highest proportion (87.8%) of chewing sticks species compared to other regions.

CONCLUSION

This review revealed that most of the plants used as chewing sticks in Namibia require an in-depth pharmacological and phytochemical investigation as deduced from the paucity of literature on the therapeutic methods, mechanisms of action, efficacy, toxicity, and clinical relevance of these species.

Humulane-type and germacrane-type sesquiterpenoids from the fruits of Xanthium spinosum Linn

Eight undescribed humulane-type sesquiterpenoids (xanthspinol A-E, I, J and N), three undescribed germacrane-type sesquiterpenoids (xanthspinol F, G and O) and twelve known compounds were isolated from the fruits of Xanthium spinosum. The structures of the undescribed compounds were elucidated by analyses of spectroscopic data, electronic circular dichroism (ECD) calculations, dimolybdenum tetraacetate [Mo₂(OAc)₄]-induced circular dichroism (ICD) spectra, a CD exciton chirality method and the modified Mosher's method. Xanthspinol A and B featured a humulane skeleton containing a 2,5-dihydrofuran fragment. Putative biosynthetic pathways for the undescribed compounds are proposed. Xanthspinol N, 8-epi-isoxanthanol and deacetyl-4-epixanthanol showed moderate activity against Coxsackie virus B3 (CVB3) with IC₅₀ values of 8.70, 3.70 and 3.70 μM, respectively.

Phyto-constituents profiling of Luffa echinata and in vitro assessment of antioxidant, anti-diabetic, anticancer and anti-acetylcholine esterase activities

Luffa echinata Roxb. is one of the neglected medicinal plants. It is an important source of bioactive metabolites and used in several Ayurvedic formulations. In the present analysis, mature leaves and fruits were extracted with acetone, ethanol, acetonitrile, methanol and water. Phytochemicals like total phenolic (TPC), flavonoid (TFC), tannin (TTC), alkaloid (TAC) and terpenoid (TTEC) content were analysed. Further, antioxidant (AOX) activities like 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity, 2,2'-azino-bis-(3-ethyl) benzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging, metal chelating activity (MC), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and phosphomolybdenum assay (PMA) were studied. Highest TPC and TFC (189.57 ± 1.9 mg TAE/g extract, 30.48 ± 0.7 mg CE/g extract, respectively) were reported from acetone extract of the leaves. Ethanolic fruit extract showed the highest TTC (13.79 ± 0.2 mg CE/g extract). Acetone and acetonitrile fruit extract revealed maximum TTEC (602.79 ± 3.5 mg UAE/g extract) and moderate TAC (19.96 ± 0.9 mg GE/g extract), respectively. In AOX, highest DPPH (50.52 ± 0.03 mg AAE/g extract) and ABTS (26.78 ± 0.03 mg TE/g extract) radical scavenging reported in methanolic extract of fruit; however, acetone extract of leaf showed highest FRAP (376.89 ± 1.95 mg Fe(II)/g extract) and PMA (326.54 ± 4.73 mg AAE/g extract). In contrast, aqueous extract of leaf and fruit revealed highest metal chelating activity (41.67 ± 0.49 mg EDTA/g extract). In anti-diabetic studies, acetonitrile extract of leaves and fruits exhibited appreciable inhibition of α-amylase (83.33%) and α-glycosidase (77.42%) enzymes. Similarly, acetyl cholinesterase (AChE) inhibition was highest in water (88.91%) and acetone (81.87%) extracts of leaf and fruits. Fruit extracts showed potent anticancer activity against breast (MCF-7) and colon (HT-29) cancer cell lines (LC50 329.36 and 385.17 µg/mL, respectively). RP-HPLC analysis revealed highest cucurbitacin B (CuB) (196.24 ± 1.4 mg/g DW), followed by cucurbitacin I (CuI) and cucurbitacin E (CuE) in the fruits (57.14 ± 4.9 and 2.03 ± 0.03 mg/g DW, respectively). RP-HPLC analysis of extracts revealed presence of gallic acid (GA), catechin (CA), vanillic acid (VA), chlorogenic acid (CHLA) and coumaric acid (COA), in which highest GA found in the fruits (1.26 ± 0.07 mg/g DW). Liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis revealed presence of bioactive compounds from various groups. Based on the present findings, it was revealed that the fruit and leaf of L. echinata can be used as potent bioresource for natural antioxidants, anti-diabetic, and anticancer drug.

Screening the elite chemotypes of Gloriosa superba L. in India for the production of anticancer colchicine: simultaneous microwave-assisted extraction and HPTLC studies

BACKGROUND

Gloriosa superba L. (Colchicaceae) is a high-value medicinal plant indigenous to Africa and Southeast Asia. Its therapeutic benefits are well-established in traditional medicines including Ayurveda. It is well known for its natural bioactive compound colchicine which exhibits a wide range of pharmacological activities i.e. rheumatism, gout and was also introduced into clinical practices. The increasing demand as well as its illegal harvesting has brought this valuable plant under threatened category.

METHODS

The present investigation describes a microwave assisted extraction (MAE) strategy coupled with a densitometric-high performance thin layer chromatographic (HPTLC) methodology for the analysis of colchicine from 32 different populations of G. superba. A Box-Behnken statistical design (3 level factor) has been employed to optimize MAE, in which power of microwave, time of irradiation, aqueous ethanol and pH were used as independent variables whereas colchicine was used as the dependent variables. Chromatography was carried out on Silica gel 60 F₂₅₄ TLC plates with toluene: methanol, 85:15 (v/v) being used as solvent system. Densitometric measurement was performed at λ=254 nm following post-derivatization (10% methanolic sulphuric acid).

RESULTS

Optimal conditions for extraction to obtain the maximum colchicine yield was found to be 7.51 mg g^- 1 which was very close to be predicted response 7.48 mg g^- 1 by maintaining microwave power (460 W), irradiation time (6.4 min), aqueous ethanol-30, pH -3. Colchicine content ranged between 2.12-7.58 mg g^- 1 among 32 G. superba populations in which only three chemotypes viz. GS- 1, GS- 3, and GS- 2 collected from West Bengal and Sikkim, respectively exhibited maximum yield of colchicine.

CONCLUSION

Therefore, this newly developed optimized MAE coupled with HPTLC densitometry methodology not only quantifies colchicine in order to identify elite chemotypes of G. superba, but it also encourages in selecting high yielding populations of the plants for industrial use and economic boost for the farmers. This validated, simple and reproducible HPTLC protocol is being used for the first time to estimate colchicine from natural populations of G. superba obtained from 32 different geographical regions of India.

Food grade safflower concentrate: No evidence for reproduction and early developmental toxicity

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) petals have been used for centuries as a spice, in tea blends and in traditional Asian medicine. Aqueous extracts of Safflower petals have been used as a colouring food over the last 30 years due to their bright colour. Publications in the past raised concerns about fertility impairing, maternal toxicity, fetotoxic and teratogenic properties in rodents. As the tested extracts were poorly characterized and the studies were not performed according to guidelines, a need for further evaluation was seen. In silico predictions for the main pigments provided negative results for bacterial mutagenicity. Further, in vitro genotoxicity and in vivo reproductive toxicity studies of a well-characterized aqueous safflower concentrate generated more relevant data for risk assessment of its use in food. In vitro AMES tests and a mouse lymphoma cell assay were negative. An OECD guideline 421 screening study was performed in rats with oral daily doses of up to 1000 mg/kg bodyweight, applied via gavage to simulate a bolus effect. The highest dose reflected a toxicological limit test. The study did not give indications of general toxicity, did not show any effect on fertility and reproduction nor any effect on prenatal development and, also in contrast to previous results, treatment did not affect estradiol and FSH levels. Furthermore, pups raised until PND 14-16, developed normally with no adverse effects observed. With the established NOAEL of at least 1000 mg/kg/d, a considerable margin of exposure is achieved when compared with human intake estimates.

Vertical exposition to Luffa operculata extract deregulates behavior and hypothalamus neurotransmitters in juvenile rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Luffa operculata (L.) Cogn (Cucurbitaceae) is a traditional plant popularly used in the abortion induction, against sinusitis and is toxic.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To verify the influence of the aqueous extract obtained from the dry fruit of L. operculata (BNE) on the male rats vertically exposed to a subabortive dose of BNE, by evaluating alterations in behavior and neurochemical features in hypothalamus, striatum and frontal cortex, at a juvenile age, after receiving a stress challenge given by the use of the "New York subway stress" technique (NYS).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Pregnant female rats (F0 generation) received 1.0 mg/kg BNE, or distilled water (100 mL/kg), by gavage, between gestation days GD17 and GD21. The pups were weaned at PND21 and were kept up to PND60 (juvenile age) in controlled environmental conditions. Four groups were obtained: control (CG), experimental (EG), stress control (SCG) and stress experimental (SEG) After being stressed, the animals were behavioral screened for in the open field (OF) and in light-dark box (LDB) apparatuses. They were euthanized, and the liver, kidneys and brain were removed for both macroscopic and microscopic analyses, and for quantification of vanillylmandelic acid (VMA), norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA) and its metabolite, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) and the serotonin (5-HT) and its metabolite 5-hydroxyindolylacetic acid (5-HIAA) were accessed in the hypothalamus, frontal cortex and striatum.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

although most of the behavior changes were due to the stress challenge, the rats spent more time in the dark side of the LDB and were less likely to explore the light side, indicating that the treatment with BNE induced to fear. Interferences of BNE over behavior were due to impairment of VMA, NE, 5-HT and DA and increasing of DOPAC in the hypothalamus, and an increase of 5-HIAA in the frontal cortex, indicating alterations in the hypothalamic-hypophysis-adrenal axis (HHAA). No macroscopic or histopathological changes were observed in the liver, kidneys, or brain, although GFAP was diminished in the SCG, as expected for stressed rats.

CONCLUSION

the vertical exposition of juvenile rats to BNE led to the manifestation of fear and to a down regulation of the hypothalamic-hypophysis-adrenal axis.

Reproductive Toxicity of Theobroma cacao: Increase in Survival Index, Nongenotoxic, and Proimplantation Potential

Unsweetened natural cocoa (UNCP) was evaluated for reproductive toxicity in rats. A preliminary genotoxic potential was evaluated by the DNA comet assay test using C57Bl/6 mice. Both therapeutic dose (TD; 900 mg/kg) and high dose (HD; 9000 mg/kg) of UNCP were used. White Wistar rats were used in two experimental groups. The females received UNCP 15 days before crossing with untreated males. The males received UNCP for 48 days before mating with untreated females. Subacute toxicity was observed during a 14-day oral administration of UNCP. Results show that a high tail DNA% was observed with methyl mesylate administration in all tissues analysed. The lowest tail DNA% value was observed in the liver (1.64 ± 0.26) and kidney (1.63 ± 0.30) during UNCP (TD) administration. UNCP did not induce observable physical congenital malformations on the pubs of treated female and male rats, lacks genotoxic potential, and did not adversely affect pregnancy index, pub weights, and survival index, but UNCP exhibited proimplantation potential (p > 0.05).

Role of Antioxidant Natural Products in Management of Infertility: A Review of Their Medicinal Potential

Infertility, a couple's inability to conceive after one year of unprotected regular intercourse, is an important issue in the world. The use of natural products in the treatment of infertility has been considered as a possible alternative to conventional therapies. The present study aimed to investigate the effects and the mechanisms of various natural products on infertility. We collected articles regarding infertility and natural products using the research databases PubMed and Google Scholar. Several natural products possess antioxidant properties and androgenic activities on productive factors and hormones. Antioxidants are the first defense barrier against free radicals produced by oxidative stress (OS). They remove reactive oxygen stress (ROS), reducing insulin resistance, total cholesterol, fat accumulation, and cancer growth. Moreover, various natural products increase endometrial receptivity and fertility ability showing androgenic activities on productive factors and hormones. For example, Angelica keiskei powder and Astragalus mongholicus extract showed anti-infertility efficacies in males and females, respectively. On the other hand, adverse effects and acute toxicity of natural products were also reported. Tripterygium glycoside decreased fertility ability both in males and females. Results indicate that management of infertility with natural products could be beneficial with further clinical trials to evaluate the safety and effect.

Evaluation of Abortifacient Effect of Rumex nepalensis Spreng Among Pregnant Swiss Albino Rats: Laboratory-Based Study

Background

Rumex nepalensis Spreng (Amharic: Yewsha Tult) belongs to the Polygonaceae (buckwheat) family. In Ethiopia, the plant is traditionally used for the treatment of stomach ache, tonsillitis, ascariasis, uterine bleeding, etc. An ethnobotanical study from Mizan–Tepi University also reported the use of the plant by “Shekicho” people as an abortifacient. As a result, this study aimed at the assessment of the outcome of hydro-ethanolic leaves extract of R. nepalensis on Swiss albino pregnant rats and confirm its abortifacient activity.

Methods

The hydro-alcoholic leaves extract of Rumex nepalensis Spreng was evaluated for its abortifacient activity in Swiss albino rats. The mature female rats were mated overnight to male rats in mating cages. Two different dosage regimens (300 mg/kg, 600 mg/kg) of the extract were administered. Laparotomy was performed on the rats to assess the uterus and ovary, the viable, non-viable, adsorbing sites, and corpora lutea. Differences between the experimental and control groups were compared using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Dunnett’s T-test to determine their level of significance.

Results and Discussion

This study revealed that Rumex nepalensis Spreng had anti-implantation and abortifacient activities at both 300 and 600 mg/kg doses, which was statistically significant as compared with the controls. It was relatively safe up to the dose of 5000 mg/kg, where no mortality and organ toxicity were manifested. Phytochemicals identified were alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, steroids, and anthraquinones.

Conclusion

In general, our study showed that R. nepalensis had a significant abortifacient activity that testifies its traditional dibs. Therefore, the use of this plant should be avoided in pregnant women to minimize unintended abortion and further studies are needed to know its mechanism of activity and to identify the phytochemicals corresponding to this activity. Checking its efficacy on other species is also needed.

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A review of traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of the genus Indigofera

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Indigofera is the third-largest genus in the family of Fabaceae, with approximately 750 species. It is distributed across all tropical regions. Indigofera species are widely employed in traditional medicine all around the world, against many ailments. Thus, based on these medicinal properties, various investigations have been undertaken in order to appraise the pharmacological activities and the chemical composition of these species. A recent paper provides a summary of the phytochemistry and pharmacology of the genus Indigofera. Consequently, this review is a continuation of this previous study by updating some data and adding information about the phylogeny and traditional uses of the genus.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To provide an overview of the phylogeny, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicity of the genus Indigofera, and to identify the remaining gaps and thus supply a basis for further investigations.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A review of the literature was performed by consulting scientific databases such as 'ScienceDirect', 'PubMed', 'Google Scholar' and 'SpringerLink' and using the keyword Indigofera.

RESULTS

Over 60 Indigofera species are reported in traditional medicine. The uses depend on the country and the species, but similarities have been noticed. Indeed, treatments of gastrointestinal disorders, inflammatory conditions and pain, skin ailments, and respiratory and infectious diseases are recurring. Phytochemical studies have led to the identification of more than 200 compounds, notably flavonoids and terpenoids. Many pharmacological activities have been demonstrated, particularly antimicrobial, cytotoxic and anti-inflammatory activities, and thus allowed to assert most of the traditional uses of the genus. Some active compounds have been isolated and have shown remarkable therapeutic potential, like the alkaloid indirubin, which is currently being clinically trialed.

CONCLUSIONS

The data on the genus Indigofera are extensive, but gaps still remain. Indeed, some promising species have not been assessed for their phytochemistry and/or pharmacology and thus remain unexplored. Moreover, relatively few active compounds have been isolated and tested for their biological activity, and studies to explain their mechanism of action are nearly inexistent. Furthermore, some pharmacological studies have inappropriate methodologies that make the results difficult to interpret. Consequently, further in-depth and relevant research is required to supplement the knowledge on this wide-ranging genus and to confirm its reported therapeutic potential.

Pharmacological and Therapeutic Aspects of Plants from the Genus Ferula: A Comprehensive Review

Inspired by nature, humankind has been able to attain significant achievements in the drug and food industries. Particularly, medicinal plants are a rich source of medicinal, cosmetic, sanitary, and aromatic substances. Genus Ferula from the Apiaceae family is a plant genus that possesses over 170 species, which have been carefully documented with regard to their medicinal properties. Ferula spp. affects many body organs, and their respective functions, in humans, such as the immune system, gastrointestinal tract, genitourinary, endocrine, respiratory, cardiovascular, nervous system, bone (skeleton), and teeth. In spite of the benefits, ferulosis (Ferula toxicity) is an important aspect of Ferula consumption in humans and animals. Hemorrhagic problems and infertility are important signs of ferulosis. In this review, we have described all of the effects of the active ingredients of Ferula spp. and their mechanisms of actions, when known, based on an extensive literature review. Thus, our review opens a window of the benefits of Ferula as a phyto-pharmaceutical and its therapeutic applications in pharmacy, dentistry, and medicine.

Neutralization of cholera toxin by Rosaceae family plant extracts

BACKGROUND

Cholera is one of the most deadly diarrheal diseases that require new treatments. We investigated the neutralization of cholera toxin by five plant extracts obtained from the Rosaceae family that have been traditionally used in Poland to treat diarrhea (of unknown origin).

METHODS

Hot water extracts were prepared from the dried plant materials and lyophilized before phytochemical analysis and assessment of antimicrobial activity using microdilution assays. The ability of the plant extracts to neutralize cholera toxin was analyzed by measurement of cAMP levels in cell cultures, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and electrophoresis, as well as flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy studies of fluorescent-labeled cholera toxins with cultured human fibroblasts.

RESULTS

The antimicrobial assays displayed modest bacteriostatic potentials. We found that the plant extracts modulate the effects of cholera toxin on intracellular cAMP levels. Three plant extracts (Agrimonia eupatoria L., Rubus fruticosus L., Fragaria vesca L.) suppressed the binding of subunit B of cholera toxin to the cell surface and immobilized ganglioside GM₁ while two others (Rubus idaeus L., Rosa.canina L.) interfered with the toxin internalization process.

CONCLUSIONS

The traditional application of the Rosaceae plant infusions for diarrhea appears relevant to cholera, slowing the growth of pathogenic bacteria and either inhibiting the binding of cholera toxin to receptors or blocking toxin internalization. The analyzed plant extracts are potential complements to standard antibiotic treatment and Oral Rehydration Therapy for the treatment of cholera.

Medicinal plants used for contraception in South Africa: A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The indigenous people of South Africa, such as the Khoisan, Zulu, and Ndebele, have used medicinal plants for contraception. One of the reasons for using contraception among indigenous communities is for child spacing.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The study aims to review medicinal plants used for contraception in South Africa as potential sources for the discovery and development of safe male and female hormonal contraceptives.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A literature search was conducted on medicinal plants used for contraception in South Africa by referencing textbooks and scientific databases such as Google Scholar, Science Direct, PubMed, North-West University Institutional Repository, National ETD Portal, government policies and documents on contraception, theses and dissertations, and other web sources such as records from SANBI and PROTA.

RESULTS

A minimum of 25 medicinal plants were identified as being used for contraception in South Africa, and these plants included local and exotic plants. Medicinal plants with contraceptive activity are Bulbine latifolia, Pouzolzia mixta, Salsola tuberculatiformis, Securidaca longipedunculata, and Typha capensis. In vivo and in vitro studies showed a decrease in mount, intromission and ejaculatory frequencies, inhibition of implantation, contraceptive effect, displaced glucocorticoids, and prolonged diestrus or had negative effects on vitality, motility, and sperm production.

CONCLUSIONS

Some of the plants used for contraception in South Africa are toxic to both animals and humans. Research is needed focusing on medicinal plants used by men for contraception and by women for postcoital contraception in South Africa. Traditional healers must be included when drafting contraception policies and interventions. Medicinal plants such as B. latifolia and P. mixta demonstrated that medicinal plants used for contraception in South Africa are potential sources for the discovery and development of safe male and female hormonal contraceptives.

Sesquiterpene lactones from Ambrosia arborescens Mill. inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokine expression and modulate NF-κB signaling in human skin cells

BACKGROUND

Ambrosia arborescens has been used in Andean traditional medicine to reduce problems associated with various inflammatory diseases and conditions, although the underlying mechanism is unknown.

HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE

The sesquiterpene lactones (SLs) coronopilin and damsin, which are major secondary metabolites of A. arborescens, have anti-inflammatory activity by attenuation of IL-6 and MCP-1 expression and inhibition of NF-κB in human dermal fibroblasts (HDFa) and human keratinocytes (HaCaT).

STUDY DESIGN

In order to confirm a high concentration of damsin and coronopilin in the plant material, a quantitative method was developed. The effect of the pure compounds on cytokine and NF-κB expression was examined, as well as their effects on HDFa and HaCaT cell morphology and viability.

METHODS

Coronopilin and damsin were quantified by HPLC-DAD analysis, from EtOAc extracts of the aerial parts of A. arborescens. Cell morphology was investigated by phase-contrast microscopy and cell viability by the MTT assay. IL-6 and MCP-1 cytokine gene expression was assessed by quantitative real-time RT-PCR in LPS stimulated cells. The NF-κB pathway was studied through western blotting of the phosphorylated forms of p65 and p50/p105, as well as the non-phosphorylated IκB. Dexamethasone was used as positive control.

RESULTS

Dry aerial parts contained 12.3  mg/g and 13.4  mg/g of coronopilin and damsin, respectively. Treatment with either compound (1-10 µM) for 24  h attenuated LPS-induced mRNA expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-6 and the chemokine MCP-1 in HDFa cells. The down-regulation of MCP-1 mRNA induced by coronopilin and damsin was confirmed on the protein level. Damsin reduced phosphorylated p65 and p105 subunits in HDFa cells. Neither coronopilin nor damsin affected HDFa cell morphology and viability within the used concentration range (1-10 µM). Also, in HaCaT cells, treatment with damsin (1-10 µM) for 24  h inhibited the MCP-1 expression, and damsin thereby attenuated cytokine expression both in HDFa and HaCaT cells.

CONCLUSION

We show that coronopilin and damsin from A. arborescens inhibit pro-inflammatory IL-6 and MCP-1 expression in human skin cells via NF-κB inhibition, suggesting that they may be useful for antagonizing inflammatory conditions of the human skin.

Pregnancy and herbal medicines: An unnecessary risk for women's health-A narrative review

The indiscriminate use of herbal medicines to prevent or to heal diseases or even the use for questionable purposes such as weight loss has received both interest and scrutiny from the scientific community and general public alike. An increasing number of women put their own and the unborn child's health at risk due to a lack of knowledge about the phytochemical properties and adequate use of herbal medicine (phytomedicines or herbal supplements) and lack of communication with their healthcare provider. The purpose of this narrative review was to summarize the use of herbal medicines during pregnancy and their potential toxic effects to highlight the importance of caution when prescribing herbal medicines or supplements for women, because, in addition to suffering interactions and a great amount of information obtained in preclinical predictive studies, assessment of nephrotoxicity, neurotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, genotoxicity, and teratogenicity of traditional medicinal herbs still remains scarce in the clinical setting.

Podophyllotoxin Extracted from Juniperus sabina Fruit Inhibits Rat Sperm Maturation and Fertility by Promoting Epididymal Epithelial Cell Apoptosis

This study aimed to investigate the antifertility effect of Juniperus sabina fruit on male rats and its possible mechanism, and hence it might be developed as a potential nonhormonal male contraceptive. Male rats were intragastrically fed for consecutive 8-week and 4-week recovery with the fruit of J. Sabina, and sperm maturation, serum testosterone level, and histopathology were analyzed. Epididymal epithelial cell culture was prepared for detection of podophyllotoxin activities. Furthermore, cell proliferation, transmission electron microscopy, Annexin V/Propidium iodide, TUNEL, RT-PCR, ELISA, and western blotting were examined. The results showed that rat sperm motility and fertility were remarkably declined after feeding the fruit. Moreover, the fruit targeted the epididymis rather than the testis. After 4-week recovery, more than half of the male rats resumed normal fertility. It was found that podophyllotoxin significantly inhibited epididymal epithelial cell proliferation, promoted cell apoptosis, and increased the mRNA and protein levels of TNF-α and the expression levels of cytochrome c, caspase-8, caspase-9, and caspase-3. Our findings suggest that the fruit of J. sabina could inhibit male rat sperm maturation and fertility. The potential mechanism might be related to podophyllotoxin, inducing epididymal epithelial cell apoptosis through TNF-α and caspase signaling pathway.

Antimicrobial activity, toxicity and anti-inflammatory potential of methanolic extracts of four ethnomedicinal plant species from Punjab, Pakistan

Background

The plant species Aristolochia indica (AI), Melilotus indicus (MI), Tribulus terrestris (TT) and Cuscuta pedicellata (CP) are widely used in folk medicine in the villages around Chowk Azam, South Punjab, Pakistan. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antioxidant activity, phytochemical composition, and the antibacterial, antifungal, cytotoxic and anti-inflammatory potential of the four medicinal plants listed above.

For CP stem, this study represents (to the best of our knowledge) the first time phytochemicals have been identified and the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential determined.

Methods

Phytochemicals were analyzed through chemical tests, thin layer chromatography (TLC) and spectrophotometric methods. Antioxidant activities (DPPH and H₂O₂) were also determined through spectrophotometric methods. Extracts were evaluated for antibacterial potential via the agar well diffusion method against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia and Acinetobacter baumannii. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) were determined by the microdilution method. Antifungal activities were tested using the agar tube dilution method against three species: Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus flavus and Rhizopus oryzae. The cytotoxic potential of the plant extracts was checked using the brine shrimp assay. In vitro anti-inflammatory activity of the selected plant extracts was evaluated using albumin denaturation, membrane stabilization and proteinase inhibitory assays.

Results

Of all the methanolic extracts tested, those from CP (stem) and TTF (T. terrestris fruit) had the highest phenolic, flavonoid and flavonol contents (497±4 mg GAE/g, 385±8 mg QE/g and 139±4 mg QE/g; 426±5 mg GAE/g, 371±8 mg QE/g and 138±6 mg QE/g, respectively) and also exhibited strong antioxidant potential in scavenging DPPH and hydrogen peroxide (IC₅₀ values; 20±1 and 18±0.7 μg/mL; 92±2 and 26±2 μg/mL, respectively). CP, TTF and TTL (T. terrestris leaf) extracts substantially inhibited the growth of the bacteria A. baumannii, S. aureus, and K. pneumonia and also exhibited the highest antifungal potential. The ranking of the plant extracts for cytotoxicity was TTF > TTL > AI > CP > MI, while the ranking for in vitro anti-inflammatory potential at a concentration of 200 μg/mL of the selected plant extracts was CP > TTL, TTF > AI > MI. The lowest IC₅₀ (28 μg/mL) observed in the albumin denaturation assay was for CP. Positive correlations were observed between total phenolics, antioxidants, antibacterial, antifungal and anti-inflammatory potential of the selected plant extracts, indicating a significant contribution of phenolic compounds in the plant extracts to these activities.

Conclusions

This study revealed the strong antimicrobial, antioxidant, cytotoxic and anti-inflammatory potential of the plant species CP and TT used in folk medicine.

Viburnum opulus L.: A remedy for the treatment of endometriosis demonstrated by rat model of surgically-induced endometriosis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Endometriosis is a gynecological disorder characterized by the presence of endometrial tissue outside the uterine cavity. The fruits of Viburnum opulus L. have been used to treat gynecological disorders including primary and secondary dysmenorrhea and ovarian cysts.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Air-dried and powdered fruits of V. opulus were extracted sequentially with n-hexane, ethyl acetate (EtOAc), and methanol (MeOH), respectively for four days. Endometriosis was induced by suturing 15mm piece of endometrium into abdominal wall of Sprague Dawley rats. In second laparotomy, the dimensions of endometrial implants were measured and intra-abdominal adhesions were scored. The abdomen was closed. Extracts were daily administered to the rats. At the end of the experiment, rats were sacrified and endometriotic foci areas and intra-abdominal adhesions were re-evaluated. The tissues were also histopathologically investigated. Furthermore, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels of peritoneal fluid were measured. HPLC analyses were conducted on the most potent EtOAc and MeOH extracts to determine the amount of the major compound, chlorogenic acid.

RESULTS

The endometriotic volumes were found to be reduced significantly in the EtOAc extract-administered group to 30.1mm³ and in the MeOH extract-administered group to 34.7mm³ as compared to the control group. No adhesion was observed in the reference and EtOAc groups. Histopathological data also supported the results. Both EtOAc and MeOH extract-administered groups displayed significant remission in the levels of TNF-α, VEGF and IL-6. When the active extracts were subjected to HPLC analysis, chlorogenic acid was found to be the major compound and the amount of this compound was calculated as 0.5112±0.0012mg and 1.7072±0.0277mg/100mg extract, repectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of the present study indicate that the effectiveness of the fruit extract of V. opulus could be partially attributed chlorogenic acid. Other phenolic compounds could potentiate the activity due to their amount.

Antifertility activity of Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum leaf in female Sprague-Dawley rat

OBJECTIVES

Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum. (Apocynaceae) is known to possess cardioactive glycoside such as thevetin A, thevetin B, neriifolin, peruvoside, thevetoxin, and ruvoside. Traditionally, T. peruviana leaves are used as abortifacient. The aim of the present study is to evaluate antifertility potential of T. peruviana leaves.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Cardiac glycoside freed leaves of T. peruviana were extracted with methanol using maceration method. The dried cardiac glycoside-free methanolic extract of T. peruviana leaves (TPL-Me-G) was screened for phytoconstituents and evaluated for its effect on estrogen-primed female Sprague-Dawley rat uterus model. It was further studied for effects on the estrous cycle, implantation, and effect on estrogen and progesterone.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS USED

Statistical analysis was done by ANOVA followed by Dunnett's t-test.

RESULTS

Alkaloids, flavonoids, essential oils, carbohydrates, and amino acids were found to be present in the glycoside-free extract. Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) in n-butanol: acetone: water (4:1:5) revealed the presence of quercetin and kaempferol. The presence of flavonoids (quercetin 0.0326% and kaempferol 0.138% on dry weight basis) was reconfirmed by high-performance TLC analysis. The extract was able to induce uterine contractions (EC50, 0.170 mg/ml) in a dose-dependent manner. Further investigation showed significant (P < 0.001) extension of estrous cycle and anti-implantation activity of the extract by reduction of the progesterone level.

CONCLUSIONS

Methanolic extract of T. peruviana leaves (TPL-Me-G) containing quercetin 0.0326% and kaempferol 0.138% possesses a significant (P < 0.001) antifertility potential by virtue of decreasing the progesterone level.

Assessment of an aqueous seed extract of Parkia clappertoniana on reproductive performance and toxicity in rodents

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The seeds of Parkia clappertoniana Keay (Family: Fabaceae) are extensively used in food in the form of a local condiment called 'Dawadawa' in Ghana and consumed by all class of people including sensitive groups such as pregnant women and children. Also, crudely pounded preparations of P. clappertoniana seeds are used as labor inducing agent in farm animals by local farmers across northern Ghana where nomadism is the livelihood of most indigenes. Ecologically, P. clappertoniana is extensively distributed across the savannah ecological zone of many African countries where just like Ghana it enjoys ethnobotanical usage. Although, many studies have investigated some aspects of the pharmacological activity of P. clappertoniana, none of these studies focused on the reproductive system, particularly its effects on reproductive performance and toxicity. To contribute, this study assessed the effect of aqueous seed extract of P. clappertoniana (PCE) on reproductive performance and toxicity in Sprague-Dawley rats and ICR mice.

METHODS

After preparation of PCE, it was then tested on rodents at different gestational and developmental windows (1-7, 8-14, and 15-term gestational days) to assess the following: mating behavior, implantation rate, maternal and developmental toxicities. Generally, animals were randomly grouped into five and treated as follows: normal saline group (5ml/kg po), cytotec (misoprostol) group (200mg/kg po), folic acid group (5mg/kg po), and PCE groups (100, 200, and 500mg/kg po), however, these groupings were varied to suit the specific requirements of some parameters. For acute toxicity, animals were orally administered PCE (3 and 5g/kg for mice and rats respectively).

RESULTS

PCE-treated rats showed improved mating behavior compared to control rats. PCE improved implantation rate compared to misoprostol-treated rats. On the average, PCE-treated rats delivered termed live pubs at 21 days compared to that of folic acid-treated rats at 23 days. Also, PCE-treated rats showed no observable maternal and developmental toxicities compared to folic acid and control rats. PCE (3-5g/kg po) was orally tolerated in rodents.

CONCLUSION

Oral administration of Parkia clappertoniana seed extract improves reproductive performance in rodents with no observable maternal and developmental toxicity.

The toxicological effect of Ruta graveolens extract in Siamese fighting fish: a behavioral and histopathological approach

The effects of pharmacological waste on aquatic ecosystems are increasingly highlighted in ecotoxicology research. Many of these products are designed for human physiology but owing to the conservative nature of vertebrate evolution they also tend to have effects on aquatic organisms and fishes in particular when they find their way into aquatic systems via wastewater effluent. One area of research has focused on reproductive control and the associated hormone treatments. Many of these hormones affect the reproductive physiology of fishes and may cause feminization of male reproductive traits. Alternative medicines have also been widely used particularly in traditional cultures but few of these alternative treatments have been assessed with respect to their potential impact on aquatic ecosystems. Rue (Ruta graveolens) has been used as a male contraceptive in traditional medicines but its effects on fish behavior and reproductive anatomy have yet to be established. Here we show that treating Siamese fighting fish, Betta splendens, with extract of rue has a significant effect on key aggressive/reproductive behaviors and the propensity to explore novel objects (boldness). In all cases the respective behaviors were reduced relative to controls and sham injected fish. Histological analysis of the testes revealed that rue exposure reduced the number of spermatozoa but increased the number of spermatocytes relative to controls.

Abortifacient potential of methanolic extract of Anthocephalus cadamba stem bark in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Medicinal plants possessing abortifacient activity have been used traditionally for a long time in folk medicine. Anthocephalus cadamba, is one such herb that has been known to possess abortifacient potential in ethnobotanical literature, but has not been validated scientifically.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The methanolic extract of Anthocephalus cadamba stem bark (MEAC) was prepared and tested for abortifacient, estrogenic and uterotrophic activity. Pregnant Swiss albino mice were randomized into 5 groups (1-5). Group 1 (negative control) received 0.2% w/v agar, group 2-4 (received extract at the dose of 500, 1000 and 1500mg/kg b.w.) and group 5 received mifepristone at a dose of 5.86mg/kg b.w. respectively, by oral route from 10(th) to 18(th) day post-coitum daily, and various parameters recorded. The uterotrophic bioassay was performed in bilaterally ovariectomized mice dosed from 9(th) to 15(th) day of ovariectomy and change in uterotrophic parameters was observed.

RESULTS

Preliminary phytochemical screening revealed presence of glycosides, alkaloids, steroids, saponins, triterpenoids, flavonoids and tannins. No signs of clinical toxicity were observed at any time during the period of treatment. The extract significantly reduced (P<0.05) the number of live fetus, weight and survival ratio of the fetus, number of corpora lutea, progesterone, estradiol and luteinizing hormone whereas the number of dead fetus, number of mice that aborted, percentage vaginal opening and post-implantation loss increased significantly (P<0.05). The estrogenicity experiments showed increase in uterine weight (P<0.05), ballooning of uterus, uterine glucose (P<0.05) and ALP (P<0.001) in extract treated group dose dependently. In addition, the extract also induced vaginal bleeding preceding parturition.

CONCLUSION

This study has substantiated the abortifacient potential of the methanolic extract of Anthocephalus cadamba stem bark. The activity was more marked in 1000 and 1500mg/kg b.w. of the extract and was comparable to that of mifepristone. The mechanism of abortion could possibly be through changes in the uterine mileu, altered hormone levels, luteolysis and partly, estrogenicity. This study thus justifies the ethnobotanical claim of MEAC as an abortifacient.

Effects of Heliopsis longipes ethanolic extract on mouse spermatozoa in vitro

CONTEXT

Heliopsis longipes (A. Gray) Blake (Asteraceae), a plant native to Mexico, is used in traditional medicine as analgesic and microbicide. The main component in the H. longipes ethanolic extract (HLEE) is affinin, as determined by HPLC/UV-visible and NMR measurement. To date, there is no documented evidence on the spermicidal activity of this extract.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to assess in vitro the effectiveness of HLEE as spermicide.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The spermicidal activity of HLEE was evaluated by the Sander-Cramer assay. Spermatozoa were incubated for 20 s with HLEE in concentrations ranging from 75 to 2000 µg/mL to determine the minimum effective concentration (MEC) value. The 50% effective concentration (EC50) of HLEE was estimated by assaying serial dilutions from the MEC. Additionally, sperms were incubated with 125, 250, or 500 µg/mL of HLEE to evaluate the viability and the integrity of sperm membrane. Lipid peroxidation was assessed by the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances assay.

RESULTS

HLEE caused an inhibition of 100% in spermatozoa motility at a MEC value of 2000 µg/mL; the EC50 value was 125 µg/mL. Additionally, exposure to HLEE at 125, 250, or 500 µg/mL for 30 min decreased sperm viability to 27%, 8%, and 2% of the control value, respectively, and significantly increased the percentage of sperms with structurally disorganized membrane. HLEE also increased significantly the level of lipid peroxidation in sperms with respect to controls.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The results demonstrate the spermicidal activity of HLEE in vitro and suggest that this action is caused by oxidative damage and alterations in the spermatozoal membrane.

Medicinal plants from the genus Acalypha (Euphorbiaceae)--a review of their ethnopharmacology and phytochemistry

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Acalypha is the fourth largest genus of the Euphorbiaceae family with approximately 450-570 species. Several Acalypha species are used as medicinal plants in Africa and in the Mascarene Islands. Almost every part of the plant including the leaves, stem and roots are used as traditional remedies to treat and manage a panoply of ailments. However, there is no updated compilation of traditionally important medicinal plants from the Acalypha genus. The present review therefore, endeavors to provide for the first time an updated compilation of documented ethnopharmacological information in relation to the ethnomedicinal, ethnoveterinary, zoopharmacognosy, phytochemistry and biological activities of medicinal plants from the Acalypha genus which can subsequently open new perspectives for further pharmacological research.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A literature search was performed on Acalypha species using ethnobotanical text books and scientific databases such as Pubmed, Scopus, EBSCO, Google Scholar and other web sources such as records from PROTA, PROSEA, and Botanical Dermatology Database. The Plant List, International Plant Name index and Kew Botanical Garden Plant name databases were used to validate scientific names.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Plants from Acalypha genus are traditionally used in the treatment and/or management of diverse ailments such as diabetes, jaundice, hypertension, fever, liver inflammation, schistosomiasis, dysentery, respiratory problems including bronchitis, asthma and pheumonia as well as skin conditions such as scabies, eczema and mycoses. Approximately 124 species were listed in ethnobotanical studies with some botanical description and others mentioned from different web sources. However, only 40 species have been included in the present review due to the unavailability of ethnopharmacological data on the remaining species. Among the 40 cited species, 30 were traditionally used for the treatment and/or management of approximately 70 human diseases or health conditions. Two species, Acalypha alnifolia and Acalypha fruticosa are used as insecticides and sand fly repellent respectively. Only 2 species (Acalypha fruticosa and Acalypha indica) are used in ethnoveterinary practice and have similar human and veterinary applications. In zoopharmacognosy, only Acalypha ornata has been mentioned. Natives from Africa, Central America, North America, Southern China, India, Bangladesh, Papua New Guinea and Mascarenes islands utilize Acalypha species as ethnomedicine. Traditionally used Acalypha species have been reported to possess at least one of the following biological activities: antimicrobial, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, larvidal, pupicidal, hepatoprotective, anticancer, leishmanicidal, antihyperglycemic, antihypertensive, anti-venom, analgesic, anthelmintic, antiemetic, laxative, expectorant, diuretic, post-coital antifertility effects and wound healing. A total of 167 compounds have been identified from 19 species, with 16 from eight species were reported to be bioactive.

CONCLUSION

The present review represents 32.3% of species from the Acalypha genus and can be considered as the first compilation of ethnopharmacologically useful plants from this genus. There is a great potential to discover new biologically active phytochemicals from the Acalypha genus because only few species have been studied comprehensively. Therefore, the clinical evaluation of species from this genus is warranted in future studies to confirm the ethnomedicinal claims and for the safety approval of therapeutic applications.

Influence of soil composition on the major, minor and trace metal content of Velebit biomedical plants

The use of medical herbs for the treatment of many human diseases is increasing nowadays due to their mild features and low side effects. Not only for their healing properties, but also for their nutritive value supplementation of diet with various herbs is recommended. Thus also their analysis is of rising importance. While total elemental compositions are published for many common herbs, the origin of toxic as well as beneficial elements is not yet well investigated. Thus different indigenous medicinal plants, namely Croatian spruce (Picea abies), savory (Satureja montana L.), mountain yarrow (Achillea clavennae), showy calamint (Calamintha grandiflora), micromeria (Micromeria croatica), yellow gentian (Gentiana lutea) and fir (Abies alba) together with soil samples were collected in the National Park Northern Velebit. The macro- and trace elements content, after microwave digestion, was determined by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS). The study focuses on the one hand on essential elements and on the other hand on non-essential elements which are considered as toxic for humans, covering in total Al, As, B, Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Sr and Zn.

Cytotoxic activity evaluation of some medicinal plants, selected from Iranian traditional medicine Pharmacopoeia to treat cancer and related disorders

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

By studying the Iranian Traditional Medicine (ITM) Pharmacopoeia, we have collected information about medicinal plants which had been used to manage cancer-like disorders over eight hundred years, from medieval to the early modern era. Exploring the ITM herbal knowledge, the selected species have been subjected to MTT assay for examining their in vitro cyototoxic activity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cancer was reviewed through the ITM and some terminologies were acquired. Five ITM Pharmacopoeia in Arabic and Persian languages from 10th to 18th century AD were explored. These Pharmacopoeia contained the ITM plants which were used to cure cancer and cancer-like diseases. The ITM names were matched with the scientific names. Then the medicinal plants were collected, authenticated and were evaluated for cytotoxic activity using MTT assay, against MCF-7, HepG-2, A-549 and HT-29 cell lines. Finally, the apoptosis induction ability of the most cytotoxic medicinal plant was investigated by activated caspase 3 inspection in MCF-7 cell line.

RESULTS

Six species of the evaluated medicinal plants revealed cytotoxic activity. The most cytotoxicity was observed in Tanacetum polycephalum subsp. argyrophyllum (K.Koch) Podlech with IC50 values of 28.3 μg mL(-1), 53.9 μg mL(-1) and 43.3 μg mL(-1) against MCF-7, A-549 and HT-29 cell lines, respectively. Caspase 3 activation was also observed in MCF-7 cells by Tanacetum polycephalum subsp. argyrophyllum. This is the first time that the cytotoxic activity of this species has been reported.

CONCLUSION

In the present study, some reliable references of ITM have been introduced and though many technical difficulties, linguistic problems and some other hindrances were encountered during the study, using traditional medicine texts for medicinal plant selection could be considered as a helpful starting point in the field of cancer drug discovery.

Foeniculum vulgare Mill: a review of its botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology, contemporary application, and toxicology

Foeniculum vulgare Mill commonly called fennel has been used in traditional medicine for a wide range of ailments related to digestive, endocrine, reproductive, and respiratory systems. Additionally, it is also used as a galactagogue agent for lactating mothers. The review aims to gather the fragmented information available in the literature regarding morphology, ethnomedicinal applications, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology of Foeniculum vulgare. It also compiles available scientific evidence for the ethnobotanical claims and to identify gaps required to be filled by future research. Findings based on their traditional uses and scientific evaluation indicates that Foeniculum vulgare remains to be the most widely used herbal plant. It has been used for more than forty types of disorders. Phytochemical studies have shown the presence of numerous valuable compounds, such as volatile compounds, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, fatty acids, and amino acids. Compiled data indicate their efficacy in several in vitro and in vivo pharmacological properties such as antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, antinociceptive, antipyretic, antispasmodic, antithrombotic, apoptotic, cardiovascular, chemomodulatory, antitumor, hepatoprotective, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and memory enhancing property. Foeniculum vulgare has emerged as a good source of traditional medicine and it provides a noteworthy basis in pharmaceutical biology for the development/formulation of new drugs and future clinical uses.

Ethnobotany, phytochemistry, and bioactivity of the genus Turnera (Passifloraceae) with a focus on damiana--Turnera diffusa

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Half a dozen of the currently accepted 135 Turnera species are used in traditional medicine, most notably Turnera diffusa Willd. ex Schult. which is one of the most highly appreciated plant aphrodisiacs. Other traditional uses of Turnera L. species include the treatment of anaemia, bronchitis, cough, diabetes, fever, fungal disease, gastrointestinal complaints, pain, pulmonary and respiratory diseases, skin disorders, and women׳s health problems. Additionally, Turnera species are used as abortives, expectorants, and laxatives.

PHYTOCHEMISTRY

Flavonoids (22 different compounds), maltol glucoside, phenolics, cyanogenic glycosides (7 different compounds), monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, triterpenoids, the polyterpene ficaprenol-11, fatty acids, and caffeine have been found in the genus Turnera.

BIOACTIVITY

Bioactivities experimentally proven for members of the genus Turnera encompass antianxiety, antiaromatase, antibacterial including antimycobacterial, antidiabetic, antioxidant, adapatogenic, antiobesity, antispasmodic, cytotoxic, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, and aphrodisiac activities. Most of these activities have so far been investigated only in chemical, cell based, or animal assays. In contrast, the antiobesity activity was also investigated in a study on healthy human subjects and with a herbal preparation containing among other ingredients Turnera diffusa leaves. Moreover, the enhancement of female sexual function was assessed in humans; again the product contained besides Turnera diffusa other potentially bioactive ingredients. However, with only few exceptions, most of the traditional uses and the experimentally verified bioactivities can currently not be related to a particular compound or compound class. A notable exception is the flavonoid apigenin, which was identified animal experiments as the antinociceptive principle of Turnera diffusa.

CONCLUSION

In this review, the current knowledge on ethnobotanical uses of members of the genus Turnera, the secondary metabolites reported from Turnera, and experimentally documented bioactivities from Turnera extracts and pure compounds derived from Turnera extracts are compiled. Moreover, some of the most interesting avenues for future research projects are being discussed briefly. These include in particular the aphrodisiac activity of Turnera diffusa and the antibiotic activity potentiating effect of Turnera ulmifolia L. against aminoglycoside resistant bacteria.

Characterisation of the metabolism of pogostone in vitro and in vivo using liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry

INTRODUCTION

Pogostone possesses potent anti-bacterial and anti-fungal activities and has been used for the quality control of essential oil of Pogostemon cablin. Pogostone is easily absorbed after oral administration but its metabolism in mammals remains elusive.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the metabolic profile of pogostone in vitro and in vivo.

METHODS

High-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC–MS) techniques were employed. Orbitrap MS and ion trap tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) were utilised to analyse the metabolism of pogostone by virtue of the high sensitivity and high selectivity in the measurement. In vitro experiment was carried out using rat liver microsomes while the in vivo study was conducted on rats, which were orally administered with pogostone (80 mg/kg).

RESULTS

In total, three mono-hydroxylated, one di-hydroxylated, one mono-oxygenated, one di-oxygenated metabolite, one hydrolysis and one hydroxy conjugated metabolites were found. In addition hydroxylation was demonstrated to be a major metabolic pathway of pogostone.

CONCLUSION

LC–MS was demonstrated to be a powerful tool for the metabolite identification of pogostone. The tentative identification of metabolites provides an insight for the metabolic clues of pogostone.

Prevalence and factors associated with use of herbal medicine among women attending an infertility clinic in Uganda

Background

Infertility is a public health problem associated with devastating psychosocial consequences. In countries where infertility care is difficult to access, women turn to herbal medicines to achieve parenthood. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and factors associated with herbal medicine use by women attending the infertility clinic.

Methods

This was a cross-sectional study of 260 women attending the infertility clinic at Mulago hospital. The interviewer administered questionnaire comprised socio-demographic characteristics, infertility-related aspects and information on herbal medicine use. The main outcome measure was herbal medicines use for infertility treatment. Determinants of herbal medicine use were assessed using multivariable logistic regression.

Results

The majority (76.2%) of respondents had used herbal medicines for infertility treatment. The mean age of the participants was 28.3 years ± 5.5. Over 80% were married, 59.6% had secondary infertility and 2/3 of the married participants were in monogamous unions. In a multivariable model, the variables that were independently associated with increased use of herbal medicine among infertile patients were being married (OR 2.55, CI 1.24-5.24), never conceived (OR 4.08 CI 1.86-8.96) and infertility for less than 3 years (OR 3.52 CI 1.51-8.821). Factors that were associated with less use of herbal medicine among infertile women were being aged 30 years or less (OR 0.18 CI 0.07-0.46), primary and no education (OR 0.12 CI 0.05-0.46) and living with partner for less than three years (OR 0.39 CI 0.16-0.93).

Conclusions

The prevalence of herbal medicine use among women attending the infertility clinic was 76.2%. Herbal medicine use was associated with the participants’ age, level of education, marital status, infertility duration, nulliparity, and duration of marriage. Medical care was often delayed and the majority of the participants did not disclose use of herbal medicines to the attending physician. Health professionals should enquire about use of herbal medicines. This may help in educating the patients about the health risks of using herbal medicine and may reduce delays in seeking appropriate care. Collaboration of health professionals with herbal medicine practitioners would help identify the common herbal medicines used for infertility treatment, their potential benefits and harm.