Antioxidant, antimicrobial and toxicological properties of Schinus molle L. essential oils

Evidence for the efficacy of anti-inflammatory plants used in Brazilian traditional medicine with ethnopharmacological relevance

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

When exacerbated, inflammatory processes can culminate in physical and emotional disorders and, if not stopped, can be lethal. The high prevalence of inflammation has become a public health problem, and the need for new drugs to treat this pathology is imminent. The use of medicinal plants has emerged as an alternative, and a survey of data that corroborates its application in inflammatory diseases is the starting point. Furthermore, Brazil harbors a megadiversity, and the traditional use of plants is relevant and needs to be preserved and carefully explored for the discovery of new medicines.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This review sought to survey the medicinal plants traditionally used in Brazil for the treatment of inflammatory processes and to perform, in an integrative way, a data survey of these species and analysis of their phytochemical, pharmacological, and molecular approaches.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Brazilian plants that are traditionally used for inflammation (ophthalmia, throat inflammation, orchitis, urinary tract inflammation, ear inflammation, and inflammation in general) are listed in the DATAPLAMT database. This database contains information on approximately 3400 native plants used by Brazilians, which were registered in specific documents produced until 1950. These inflammatory disorders were searched in scientific databases (PubMed/Medline, Scopus, Web of Science, Lilacs, Scielo, Virtual Health Library), with standardization of DECS/MESH descriptors for inflammation in English, Spanish, French, and Portuguese, without chronological limitations. For the inclusion criteria, all articles had to be of the evaluated plant species, without association of synthesized substances, and full articles free available in any of the four languages searched. Duplicated articles and those that were not freely available were excluded.

RESULTS

A total of 126 species were identified, culminating in 6181 articles in the search. After evaluation of the inclusion criteria, 172 articles representing 40 different species and 38 families were included in the study. Comparison of reproducibility in intra-species results became difficult because of the large number of extraction solvents tested and the wide diversity of evaluation models used. Although the number of in vitro and in vivo evaluations was high, only one clinical study was found (Abrus precatorius). In the phytochemical analyses, more than 225 compounds, mostly phenolic compounds, were identified.

CONCLUSION

This review allowed the grouping of preclinical and clinical studies of several Brazilian species traditionally used for the treatment of many types of inflammation, corroborating new searches for their pharmacological properties as a way to aid public health. Furthermore, the large number of plants that have not yet been studied has encouraged new research to revive traditional knowledge.

Synthesis and toxicological study of chitosan-pirul (Schinus molle L.) essential oil nanoparticles on Aspergillus flavus

In recent years, the study of essential oils as antifungal alternatives and their encapsulation to increase their properties for greater effects has been tested. In this work, nanoparticles of chitosan-Schinus molle L. essential oil (CS-PEO-Np) with a size of 260 ± 31.1 nm were obtained by ionic gelation and evaluated in some growth phases of Aspergillus flavus, a toxigenic fungus. At a concentration of 250 μg/mL of CS-PEO-Np, the A. flavus mycelial growth was inhibited at 97.1% with respect to control, at 96 h of incubation; the germination and viability of spores were inhibited at 74.8 and 40%, respectively, after exposure to 500 μg/mL of these nanomaterials, at 12 h of incubation. The fluorescence images of stained spores with DAPI showed the affectations caused by nanoparticles in the cell membrane, vacuoles and vacuolar content, cell wall, and nucleic acids. For both nanoparticles, CS-Np and CS-PEO-Np, no mutagenic effect was observed in Salmonella Typhimurium; also, the phytotoxic assay showed low-to-moderate toxicity toward seeds, which was dependent on the nanoparticle's concentration. The acute toxicity of CS-PEO-Np to A. salina nauplii was considered low in comparison to CS-Np (control), which indicates that the incorporation of Schinus molle essential oil into nanoparticles of chitosan is a strategy to reduce the toxicity commonly associated with nanostructured materials. The nanoparticulated systems of CS-PEO-Np represent an effective and non-toxic alternative for the control of toxigenic fungi such as A. flavus by delaying the initial growth stage.

Evaluation of hepatoprotective and antidiarrheal activities of the hydromethanol crude extract and solvent fractions of Schinus molle L. (Anacardiaceae) leaf and fruit in mice

Background

Liver disease is any disease that negatively affects the normal function of the liver, and it is a major health problem that challenges not only healthcare professionals, but also the pharmaceutical industry and drug regulatory agencies. Similarly, diarrhea is the second leading cause of death among children under five globally next to pneumonia. The available synthetic drugs for the treatment of liver disorders and diarrhoea have limited safety and efficacy.

Objective

To evaluate the in vivo hepatoprotective and antidiarrheal activities of hydroalcoholic leaf and fruit extracts of Schinus molle L. (Anacardiaceae) in mice.

Methods

Hepatoprotective activity of the extracts was evaluated by using CCl4 induced hepatotoxicity in mice model. In this model, mice were divided into groups and treated as follows. The normal control and toxicant control groups were treated with the vehicle used for reconstitution, the positive control was treated with the standard drug (silymarin), and the test groups were treated with different doses of plant extracts daily in the morning for seven days. Additionally, all groups except the normal control were treated with CCl4 (2 mg/kg, IP) on the 4th day of treatment, 30 min post-dose. On the 7th day, blood was collected from each mouse via a cardiac puncture. The collected blood was centrifuged, and serum levels of ALT, AST, and ALP were determined using an automated chemistry analyser. Data were analysed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey's post-hoc test.The antidiarrheal activity of the extract was investigated using castor oil-induced diarrhoea, enteropooling, and small intestine transit. The test groups received various doses (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg) of the extract, whereas the positive control received loperamide (3 mg/kg), and the negative control received the vehicle (distilled water, 10 ml/kg).

Result

Hepatoprotective activity: The leaf and fruit crude extracts showed significant improvement in the body weight and liver weight of mice compared to the untreated toxicant control. Additionally, treatment with hydromethanol leaf and fruit extracts caused a significant (P < 0.05) improvement in liver biomarkers compared to the toxicant control. Similarly, the n-butanol and chloroform fractions of the fruit extract caused a significant reduction (P < 0.01) in serum AST, ALT, ALP and Bilirubin levels and a significant (P < 0.001) increase in total protein compared to the toxicant control. However, none of the three solvent fractions (n-butanol, chloroform, and aqueous) of the fruit extract significantly affected (P > 0.05) the level of albumin compared with the toxicant control.Antidiarrheal activity: In the castor oil-induced diarrheal model, the 80 % methanol extract delayed the onset of defaecation and significantly reduced the number and weight of faeces at all tested doses compared to the negative control. In the enteropooling test, 80 ME significantly (P < 0.001) reduced the weight and volume of intestinal fluid at all tested doses compared with the negative control. Results from the charcoal meal test revealed that the extracts produced a significant anti-motility effect at all tested doses compared with the negative control.

Conclusion

This study confirmed the hepatoprotective and antidiarrheal activities of hydroalcoholic extracts. The highest test dose produced the maximum hepatoprotective and antidiarrheal activities in all models.

Fumigant toxicity of four essential oils against the carob moth Ectomyelois ceratoniae Zeller and the Mediterranean flour moth Ephestia kuehniella

Eucalyptus leucoxylon, Rosmarinus officinalis, berries, and leaves of Schinus molle essential oils were analysed using GC-MS techniques and assessed for their fumigant toxicity against adults, larvae, and eggs of Ectomyelois ceratoniae and Ephestia kuehniella. Results showed that E. leucoxylon contained Spathulenol, p-Cymene, and Cryptone as major compounds. GC - MS analyses showed that the major compounds of R. officinalis essential oil were 1,8-Cineole, Camphor, and α-pinene. I-Phellandrene, t-Muurolol, and Phellandrene were the major components of the S. molle leaves; while I-Phellandrene, Limonen, and δ-Cadinene were the major components of the S. molle berries. S. molle berries were the most efficient followed by R. officinalis against E. ceratoniae and E. kuehniella. The most effective tested essential oil against E. ceratoniae larvae was S. molle berries. Results on the ovicidal and larvicidal effects of the tested oils demonstrated that R. officinalis was the most effective essential oil against E. kuehniella eggs.

Prediction of Novel Natural Small Molecules From Schinus molle as an Inhibitor of PI3K Protein Target in Cancer Cells Using In Silico Screening

Introduction Cancer continues to pose a significant challenge in medical research. Phytochemicals derived from plants have emerged as a promising avenue for pioneering drug discovery due to their potential for reduced toxicity. The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway has gained recognition as a pivotal signaling pathway with implications across multiple facets of cancer initiation and progression. This study focuses on the virtual screening of phytochemicals from Schinus molle, evaluating their potential as inhibitors of PI3K, a crucial target in cancer therapy. Methods and materials The present study involved a comprehensive in silico screening of phytochemicals derived from S. molle. The screening process encompassed various parameters, such as drug-likeness, pharmacokinetics, molecular docking, toxicity analysis, bioavailability assessment, and molecular target exploration. The primary objective of this systematic approach was to identify potential lead compounds. The study aimed to provide a detailed understanding of the molecular properties of the phytochemicals and their potential as drug candidates. Results Upon analyzing 18 compounds, two compounds were noteworthy. Beta-spathulene and kaempferol demonstrated significant affinity for PI3K and favorable attributes concerning drug-likeness, pharmacokinetics, and bioavailability. Conclusion While our computational investigation lays a promising foundation, it is essential to emphasize that further experimental studies, including in vitro and in vivo experiments, are imperative to validate the action of these lead compounds.

Acaricidal assessment of the fungal extract of Pleurotus ostreatus against Rhipicephalus microplus: Role of in vitro and in silico analysis

The Pleurotus ostreatus mushroom, commonly referred to as the oyster mushroom, is a widely consumed edible mushroom that grows in clusters on dead or dying trees. In addition to its culinary uses, research has found that the mushroom may also have potential medicinal properties. The current study investigated the potential use of a fungal extract from P. ostreatus as a natural acaricide against Rhipicephalus microplus, a major vector of economically significant infections and one of the most significant bovine ectoparasites. The study used the adult immersion test (AIT) and the larvae packet test (LPT) to evaluate the effectiveness of the extract against ticks. To evaluate the reproductive effect of the fungal extract on the reproduction of R. microplus engorged females, the eggs were tested for weight and egg-laying index. The results of the study showed that P. ostreatus extract had a significant acaricidal effect, with a 40 mg/mL concentration causing 89 ± 2.64% mortality in R. microplus larvae compared to the 91.00 ± 3.60% mortality by the positive control at 48 h interval. Whereas in the AIT, the extract inhibited 39.86 ± 4.13% of oviposition. The study also used in silico approach to further examine the binding mechanisms of the compounds in the fungal extract to the target protein R. microplus Triosephosphate isomerase RmTIM, using molecular docking in AutoDock Vina software. Docking scores of -8.3, -7.7 and -6.9 kcal/mol, respectively, showed that rutin, naringin and myricitin had significant interactions with the active site residues of the target protein. Our results suggest that P. ostreatus extract may be a potential alternative to traditional acaricides for controlling R. microplus in livestock.

Antimicrobial, antioxidant activities, and total phenolic contents of Pycnanthus angolensis Sap and Cryptolepis sanguinolenta root extracts

The death of many people in tropical countries can be attributed to microbial infection, probably, because synthetic antibiotics are failing in the treatment of most microbial infections, attributed to the ability of the microorganisms to mutate and adapt to harsh conditions. This study evaluated, in vitro, the antimicrobial activities, antioxidant potentials, and the total phenolic as well as phytochemical contents of aqueous and ethanol extracts of the root of Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (Lindl.) and the crude sap of Pycnanthus angolensis (Welw) using selected standard bacteria strains (Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25,923), Staphylococcus saprophyticus (ATCC 15,305), Escherichia coli (ATCC 25,922), Salmonella typhi (ATCC 19,430), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27,853), and Proteus mirabilis (ATCC 49,565). The modified agar well diffusion method was used to evaluate the antimicrobial activities of the plant extracts. Chloramphenicol and tetracycline were used as positive controls. The extracts were screened for specific phytochemicals with total phenolic contents were determined using Folin Ciocalteu reagent test. The phytoconstituents observed were alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, and saponins in both Cryptolepis sanguinolenta and Pycnanthus angolensis. For the antimicrobial activities, all the test bacteria were susceptible to the crude sap of Pycnanthus angolensis except Proteus mirabilis. In the case of the Cryptolepis sanguinolenta, only S. aureus was susceptible to both aqueous and ethanol extracts. The total phenolic content, expressed in g/100 g GAE, recorded values of 55.427 ± 4.248 for the crude sap of Pycnanthus angolensis, and 11.642 ± 4.248 and 26.888 ± 4.248 for the aqueous and ethanol extracts of Cryptolepis sanguinolenta, respectively. It is concluded that Cryptolepis sanguinolenta and Pycnanthus angolensis are excellent candidates for further development of antimicrobial agents in the fight against microbial infections given the pressing need for novel efficacious agents.

Antimicrobial properties of the essential oil of Schinus areira (Aguaribay) against planktonic cells and biofilms of S. aureus

The essential oil (EO) of Schinus areira L. (Anacardiaceae) leaves has shown antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. In this study we aimed to unravel the mechanisms of its antibacterial action by using bacterial cells and model membranes. First, the integrity of S. aureus membrane was evaluated by fluorescence microscopy. It was observed an increase in the permeability of cells that was dependent on the EO concentration as well as the incubation time. For a deep evaluation of the action of the EO on the lipids, its effect on the membrane fluidity was evaluated on DMPC (1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine): DMPG (1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-1'-rac-glycerol) (5:1) liposomes by dynamic scattering light and by using Laurdan doped liposomes. The results indicate that EO produces changes in lipid membrane packing, increasing the fluidity, reducing the cooperative cohesive interaction between phospholipids and increasing access of water or the insertion of some components of the EO to the interior of the membrane. In addition, the potential effect of EO on intracellular targets, as the increase of cytosolic reactive oxygen species (ROS) and DNA damage, were evaluated. The EO was capable of increasing the production of ROS as well as inducing a partial degradation of DNA. Finally, the effect of EO on S. aureus biofilm was tested. These assays showed that EO was able to inhibit the biofilm formation, and also eradicate preformed biofilms. The results show, that the EO seems to have several bacterial targets involved in the antibacterial activity, from the bacterial membrane to DNA. Furthermore, the antibacterial action affects not only planktonic cells but also biofilms; reinforcing the potential application for this EO.

Disappearance and survival of fermented beverages in the biosphere reserve Tehuacán-Cuicatlán, Mexico: The cases of Tolonche and Lapo

Traditional fermented products are disappearing from the local foodscapes due to social pressures and ecological changes that affect their production; it is therefore crucial to document local knowledge, which is crucial to maintain and recover local biocultural heritage and to contribute to food security. This study aims to document and foster the production of local traditional beverages by registering recipes of fermented beverages in the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán biosphere reserve in central Mexico, a region recognized for its great biocultural diversity. We conducted a search of peer-reviewed literature. Additionally, we included ethnographic research and participatory methods to engage residents in different steps of the production process. We identified five main fermented beverages in the research area, the most common beverages are those produced by agave species which include, mescal, pulque and an almost extinct beverage known as lapo which involves sugar cane as main substrate. We also identified a fermented beverage produced with several cacti fruits known as nochoctli and a traditional a fermented beverage produced with fruits of Schinus molle known as tolonche. We highlight the production of lapo and tolonche since these involved the incorporation of foreign substrates into the region after the Spaniard conquest and to their restricted distribution and almost extinction. The beverages tolonche and lapo are nowadays almost lost and only a few producers still prepare them to follow modified versions of the original recipe. Lapo and tolonche were once important in the research area but almost became extinct until local people started to recently recover them. Traditional fermented beverages in Mexico play an important role in cultural identity and contribute to the local diet; nevertheless, several fermented beverages have not been recorded and have even become extinct. This work is an effort to promote and conserve traditional fermented beverages as valuable biocultural heritage by empowering people to make decisions about the use of locally available resources, which is crucial in times when food systems are highly vulnerable.

Antimicrobial Compounds in Food Packaging

This review presents current knowledge on antimicrobial agents that are already used in the food packaging industry. At the beginning, innovative ways of food packaging were discussed, including how smart packaging differs from active packaging, and what functions they perform. Next, the focus was on one of the groups of bioactive components that are used in these packaging, namely antimicrobial agents. Among the antimicrobial agents, we selected those that have already been used in packaging and that promise to be used elsewhere, e.g., in the production of antimicrobial biomaterials. Main groups of antimicrobial agents (i.e., metals and metal oxides, organic acids, antimicrobial peptides and bacteriocins, antimicrobial agents of plant origin, enzymes, lactoferrin, chitosan, allyl isothiocyanate, the reuterin system and bacteriophages) that are incorporated or combined with various types of packaging materials to extend the shelf life of food are described. The further development of perspectives and setting of new research directions were also presented.

Convolvulus arvensis: Antioxidant, Antibacterial, and Antifungal Properties of Chemically Profiled Essential Oils: An Approach against Nosocomial Infections

Convolvulus arvensis is a medicinal plant in the family Convolvulaceae, which is used in traditional phytotherapy. The objective of this work was conducted to valorize essential oils of Convolvulus arvensis (EOCA) in terms of chemical composition, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties. To achieve this objective, the chemical composition was performed by the use of GC-SM. Antioxidant power was effectuated by the use of DPPH, FRAP, and TAC assays. Evaluation of the antimicrobial power was conducted against clinically important pathogenic bacteria (E. coli, K. pneumoniae, S. pneumoniae, and S. aureus) and fungi (A. niger, C. albicans, and A. flavus) by the use of disc diffusion and minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) assays. The results showed that the yield of recovered EOs from Convolvulus arvensis was 0.34% of the total mass of leaves and mainly was rich in cuprenne (34%), thymol (20%), himachalene (16%), and longifolene (10%). Notably, EOCA exhibited important antioxidant effects, wherein IC₅₀ (DPPH) and EC₅₀ (FRAP) were determined to be 30 µg/mL and 120 µg/mL, respectively, while the total antioxidant power was determined to be 508.0 ± 6.0 µg EAA/mg. An important antibacterial effect was noted for EOCA as an excellent inhibition zone was recorded against all bacterial strains, particularly K. pneumoniae and S. aureus with 14.27 ± 0.42 and 21.35 ± 0.76 mm, respectively. Similarly, MICs of K. pneumoniae and S. aureus were 21.35 ± 0.76 mm and 28.62 ± 1.65 µg/mL, respectively. Noticeably, important antifungal activity was shown by EOCA against all fungal strains wherein the inhibition zone diameters against all fungal species ranged from 19.44 ± 1.10 to 20.41 ± 1.81 mm. Notably, MICs of EOCA against F. oxysporum and C. albicans were 18.65 ± 0.94 and 19.38 ± 0.58 g/mL, respectively. The outcome of the present work showed that EOs from Convolvulus arvensis can be used to conceptualize drugs to manage diseases relative to free radicals and infections.

In vivo evaluation and molecular docking studies of Schinus molle L. fruit extract protective effect against isoproterenol-induced infarction in rats

The aim of the current study was to assess the potential cardiopreventive effect of the methanolic extract of S. molle L. (MESM) on isoproterenol-induced infarction in rats. The biomolecules content was evaluated using HPLC-DAD-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS analysis. On the 29^th and 30^th days, two successive injections of isoproterenol (ISO) were given to Wistar rats to provoke myocardial infarction following pretreatment with either MESM (60 mg/kg b.w) or Pidogrel (Pid; 2 mg/kg b.w.). A total of sixteen phenolics were identified with masazino-flavanone as the most prevalent compound (1726.12 µg/g dm). Results showed that MESM offered cardioprevention by normalizing the ST segment and reducing the elevated cardiac risk parameters. The altered lipid biomarkers together with the plasma ionic levels were improved. Additionally, MESM inhibited the cardiac oxidative stress generated by ISO injection though enhancing antioxidant enzymes (GSH, CAT, SOD and GPX) which reduced lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation. MESM reduced myocardial apoptosis by significantly repressing mRNA expressions of Caspase-3 and Bax, with an upregulated Bcl-2 expression. Moreover, MESM reduced DNA fragmentation as well as the infarct size observed by TTC staining. In addition, MESM exhibited an antifibrotic effect by downregulating TGF-1β expression and reducing collagen deposition in myocardial tissue, as confirmed by Trichrom Masson analysis. The histopathological findings revealed less muscle separation and fewer inflammatory cells in the ISO + MESM-treated rats. Results of the docking simulation indicated that catechin in MESM was inhibitory mainly due to hydrogen bonding interactions with PDI, ACE and TGF-β1 proteins which could highlight the antithrombotic and antifibrotic capacity of MESM.

Alpha-Phellandrene and Alpha-Phellandrene-Rich Essential Oils: A Systematic Review of Biological Activities, Pharmaceutical and Food Applications

Alpha-phellandrene is a very common cyclic monoterpene found in several EOs, which shows extensive biological activities. Therefore, the main focus of the present systematic review was to provide a comprehensive and critical analysis of the state of the art regarding its biological activities and pharmaceutical and food applications. In addition, the study identified essential oils rich in alpha-phellandrene and summarized their main biological activities as a preliminary screening to encourage subsequent studies on their single components. With this review, we selected and critically analyzed 99 papers, using the following bibliographic databases: PubMed, SciELO, Wiley and WOS, on 8 July 2022. Data were independently extracted by four authors of this work, selecting those studies which reported the keyword "alpha-phellandrene" in the title and/or the abstract, and avoiding those in which there was not a clear correlation between the molecule and its biological activities and/or a specific concentration from its source. Duplication data were removed in the final article. Many essential oils have significant amounts of alpha-phellandrene, and the species Anethum graveolens and Foeniculum vulgare are frequently cited. Some studies on the above-mentioned species show high alpha-phellandrene amounts up to 82.1%. There were 12 studies on alpha-phellandrene as a pure molecule showed promising biological functions, including antitumoral, antinociceptive, larvicidal and insecticidal activities. There were 87 research works on EOs rich in alpha-phellandrene, which were summarized with a focus on additional data concerning potential biological activities. We believe this data is a useful starting point to start new research on the pure molecule, and, in particular, to distinguish between the synergistic effects of the different components of the OEs and those due to alpha-phellandrene itself. Toxicological data are still lacking, requiring further investigation on the threshold values to distinguish the boundary between beneficial and toxic effects, i.e., mutagenic, carcinogenic and allergenic. All these findings offer inspiration for potential applications of alpha-phellandrene as a new biopesticide, antimicrobial and antitumoral agent. In particular, we believe our work is of interest as a starting point for further studies on the food application of alpha-phellandrene.

Antimitotic and toxicogenetic action of Stevia urticifolia aerial parts on proliferating vegetal and mammalian cells: in vitro and in vivo traditional and replacement methods

Stevia urticifolia Thunb. is an underexploited herb possessing bioactive flavonoids, saponins, and terpenoids. The aim of this study was to examine the antiproliferative and toxicogenetic properties of the ethyl acetate extract from Stevia urticifolia aerial parts (EtAcSur) upon Artemia salina, erythrocytes, Allium cepa and sarcoma 180 cells and fibroblasts, as well as in vivo studies on mice to determine systemic, macroscopic, and behavioral alterations and bone marrow chromosomal damage. The assessment using A. salina larvae and mouse blood cells revealed LC₅₀ and EC₅₀ values of 68.9 and 113.6 µg/ml, respectively. Root growth and mitosis were inhibited by EtAcSur, and chromosomal aberrations were detected only at 100 μg/ml. EtAcSur exhibited potent concentration-dependent viability reduction of S180 and L-929 cells and antioxidant capacity employing ABTS^• and DPPH^•. No previous in vivo studies were performed before with the EtAcSur. Signals of acute toxicity were not observed at 300 mg/kg. Physiological and toxicological investigations at 25 and 50 mg/mg/day i.p. for 8 days did not markedly change body or organ relative weights, nor patterns of spontaneous locomotor and exploratory activities. In contrast, clastogenic effects on bone marrow were found at 50 mg/mg/day. EtAcSur was found to (1) produce toxicity in microcrustaceans, (2) capacity as free radical scavenger, (3) antimitotic, cytotoxic and clastogenic activties upon vegetal and mammalian cells, and (4) lethality on both tumor and normal murine cells indistinctly. In vivo damage systemic effects were not remarkable and clinical signals of toxicity were not observed, suggesting the significant pharmacological potential of S. urticifolia for the development of antineoplastic agents.Abbreviations: ABTS: 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid); DMSO: dimethylsulfoxide; DPPH: 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl; EC₅₀: effective concentration 50%; EtAcSur: ethyl acetate extract from Stevia urticifolia aerial parts; Hb, hemoglobin; IC₅₀: inhibitory concentration 50%; LC₅₀,: lethal concentration 50%; MI: mitotic index; RBC, red blood cells; Trolox: 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid.

Entomopathogenic fungi and Schinus molle essential oil: The combination of two eco-friendly agents against Aedes aegypti larvae

Aedes aegypti transmits arbovirus, which is a public health concern. Certain filamentous fungi have the potential to control the disease. Here, the effects of Metarhizium anisopliae s.l. CG 153, Beauveria bassiana s.l. CG 206 and Schinus molle L. were investigated against Aedes aegypti larvae. In addition, the effect of essential oil on fungal development was analyzed. Fungal germination was assessed after combination with essential oil at 0.0025 %, 0.0075 %, 0.005 %, or 0.01 %; all of the oil concentrations affected germination except 0.0025 % (v/v). Larvae were exposed to 0.0025 %, 0.0075 %, 0.005 %, or 0.01 % of the essential oil or Tween 80 at 0.01 %; however, only the essential oil at 0.0025 % achieved similar results as the control. Larvae were exposed to fungi at 10⁷ conidia mL^-1 alone or in combination with the essential oil at 0.0025 %. Regardless of the combination, M. anisopliae reduced the median survival time of mosquitoes more than B. bassiana. The cumulative survival of mosquitoes exposed to M. anisopliae alone or in combination with essential oil was 7.5 % and 2 %, respectively, and for B. bassiana, it was 75 % and 71 %, respectively. M. anisopliae + essential oil had a synergistic effect against larvae, whereas B. bassiana + essential oil was antagonistic. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy, and histopathology confirmed that the interaction of M. anisopliae was through the gut and hemocoel. In contrast, the mosquito's gut was the main route for invasion by B. bassiana. Results from gas chromatography studies demonstrated sabinene and bicyclogermacrene as the main compounds of S. molle, and the in-silico investigation found evidence that both compounds affect a wide range of biological activity. For the first time, we demonstrated the potential of S. molle and its interaction with both fungal strains against A. aegypti larvae. Moreover, for the first time, we reported that S. molle might be responsible for significant changes in larval physiology. This study provides new insights into host-pathogen interplay and contributes to a better understanding of pathogenesis in mosquitoes, which have significant consequences for biological control strategies.

Insecticidal activity of the essential oil of Schinus areira against Rhipibruchus picturatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Bruchinae), and its inhibitory effects on acetylcholinesterase

During the storage of Prosopis alba pods, substantial quantitative and qualitative losses were observed. One of the main factors is the seed beetle Rhipibruchus picturatus. A key strategy to develop new pest control management is the use of essential oils (EOs) due they are efficient, less toxic, and less persistent in the environment compared to synthetic pesticides. In this context, seeds and leaves of Schinus areira L. (Anacardiaceae) EOs and Citrus spp. EO were studied in the present work. In the leaves of S. areira EO, 1-epi-cadinol, sesquiterpenoid alcohol, was the major compound. On the other hand, the main compounds of the EO extracted from S. areira seeds are the monoterpenes sabinene, and α-pinene. Finally, in the Citrus EO, limonene is the principal component. The three EOs obtained exhibited insecticidal activity against R. picturatus, being the first report of the use of EOs against this insect pest. The best insecticidal results were obtained with the leaves of S. areira EO. Moreover, this EO inhibits the acetylcholinesterase enzyme in vitro assays. Molecular docking studies on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) suggest that the main components of the leaves of S, areira EOs, bind to the active site of the enzyme, in good agreement with in vitro competitive inhibition against AChE observed for this EO. The data obtained demonstrate the potential use of Schinus areira EOs in the development of new storage pest control strategies.

Chemical Composition, Antioxidant, Insecticidal Activity, and Comparative Analysis of Essential Oils of Leaves and Fruits of Schinus molle and Schinus terebinthifolius

Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi. and Schinus molle L. are perennial woody plants belonging to the Anacardiaceae family, widely distributed in the United States, Europe, Asia, and Africa, and they are broadly used for many applications such as in traditional medicine as an antipyretic, analgesic, depurative, and in the treatment of diseases of the urogenital system as well as culinary and ornamental species. Our work aims to study and compare the chemical composition and the antioxidant and insecticidal activity of the essential oils of the leaves and fruits of the two species of the genus Schinus. The essential oils were characterized by a very spicy aromatic odor, and by the abundance of hydrocarbon monoterpenes in the leaves and fruits of Schinus molle (49.70% and 42.65%), unlike the EOs of the fruits of Schinus terebinthifolius which have a high content in hydrocarbon sesquiterpenes (40.57%). Usually, these oils have shown relatively low antioxidant activity was expressed in IC₅₀; especially, the essential oil of the fruits of S. terebinthifolius revealed a concentration of 3.292 ± 2.82 mg/mL. The evaluation of the insecticidal activity gave good results in the method of exposure of adults of Sitophilus oryzae to EOs by contact; thus, the fruits of Schinus molle are more active against this species of beetle than the other essential oil.

GC-MS Profile, Antioxidant Activity, and In Silico Study of the Essential Oil from Schinus molle L. Leaves in the Presence of Mosquito Juvenile Hormone-Binding Protein (mJHBP) from Aedes aegypti

Schinus molle is a medicinal plant used as an anti-inflammatory and for rheumatic pain in the traditional medicine of Peru. On the other hand, Aedes aegypti is the main vector of several tropical diseases and the transmitter of yellow fever, chikungunya, malaria, dengue, and Zika virus. In this study, the aim was to investigate the antioxidant activity in vitro and the insecticidal activity in silico, in the presence of the mosquito juvenile hormone-binding protein (mJHBP) from Aedes aegypti, of the essential oil from S. molle leaves. The volatile phytochemicals were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and the profile antioxidants were examined by DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP assays. The evaluation in silico was carried out on mJHBP (PDB: 5V13) with an insecticidal approach. The results revealed that EO presented as the main volatile components to alpha-phellandrene (32.68%), D-limonene (12.59%), and beta-phellandrene (12.24%). The antioxidant activity showed values for $\text{DPPH}=11.42\pm 0.08\mu \text{mol}\text{ET}/\text{g}$ , $\text{ABTS}=134.88\pm 4.37\mu \text{mol}\text{ET}/\text{g}$ , and $\text{FRAP}=65.16\pm 1.46\mu \text{mol}\text{ET}/\text{g}$ . Regarding the insecticidal approach in silico, alpha-muurolene and gamma-cadinene had the best biding energy on mJHBP ( $\Delta G=-9.7\text{kcal}/\text{mol}$ ), followed by beta-cadinene ( $\Delta G=-9.5\text{kcal}/\text{mol}$ ). Additionally, the volatile components did not reveal antioxidant activity, and its potential insecticidal effect would be acting on mJHBP from A. aegypti.

Composition of Phenolic Compounds in South African Schinus molle L. Berries

The Schinus molle tree is notoriously invasive in most parts of the world, and yet as a pseudospice, its berries potentially possess some significant health benefits which need to be explored. Therefore, polar metabolome of seed + husks (SH), husks (H), and de-hulled (DH) berries were profiled and quantified by untargeted metabolomics approach using UPLC-QTOF-MS. A total of 13 gallotannins, three phenolic acids, a phenolic acid glucoside, three phenolic acid esters, an organic acid, a gallotannin derivative, and nine flavonoids were detected and quantified. Phenolic acids ranged between 12.2–295.7; 4.9–77; and 89.7–1613.1 mg/kg in SH, DH seeds and H respectively. Flavonoids ranged between 1.8–267.5; 73.4–80.4; and 124–564.3 mg/kg in SH, DH seeds and H respectively. Gallotannins ranged between 1.1–146.6; 14.8–21.8; and 48.1–664.8 mg/kg in SH, DH seeds and H respectively. Feruloyltartaric A, quercetin 3-O-glucuronide, catechin digalloylshikimic acid B as well as digalloyl quinic acid were some of the dominant secondary metabolites revealed. These results indicate that S. molle berries are a rich source of secondary metabolites with elevated concentrations in the husks, while DH seeds possess lower concentrations to none. These findings open important insights into the potential of S. molle berries as a natural source of antioxidants for the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Age-Defying and Photoprotective Potential of Geranium/Calendula Essential Oil Encapsulated Vesicular Cream on Biochemical Parameters against UVB Radiation Induced Skin Aging in Rat

UVB irradiation promotes the production of reactive oxygen species, which can lead to an increase in oxidative stress in the cell and the generation of toxic components, resulting in photoaging. Essential oils (EOs) are well-known in the cosmetics sector for their beneficial effects, as they have a wide range of biological activities. Considering this fact, the current study investigates the photoprotective potential of geranium essential oil (GEO)/calendula essential oil (CEO) encapsulated vesicular cream on the biochemical parameters of the skin of albino rats exposed to UVB radiation. After 30 days of treatment with cream formulations and UVB irradiation, the skin tissue was assayed for several biochemical parameters and histopathology analysis. The results of biochemical study revealed that, in comparison to non-vesicular creams, vesicular cream formulations were able to protect the endogenous skin natural antioxidant system by maintaining superoxide dismutase, catalase, total protein, ascorbic acid, and hydroxyproline levels and by decreasing malondialdehyde levels in the skin after UVB exposure. Changes in various cellular structures along with the change in the epidermis and dermis of the skin after UVB exposure in the treated group were observed by a histopathology of skin tissue and compared to the non-treated group, which revealed the skin damaging effect of UVB radiation and the protective effect of vesicular creams. The results suggest that the GEO/CEO-encapsulated vesicular creams have the potential to protect the skin against harmful UVB radiation by maintaining the natural antioxidant defence mechanism of the skin. In conclusion, this research presents novel herbal cosmetic formulations with improved antioxidant capacity and photoprotective potential that may help to slow down the skin aging process.

Overcoming Skin Damage from Pollution via Novel Skincare Strategies

Urban pollution is one of the main problems encountered worldwide with major impact on public health as well as the environment. Health impact of urban pollution is not limited to respiratory conditions but also encompasses major skin problems including irritation, skin ageing, and skin cancer. Toxic gases and particulate matter are the main pollutants and exhibit extensive local variability. The aforementioned pollutants are small particles that attach to the skin or penetrate into it, enhancing free radicals' production inside the inner skin layers. This urges the need to propose cosmetic products that help prevent and/or minimise pollutants' effects on the skin whether irritation, ageing and cancer. Furthermore, intrinsic and extrinsic factors contributed to skin irritation and ageing. Intrinsic factors are within skin factors and include genetic and physiological characteristics of individuals. Moreover, extrinsic factors comprise environmental factors such as humidity, temperature, and smoke. Subsequently active ingredients with antipollutant properties addressed the intrinsic and extrinsic factors by four mechanisms being: free radical neutralisation, film-forming ability, skin barrier enhancement and fortification. Such ingredients include vitamin A derivatives, vitamin C derivatives, carbohydrates, and plant-based products. Yet, very limited studies have evaluated the effectiveness of the aforementioned active ingredients against irritation or ageing and this should be considered in future work.

Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Ammi visnaga L. Essential Oil

The present study evaluated the chemical composition and the in vitro and in vivo antioxidant potential of Ammi visnaga L. essential oil to provide a scientific basis for the use of this plant in the traditional pharmacopoeia. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to identify the volatile constituents present of the oil. The in vitro antioxidant capacity was evaluated by the DPPH and the reducing power assays. For the in vivo tests, oral administration of Ammi visnaga L. oil (600 and 1200 mg/kg body weight) was performed in Swiss albino mice treated with acetaminophen (400 mg/kg). The toxic effect of acetaminophen and the action of the essential oil were measured by determining the levels of lipid peroxidation and antioxidant enzymes in liver and kidneys homogenates. The major components identified were butanoic acid, 2-methyl-, pentyl ester, (Z)-β-ocimene, D-limonene, linalool, pulegone and lavandulyl-butyrate. The in vitro DPPH and reducing power assays showed moderate to low free radical scavenging activity and the antioxidant power was positively correlated with the polyphenols’ concentration. In vivo, the Ammi visnaga L. essential oil showed a high antioxidant capacity at both concentrations (600 and 1200 mg/kg), effectively increasing the levels of reduced glutathione, superoxide dismutase, and catalase and significantly reducing the lipid peroxidation. The results obtained from this study suggest that Ammi visnaga L. could represent a source of molecules with antioxidant potential in the prevention of free radical-related diseases.

Acaricidal Efficacy of Plants from Ecuador, Ambrosia peruviana (Asteraceae) and Lepechinia mutica (Lamiaceae) against Larvae and Engorged Adult Females of the Common Cattle Tick, Rhipicephalus microplus

Control measures against common cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus are of the upmost importance because of considerable, deleterious impact on a farm’s economy. Due to resistance phenomena to synthetic acaricides being a constraint in affected farms, the search for plant derivatives as acaricides has increased dramatically in recent years. In this work, essential oils obtained from two Ecuadorian plants, Ambrosia peruviana and Lepechinia mutica (EO_Ap, EO_Lm), traditionally used as insecticides in indigenous communities, were studied on larvae and engorged females at the parasitic stages of R. microplus. Larvae and females were treated with five (0.0625, 0.125, 0.25, 0.50 and 1%) and six concentrations (0.125, 0.25, 0.50, 1, 2 and 4%), respectively, of each EOs_Ap/Lm. A 98–99% larval mortality was achieved with 0.5% of both EOs_Ap/Lm. EO_Ap inhibited oviposition and egg hatching up to 82% and 80%, respectively, and had an overall efficacy of 93.12%. Efficacy of EO_Lm was 72.84%, due to the low influence of EO_Lm on reproductive parameters. By steam distillation and GC-MS analysis, γ-Curcumene was identified as the main constituent (52.02%) in the EO_Ap and Shyobunol (10.80%) in EO_Lm. The results suggest that major components of both essential oils should be further studied as promissory acaricides against R. microplus.

Chitosan nanofiber biocomposites for potential wound healing applications: Antioxidant activity with synergic antibacterial effect

Bacterial wound infection is one of the most common nosocomial infections. The unnecessary employment of antibiotics led to raising the growth of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Accordingly, alternative armaments capable of accelerating wound healing along with bactericidal effects are urgently needed. Considering this, we fabricated chitosan (CS)/polyethylene oxide (PEO) nanofibers armed with antibacterial silver and zinc oxide nanoparticles. The nanocomposites exhibited a high antioxidant effect and antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Besides, based on the results of the cell viability assays, the optimum concentration of ZnONPs and AgNPs in the nanofibrous mats is 0.2% w/v and 0.08% w/v respectively and had no cytotoxicity on fibroblast cells. The scaffold also showed good blood compatibility according to the effects of coagulation time. As well as significant fibroblast migration and proliferation on the wound margin, according to wound-healing assay. All in all, the developed biocompatible, antioxidant, and antibacterial Ag-ZnO NPs incorporated CS/PEO nanofibrous mats showed their potential as an effective wound dressing.

The genus Schinus (Anacardiaceae): a review on phytochemicals and biological aspects

The genus Schinus belongs to family 'Anacardiaceae' and includes about 29 species originating from South America, distributed to Peru, Chile, Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay and cultivated in Egypt. Traditionally, Schinus plants are used to alleviate several and diverse diseases including rheumatism, hypertension, ulcers, gastric distress, menstrual disorders, gonorrhea, bronchitis, gingivitis, conjunctivitis, dysentery, wounds, urinary tract, and eye infections. Several phytochemical studies on the Schinus plants revealed presence of diverse bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, bioflavonoids, phenolic acids, tannins, catechins, terpenoids and essential oils. Besides, some Schinus species and their isolated active compounds showed important biological activities such as antibacterial, antifungal, insecticidal, antiparasitic, analgesic, cytotoxic, antitumor, antioxidant, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antimycobacterial, anti-Parkinson, anti-allergic, antiviral, wound healing, chemoprotective, anthelmintic and hepatoprotective. This review attempts to summarize the phytochemical profile and biological activities of Schinus species that could guide researchers to undertake further investigation.

Principal Metabolites in Extracts of Different Plants Responsible for Antibacterial Effects

The increase in bacterial resistance and decreased effectiveness of antibacterial agents has forced researchers to look for new antibacterial agents from environmentally friendly sources such as essential oils and oil extracts. The functional group of the metabolites present in the essential oils or plant extract and the synergy effects between them play an important role in the biological activity and can be the principal factor affecting the antibacterial effect. All of these bioactive oils showed the same action mechanism, and the best way to implement them is by extracting them without changing their original properties, whereby the characterization and evaluation of the compounds are important steps. All of these themes are extensively reviewed, analyzed, and discussed in this work.

Plants-derived bioactives: Novel utilization as antimicrobial, antioxidant and phytoreducing agents for the biosynthesis of metallic nanoparticles

Medicinal and aromatic higher plants are sustainable resources for natural product compounds, including essential oils, phenolics, flavonoids, alkaloids, glycosides, and saponins. Extractives and essential oils as well as their bioactive compounds have many uses due to their antimicrobial, anticancer, and antioxidant properties as well as application in food preservation. These natural compounds have been reported in many works, for instance biofungicide with phenolic and flavonoid compounds being effective against mold that causes discoloration of wood. Additionally, the natural extracts from higher plants can be used to mediate the synthesis of nanoparticle materials. Therefore, in this review, we aim to promote and declare the use of natural products as environmentally eco-friendly bio-agents against certain pathogenic microbes and make recommendations to overcome the extensive uses of conventional pesticides and other preservatives.

A Review of Research Progress on Agathis dammara and its Application Prospects for Cardiovascular Diseases and Fatty Liver Disease

Cardiovascular diseases and fatty liver disease have become the leading causes of death in modern society. However, the currently existing drugs do not solve all issues related to these diseases; thus, it is expected that more potential drugs for clinical use will be developed. Undeniably, natural products have attracted increasing attention. It is of great significance to identify effective active monomer components for drug discovery and disease prevention. As a pure natural product, Agathis dammara (AD) has antioxidant, hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, antitumor, and anti-inflammatory activities. However, at present, there are few reports regarding the effects of AD on chronic inflammatory cardiovascular diseases, such as aneurysm, atherosclerosis, myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury, and cardiac hypertrophy and liver diseases such as fatty liver disease. AD and products derived from it have a very broad application prospect for cardiovascular diseases and fatty liver disease.

Composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of cold-pressed and distilled essential oils of Origanum onites L. and Lavandula officinalis L. relationships evaluated by SEM microscopy

Introduction: In order to prevent increased bacterial resistance, it is important to use herbal medicines with less side effects.

Objective: In this study, the chemical composition, antimicrobial, antioxidant activities and SEM images of Lavandula officinalis and Origanum onites oils obtained in two different ways were determined.

Methods: The antimicrobial activity of the oils was determined against reference and multiple strains of foodborne and pathogenic bacteria. The each essential oil sample were analyzed by GC–MS. Antioxidant activities of the samples were examined through DPPH• and ABTS•+ radical scavenging and FRAP assays.

Results: The results indicate that the oils of obtained from Origanum onites and Lavandula officinalis exhibited relatively strong antibacterial and antifungal activity. In addition, the antioxidant activities detected were remarkable. Morphological changes in bacterial cells treated with essential oil samples were demon-

strated with SEM images. In addition, the chemical components of the oil samples obtained by both water steam and cold press were revealed by GC-MS analysis and compared.

Conclusion: When all the obtained results are evaluated together; these plants could be suitable for using as antimicrobial and antioxidative agents in several industries such as food, cosmetic, etc.

Effect of essential oils against acaricide-susceptible and acaricide-resistant Rhipicephalus ticks

The indiscriminate use of acaricides is a problem worldwide and has increased the selection of acaricide-resistant tick populations. The goal of this study was to evaluate the acaricide effects of two essential oils (from Schinus molle and Bulnesia sarmientoi) using the larval immersion test on three Rhipicephalus tick species. Rhipicephalus evertsi, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and Rhipicephalus pulchelus ticks collected in Kenya, without history of acaricide exposure, were tested, as well as individuals from two populations of Rhipicephalus microplus (with or without history of acaricide exposure), for comparison. The sample most resistant to the treatments was a population of R. microplus with previous acaricide exposure, whereas the least tolerant sample was a strain of the same species that never had contact with acaricides (Porto Alegre strain). Interestingly, the field tick samples without previous acaricide exposure responded to essential oils with a mortality profile resembling that observed in the acaricide-resistant R. microplus field population, and not the susceptible Porto Alegre strain. The essential oil of B. sarmientoi and its two components tested (guaiol and bulnesol) caused the highest mortality rates in the tested species and are potential molecules for future studies on control methods against these species.

HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS profiling and therapeutic effects of Schinus terebinthifolius and Schinus molle fruits: investigation of their antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive properties

The aim of the current work was to study the phytochemical variability among Schinus terebinthifolius (STE) and Schinus molle (SME) fruit extracts. The in vitro antioxidant, antihemolytic, antidiabetic, and macromolecule damage protective activities, as well as, the in vivo anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive capacities were assessed. Using the HPLC-ESI-QTOF/MS analysis, the chemical profile of fruit extract varied between S. terebinthifolius (30 compounds) and S. molle (16 compounds). The major compound was masazino-flavanone (5774.98 and 1177.65 μg/g sample for STE and SME, respectively). The investigations highlighted significant antioxidant proprieties when using ABTS radical (IC₅₀; 0.12 and 0.14 mg/ml for STE and SME, respectively), superoxide (IC₅₀; 0.17 and 0.22 mg/ml for STE and SME, respectively) and hydrogen peroxide (IC₅₀; 014 and 0.17 mg/ml for STE and SME, respectively). In addition, STE and SME proved preventive effects against H₂O₂-induced hemolysis (IC₅₀; 0.22 and 0.14 mg/ml for STE and SME, respectively). The in vitro antidiabetic effect revealed that STE and SME exhibited important inhibitory effects against α-amylase (IC₅₀; 0.13 and 0.19 mg/ml for STE and SME, respectively) and α-glycosidase (IC₅₀; 0.21 and 0.18 mg/ml for STE and SME, respectively) when compared with acarbose. Furthermore, the extracts showed potent inhibitory activity against AAPH-induced plasmid DNA damage, and protein oxidation. In vivo study revealed that STE and SME presented interesting antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory capacities. All observed effects highlighted the potential application of Schinus fruit extract in food and pharmaceutical industries against ROS-induced damage.

Phytochemical profile and antioxidant activity of extracts of the peruvian peppertree Schinus areira L. from Chile

The Andean tree Schinus areira L. has multiple traditional uses, from the treatment of bronchitis and rheumatic diseases to menstrual cycle regulation and wound healing. With reported hypotensive, analgesic, antitumoral and anti-inflammatory properties, it acts predominantly against diseases related to oxidative stress. This study focuses on the antioxidant activity and phytochemical profile of the extracts of Schinus areira L.

Serial extraction of the fruits was performed both by maceration and by Soxhlet. Total phenols and flavonoids were measured using the Folin-Ciocalteu method and AlCl₃, respectively. In vitro antioxidant activity was determined by FRAP and DPPH.

Results were similar for both extraction methods. Primary metabolites detected included carbohydrates, proteins and amino acids; secondary metabolites included tannins, flavonoids, saponins, steroids and triterpenes. Antioxidant activity was confirmed for ethyl acetate, methanolic and aqueous extracts. The methanolic extract had both the highest polyphenol content (>195 mg GAE/ g dry weight) and the highest antioxidant activity [EC₅₀ > 476 μg/mL; >273 mg AA/g dry weight (DPPH); >301 mg AA/ g dry weight (FRAP)]. The extract does not produce macrophage cytotoxicity in RAW 264.7, which is indicated by an average cytotoxicity of 2% over 24 h.

Our study serves as a starting point for future research on the pharmacological properties of Schinus areira L.

Can limonene be a possible candidate for evaluation as an agent or adjuvant against infection, immunity, and inflammation in COVID-19?

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) caused by novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is an ongoing pandemic and presents a public health emergency. It has affected millions of people and continues to affect more, despite the tremendous social preventive measures. The therapeutic strategy relies on suppressing infectivity and inflammation, along with immune modulation. The identification of candidate drugs effective for COVID-19 is crucial, thus many natural products including phytochemicals are also being proposed for repurposing and evaluated for their potential in COVID-19. Among numerous phytochemicals, limonene (LMN), a dietary terpene of natural origin has been recently showed to target viral proteins in the in-silico studies. LMN is one of the main compounds identified in many citrus plants, available and accessible in diets and well-studied for its therapeutic benefits. Due to dietary nature, relative safety and efficacy along with favorable physicochemical properties, LMN has been suggested to be a fascinating candidate for further investigation in COVID-19. LMN showed to modulate numerous signaling pathways and inhibits inflammatory mediators, including cytokines, chemokines, adhesion molecules, prostanoids, and eicosanoids. We hypothesized that given the pathogenesis of COVID-19 involving infection, inflammation, and immunity, LMN may have potential to limit the severity and progression of the disease owing to its immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral properties. The present article discusses the possibilities of LMN in SARS-CoV-2 infections based on its immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral properties. Though, the suggestion on the possible use of LMN in COVID-19 remains inconclusive until the in-silico effects confirmed in the experimental studies and further proof of the concept studies. The candidature of LMN in COVID-19 treatment somewhat appear speculative but cannot be overlooked provided favorable physiochemical and druggable properties. The safety and efficacy of LMN are necessary to be established in preclinical and clinical studies before making suggestions for use in humans.

Antioxidant and Anti-Proliferative Activity of Essential Oil and Main Components from Leaves of Aloysia polystachya Harvested in Central Chile

The aim of this study was to determine, first, the chemical composition of Aloysia polystachya (Griseb) Moldenke essential oil, from leaves harvested in central Chile; and second, its antioxidant and cytotoxic activity. Eight compounds were identified via gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analyses, with the most representative being R-carvone (91.03%), R-limonene (4.10%), and dihydrocarvone (1.07%). For Aloysia polystachya essential oil, antioxidant assays (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), H₂O₂, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and total reactive antioxidant potential (TRAP)) showed good antioxidant activity compared to commercial antioxidant controls; and anti-proliferative assays against three human cancer cell lines (colon, HT-29; prostate, PC-3; and breast, MCF-7) determined an IC₅₀ of 5.85, 6.74, and 9.53 µg/mL, and selectivity indices of 4.75, 4.12, and 2.92 for HT-29, PC-3, and MCF-7, respectively. We also report on assays with CCD 841 CoN (colon epithelial). Overall, results from this study may represent, in the near future, developments for natural-based cancer treatments.

Improved in vitro and in vivo Anti-Candida albicans Activity of Cymbopogon nardus Essential Oil by Its Incorporation into a Microemulsion System

Purpose

Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is an opportunistic fungal infection that adversely affects a woman's health, due to unpleasant symptoms, therapeutic challenges, and the emergence of resistant strains. The association of natural products and nanotechnology is important to improve the antifungal potential of medicinal plants. We aimed to evaluate the in vitro and in vivo anti-Candida albicans activity of unloaded (EO) and loaded (ME+EO) essential oil of Cymbopogon nardus in the microemulsion (ME).

Methods

The chemical analysis of the EO was performed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The ME and ME+EO were characterized by scattering, zeta potential, polarized light microscopy, rheological assays, mucoadhesiveness and transmission electronic microscopy. The in vitro antifungal activity of the EO and ME+EO were evaluated by microdilution technique. The toxicity of EO and ME+EO was analyzed on human cell line HaCat and using alternative model assay with Artemia salina. The experimental in vivo VVC was performed in female mice (C57BL/6).

Results

The main compounds of the EO were found to be citronellal, geranial, geraniol, citronellol, and neral. The formulations exhibited suitable size, homogeneity, negative charge, isotropic behavior, highly organized structure, and pseudoplastic behavior, for vaginal application. TEM photomicrographs showed possible EO droplets inside the spherical structures. The EO, when loaded into the ME, exhibited an improvement in its antifungal action against C. albicans. The EO was not toxic against brine shrimp nauplii. An in vivo VVC assay showed that the use of the ME significantly improved the action of the EO, since only the ME+EO promoted the eradication of the fungal vaginal infection on the third day of treatment.

Conclusion

The EO and ME+EO are promising alternatives for the control of fungal infections caused by C. albicans, once the use of nanotechnology significantly improved the antifungal action of the EO, especially in an in vivo model of VVC.

Non-clinical toxicity of (+)-limonene epoxide and its physio-pharmacological properties on neurological disorders

The compound (+)-limonene epoxide has antioxidant, anxiolytic, and antihelminthic properties. However, investigations to determine its long-term exposure were not performed. We investigated the systemic toxicological profile after chronic exposure as well as the antidepressant and antiepileptic potentialities of (+)-limonene epoxide on mice. Initially, we evaluated acute toxicity on Artemia salina nauplii and cytotoxicity on mice erythrocytes and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Aftterwards, mice were chronically treated for 120 days by gavage with (+)-limonene epoxide (25, 50, and 75 mg/kg/day) and this exposure was assessed by pathophysiological measurements. For antidepressant and anticonvulsivant analysis, we performed the forced swimming and tail suspension protocols and pentylenetetrazol- and picrotoxin-induced seizures, respectively. (+)-Limonene epoxide showed a LC50 value of 318.7 μg/mL on A. salina shrimps, caused lysis of red blood cells at higher concentrations only but did not show cytotoxicity on PMBC, which suggests pharmacological safety if plasma concentrations do not exceed 100 μg/mL. Macroscopic, hematological, clinical chemistry, and nutritional changes were not detected, though focal areas of hepatic necrosis, inflammatory infiltrate, and karyolysis have been detected at 75 mg/kg/day. The compound inhibited the developing of pentylenetetrazol- and picrotoxin-induced seizures, decreased deaths, and reduced immobility times, mainly at 75 mg/kg. So, it reversed reserpine effects, suggesting antidepressant effects should be linked to serotonergic and/or adrenergic transmission. It is feasible that (+)-limonene epoxide plays a benzodiazepine-like anticonvulsive action and may be also recommended as an antidote for poisonings caused by central depressants.

Chitosan gels for buccal delivery of Schinus molle L. essential oil in dogs: characterization and antimicrobial activity in vitro

Periodontal disease is considered the main oral cavity disorder in dogs. Essential oils have the potential for use in the prevention and treatment of oral diseases. The antimicrobial activity of Schinus molle L. essential oil (SMEO) has already been reported. Chitosan, a natural product with antimicrobial activity and good biocompatibility has potential in biodental applications. In this study, we evaluated the in vitro antimicrobial activity of SMEO against bacteria associated with periodontal disease in dogs, developed and evaluated the physicochemical properties of a novel chitosan-based buccal delivery system containing SMEO. SMEO showed antimicrobial activity against Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria associated with canine periodontitis, with MIC values of 750 µg.mL-1 for Staphylococcus spp. and Streptococcus spp, 1000 µg.mL-1 for Corynebacterium spp. and 1250 µg.mL-1 for Pseudomonas spp. All formulations evaluated presented adequate physicochemical properties, good stability, and pH values close to buccal pH (5.0-7.0). Chitosan gel loaded with SMEO showed potential as a SMEO delivery system, having the ideal physicochemical and rheological properties (pseudoplastic and apparent viscosities) required for application on buccal tissue. Thus, we can conclude that formulation has the potential to be used for buccal mucosa delivery in the prevention and treatment of periodontal disease in dogs.

Myrcene Attenuates Renal Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in the Adrenalectomized Rat Model

Physiological Glucocorticoids are important regulators of the immune system. Pharmacological GCs are in widespread use to treat inflammatory diseases. Adrenalectomy (ADX) has been shown to exacerbate renal injury through inflammation and oxidative stress that results in renal impairment due to depletion of GCs. In this study, the effect of myrcene to attenuate renal inflammation and oxidative stress was evaluated in the adrenalectomized rat model. Rats were adrenalectomized bilaterally or the adrenals were not removed after surgery (sham). Myrcene (50 mg/kg body weight, orally) was administered post ADX. Myrcene treatment resulted in significant downregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) compared to untreated ADX rats. In addition, myrcene resulted in significant downregulation of immunomodulatory factors (IFNγ and NF-κB) and anti-inflammatory markers (IL-4 and IL-10) in treated ADX compared to untreated ADX. Myrcene significantly increased the antioxidant molecules (CAT, GSH, and SOD) and decreased MDA levels in treated ADX compared to untreated. Moreover, myrcene treatment reduced the expression of COX-2, iNOS, KIM-1, and kidney functional molecules (UREA, LDH, total protein, and creatinine) in ADX treated compared to ADX untreated. These results suggest that myrcene could be further developed as a therapeutic drug for treatment of kidney inflammation and injury.

Characterization of carboxymethyl cellulose-based antimicrobial films incorporated with plant essential oils

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of essential oil (EO) addition (1, 2, and 3% v/v) obtained from different plants (Santolina chamaecyparissus (SC), Schinus molle (SM), and Eucalyptus globulus (EG) on the antimicrobial, physical, water vapor permeability, mechanical, optical and microstructural properties of the carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) films. The films containing EO at the concentration of 3% showed the highest antimicrobial activity on tested microorganisms. The EO content increase from 1% to 3% in films decreased the moisture content and water solubility of all films. The water vapor permeability also decreased in films with EGEO but it increased in films with SCEO and SMEO. While the tensile strength (TS) of films containing EO (29.43 ± 3.28-77.05 ± 0.02 MPa) was determined higher than the TS of the control (24.60 ± 0.54 MPa), the elongation at break (E%) of films (14.41 ± 0.02-33.01 ± 0.01%) were lower than E% of the control (37.06 ± 0.85%). The microstructures of films were homogeneous in the films containing 1% and 2% EOs. CMC films gained a significant antimicrobial property and improved its characteristic properties with the incorporation of EOs presenting a good potential for applying to foods.

Ethanol extract of Schinus molle L. (Molle) and Erythroxylum coca Lam (Coca): Antibacterial Properties at Different Concentrations against Streptococcus mutans: An In Vitro Study

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to compare in vitro the antibacterial activity of an ethanol extract of Erythroxylum coca Lam (EEE) and Schinus molle L. (EES) at 50% and 75% versus Streptococcus mutans ATCC 25175.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This was a prospective, comparative, longitudinal experimental study. The ethanol extract of coca and molle leaves was obtained by the vacuum filtration method at concentrations of 50% and 75% and was compared with a positive control (0.12% chlorhexidine). Streptococcus mutans strains were isolated in a culture medium (Mitis Salivarius Agar) ideal for the growth of bacterial colonies. The antibacterial activity of the ethanol extract was carried out following the Kirby-Bauer disk-diffusion method in Mueller-Hinton agar to measure bacterial sensitivity. A value of P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

Evaluation of the antibacterial effect of EEE and EES at 24 and 48 h showed that a concentration of 75% for both groups had the highest antimicrobial activity against S. mutans (11.2 ± 0.7 mm; 11.6 ± 0.5 mm and 11.3 ± 0.7 mm; 11.8 ± 0.5 mm, respectively). So, the results have shown that the concentration of EEE and EES of 75% has a greater efficacy than the concentration of 50%, but both concentrations are not as effective as chlorhexidine.

CONCLUSION

EEE and EES at concentrations of 50% and 75% present antibacterial activity against S. mutans ATCC 25175.

Antimicrobial Testing of Schinus molle (L.) Leaf Extracts and Fractions Followed by GC-MS Investigation of Biological Active Fractions

Schinus molle (L.) is a dioecious plant of the Anacardiaceae family, originating in South America and currently widespread in many regions throughout the world. In this work leaf extracts and derived low-pressure column chromatography (LPCC) fractions of S. molle L. male and female plants were investigated for the antimicrobial activity. Leaf extracts were tested on microbes Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Candida albicans and Bacillus subtilis. Furthermore, the extracts showing antimicrobial activity were fractionated by LPCC and the obtained fractions tested on the same microorganism strains. Positive fractions were investigated by gas-chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and were seen to be rich in sesquiterpenes, sesquiterpenoids and other terpens. The obtained effects highlighted the antimicrobial properties of S. molle (L.) leaf compounds and revealed their importance as a source of bioactive molecules of potential pharmaceutical interest. To our knowledge, this is the first paper reporting investigations on the chemical composition of the extracts and derived positive fractions from Schinus molle (L.) plants grown in central Italy

Antioxidants of Natural Plant Origins: From Sources to Food Industry Applications

In recent years, great interest has been focused on using natural antioxidants in food products, due to studies indicating possible adverse effects that may be related to the consumption of synthetic antioxidants. A variety of plant materials are known to be natural sources of antioxidants, such as herbs, spices, seeds, fruits and vegetables. The interest in these natural components is not only due to their biological value, but also to their economic impact, as most of them may be extracted from food by-products and under-exploited plant species. This article provides an overview of current knowledge on natural antioxidants: their sources, extraction methods and stabilization processes. In addition, recent studies on their applications in the food industry are also addressed; namely, as preservatives in different food products and in active films for packaging purposes and edible coatings.

Recent advances in allelopathy for weed control: from knowledge to applications

Allelopathy is the biological phenomenon of chemical interactions between living organisms in the ecosystem, and must be taken into account in addressing pest and weed problems in future sustainable agriculture. Allelopathy is a multidisciplinary science, but in some cases, aspects of its chemistry are overlooked, despite the need for a deep knowledge of the chemical structural characteristics of allelochemicals to facilitate the design of new herbicides. This review is focused on the most important advances in allelopathy, paying particular attention to the design and development of phenolic compounds, terpenoids and alkaloids as herbicides. The isolation of allelochemicals is mainly addressed, but other aspects such as the analysis and activities of derivatives or analogs are also covered. Furthermore, the use of allelopathy in the fight against parasitic plants is included. The past 12 years have been a prolific period for publications on allelopathy. This critical review discusses future research areas in this field and the state of the art is analyzed from the chemist's perspective. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

GC-MS investigation and antiproliferative activities of extracts from male and female flowers of Schinus molle L

The aim of this study is to define chemical composition and antiproliferative activity of several compounds isolated from Schinus molle male and female flowers on human neuroblastoma (SH-SY5Y) and human leukemia (HL60) cell lines. Three extracts obtained by using solvents with different polarities (petroleum ether, diethyl ether and acetone) were characterized by GC/MS analysis revealing qualitative and quantitative differences in the chemical composition of male and female flowers. Nineteen components were identified and both flower extracts were dominated by the sesquiterpene hydrocarbons fraction, mainly elemol, followed by bicyclic sesquiterpenes and by a smaller amount of monoterpenes. The biological activities of the extracts were evaluated by dose-dependent viability assay on two different cell lines and HL60 cells resulted more sensitive to the treatment. The presence of compounds at low concentration with a well-established cytotoxic activity such as β-elemene, β-caryophyllene and γ-eudesmol could exert a synergistic cytotoxic effect.