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Ferrante F, Pasquini E, Cappa F, Bellocchio L, Baracchi D. Unravelling the microplastic menace: Different polymers additively increase bee vulnerability. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 352:124087. [PMID: 38703977 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.124087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2024] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024]
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) are growing and ubiquitous environmental pollutants and represent one of the greatest contemporary challenges caused by human activities. Current research has predominantly examined the singular toxicological effects of individual polymers, neglecting the prevailing reality of organisms confronted with complex contaminant mixtures and potential synergistic effects. To fill this research gap, we investigated the lethal and sublethal effects of two common MPs, polystyrene (PS - 4.8-5.8 μm) and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA - 1-40 μm), and their combination (MIX), on the pollinating insect Apis mellifera. For each treatment, we evaluated the oral toxicity of two ecologically relevant and one higher concentration (0.5, 5 and 50 mg/L) and analysed their effects on the immune system and worker survival. As immune activation can alter the cuticular hydrocarbon profile of honey bees, we used gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to investigate whether MPs lead to changes in the chemical profile of foragers and behavioural assay to test whether such changes affect behavioural patterns of social recognition, undermining overall colony integrity. The results indicate an additive negative effect of PS and PMMA on bee survival and immune response, even at ecologically relevant concentrations. Furthermore, alterations in cuticle profiles were observed with both MPs at the highest and intermediate concentrations, with PMMA being mainly responsible. Both MPs exposure resulted in a reduction in the abundance of several cuticular compounds. Hive entry guards did not show increased inspection or aggressive behaviour towards exposed foragers, allowing them to enter the colony without being treated differently from uncontaminated foragers. These findings raise concerns not only for the health of individual bees, but also for the entire colony, which could be at risk if contaminated nestmates enter the colony undetected, allowing MPs to spread throughout the hive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Ferrante
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Via Madonna del Piano, 6, Sesto Fiorentino, 50019, Italy; Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, University of Viterbo, Largo dell'Università, 01100, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Elisa Pasquini
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Via Madonna del Piano, 6, Sesto Fiorentino, 50019, Italy; Center for Mind/Brain Science (CIMeC), University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Federico Cappa
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Via Madonna del Piano, 6, Sesto Fiorentino, 50019, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Bellocchio
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Via Madonna del Piano, 6, Sesto Fiorentino, 50019, Italy
| | - David Baracchi
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Via Madonna del Piano, 6, Sesto Fiorentino, 50019, Italy.
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2
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Vomáčková Kykalová B, Sassù F, Dutra-Rêgo F, Soares RP, Volf P, Loza Telleria E. Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) derived from Leishmania and bacteria increase gene expression of antimicrobial peptides and gut surface proteins in sand flies. Int J Parasitol 2024:S0020-7519(24)00075-4. [PMID: 38626865 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2024.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/30/2024]
Abstract
The interaction between pathogens and vectors' physiology can impact parasite transmission. Studying this interaction at the molecular level can help in developing control strategies. We study leishmaniases, diseases caused by Leishmania parasites transmitted by sand fly vectors, posing a significant global public health concern. Lipophosphoglycan (LPG), the major surface glycoconjugate of Leishmania, has been described to have several roles throughout the parasite's life cycle, both in the insect and vertebrate hosts. In addition, the sand fly midgut possesses a rich microbiota expressing lipopolysaccharides (LPS). However, the effect of LPG and LPS on the gene expression of sand fly midgut proteins or immunity effectors has not yet been documented. We experimentally fed Lutzomyia longipalpis and Phlebotomus papatasi sand flies with blood containing purified LPG from Leishmania infantum, Leishmania major, or LPS from Escherichia coli. The effect on the expression of genes encoding gut proteins galectin and mucin, digestive enzymes trypsin and chymotrypsin, and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) attacin and defensins was assessed by quantitative PCR (qPCR). The gene expression of a mucin-like protein in L. longipalpis was increased by L. infantum LPG and E. coli LPS. The gene expression of a galectin was increased in L. longipalpis by L. major LPG, and in P. papatasi by E. coli LPS. Nevertheless, the gene expression of trypsins and chymotrypsins did not significantly change. On the other hand, both L. infantum and L. major LPG significantly enhanced expression of the AMP attacin in both sand fly species and defensin in L. longipalpis. In addition, E. coli LPS increased the expression of attacin and defensin in L. longipalpis. Our study showed that Leishmania LPG and E. coli LPS differentially modulate the expression of sand fly genes involved in gut maintenance and defence. This suggests that the glycoconjugates from microbiota or Leishmania may increase the vector's immune response and the gene expression of a gut coating protein in a permissive vector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbora Vomáčková Kykalová
- Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of Parasitology, Viničná 7, 128 44, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Fabiana Sassù
- Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of Parasitology, Viničná 7, 128 44, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Felipe Dutra-Rêgo
- Biotechnology Applied to Pathogens (BAP), Instituto René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Av. Augusto de Lima, 1715, CEP: 30190-009, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Pedro Soares
- Biotechnology Applied to Pathogens (BAP), Instituto René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Av. Augusto de Lima, 1715, CEP: 30190-009, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Petr Volf
- Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of Parasitology, Viničná 7, 128 44, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Erich Loza Telleria
- Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of Parasitology, Viničná 7, 128 44, Prague, Czech Republic.
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Wang Y, Liu Z, Yin X, Liu S, Wang K, Wan R, Chen H, Li X, Huang B. Variation in Bombyx mori immune response against fungal pathogen Beauveria bassiana with variability in cell wall β-1,3-glucan. INSECT SCIENCE 2024; 31:211-224. [PMID: 37350124 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.13209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023]
Abstract
Entomopathogenic fungi are protected by a cell wall with dynamic structure for adapting to various environmental conditions. β-1,3-Glucan recognition proteins activate the innate immune system of insects by recognizing surface molecules of fungi. However, the associations between pathogenicity and the different components of entomopathogenic fungal cell walls remain unclear. Three Beauveria bassiana strains were selected that have significantly differing virulence against Bombyx mori. The molecular mechanisms underlying the immune response in B. mori were investigated using RNA sequencing, which revealed differences in the immune response to different B. bassiana strains at 12 h post-infection. Immunofluorescence assays revealed that β-1,3-glucan content had an opposite trend to that of fungal virulence. β-1,3-Glucan injection upregulated BmβGRP4 expression and significantly reduced the virulence of the high-virulence strain but not that of the medium-virulence or low-virulence strains. BmβGRP4 silencing in B. mori with RNA interference resulted in the opposite virulence pattern, indicating that the virulence of B. bassiana was affected by the cell walls' content of β-1,3-glucan, which could be recognized by BmβGRP4. Furthermore, interference with the gene CnA (calcineurin catalytic A subunit) involved in β-1,3-glucan synthesis eliminated differences in virulence between B. bassiana strains. These results indicate that strains of a single species of pathogenic fungi that have differing cell wall components are recognized differently by the innate immune system of B. mori.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulong Wang
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Pest Control, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Zhen Liu
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Pest Control, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Xuebing Yin
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Pest Control, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Shihong Liu
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Pest Control, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Kai Wang
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Pest Control, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Rongjie Wan
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Pest Control, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Haoran Chen
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Pest Control, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Xinyang Li
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Pest Control, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Bo Huang
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Pest Control, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
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Liu H, Wei X, Ye X, Zhang H, Yang K, Shi W, Zhang J, Jashenko R, Ji R, Hu H. The immune response of Locusta migratoria manilensis at different times of infection with Paranosema locustae. ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 114:e22055. [PMID: 37786392 DOI: 10.1002/arch.22055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
Paranosema locustae is an entomopathogenic microsporidia with promising potential for controlling agricultural pests, including Locusta migratoria manilensis. However, it has the disadvantage of having a slow insecticidal rate, and how P. locustae infection impacts the host immune response is currently unknown. The present study investigated the effect of P. locustae on the natural immune response of L. migratoria and the activities of enzymes that protect against oxidative stress. Infection with P. locustae increased the hemocytes and nodulation number of L. migratoria at the initial stage of infection. The hemocyte-mediated modulation of immune response was also affected by a decrease in the number of hemocytes 12 days postinfection. Superoxide dismutase activity in locusts increased in the early stages of infection but decreased in the later stages, whereas the activities of peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT) showed opposite trends may be due to their different mechanisms of action. Furthermore, the transcription levels of mRNA of antimicrobial peptide-related genes and phenoloxidase activity in hemolymph in L. migratoria were suppressed within 15 days of P. locustae infection. Overall, our data suggest that P. locustae create a conducive environment for its own proliferation in the host by disrupting the immune defense against it. These findings provide useful information for the potential application of P. locustae as a biocontrol agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Liu
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Special Species Conservation and Regulatory Biology, International Research Center of Cross-Border Pest Management in Central Asia, College of Life Sciences, Xinjiang Normal University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
- Tacheng, Research Field (Migratory Biology), Observation and Research Station of Xinjiang, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaojia Wei
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Special Species Conservation and Regulatory Biology, International Research Center of Cross-Border Pest Management in Central Asia, College of Life Sciences, Xinjiang Normal University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
- Tacheng, Research Field (Migratory Biology), Observation and Research Station of Xinjiang, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaofang Ye
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Special Species Conservation and Regulatory Biology, International Research Center of Cross-Border Pest Management in Central Asia, College of Life Sciences, Xinjiang Normal University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
- Tacheng, Research Field (Migratory Biology), Observation and Research Station of Xinjiang, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Huihui Zhang
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Special Species Conservation and Regulatory Biology, International Research Center of Cross-Border Pest Management in Central Asia, College of Life Sciences, Xinjiang Normal University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
- Tacheng, Research Field (Migratory Biology), Observation and Research Station of Xinjiang, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Kun Yang
- Central for Prevention and Control of Prediction & Forecast Prevention of Locust and Rodent in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Wangpen Shi
- College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinrui Zhang
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Special Species Conservation and Regulatory Biology, International Research Center of Cross-Border Pest Management in Central Asia, College of Life Sciences, Xinjiang Normal University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
- Tacheng, Research Field (Migratory Biology), Observation and Research Station of Xinjiang, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Roman Jashenko
- Institute of Zoology RK93, Al-Farabi Ave., Almaty, Republic of Kazakhstan
| | - Rong Ji
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Special Species Conservation and Regulatory Biology, International Research Center of Cross-Border Pest Management in Central Asia, College of Life Sciences, Xinjiang Normal University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
- Tacheng, Research Field (Migratory Biology), Observation and Research Station of Xinjiang, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongxia Hu
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Special Species Conservation and Regulatory Biology, International Research Center of Cross-Border Pest Management in Central Asia, College of Life Sciences, Xinjiang Normal University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
- Tacheng, Research Field (Migratory Biology), Observation and Research Station of Xinjiang, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
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5
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El-Saadi MI, Brzezinski K, Hinz A, Phillips L, Wong A, Gerber L, Overgaard J, MacMillan HA. Locust gut epithelia do not become more permeable to fluorescent dextran and bacteria in the cold. J Exp Biol 2023; 226:jeb246306. [PMID: 37493046 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.246306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
The insect gut, which plays a role in ion and water balance, has been shown to leak solutes in the cold. Cold stress can also activate insect immune systems, but it is unknown whether the leak of the gut microbiome is a possible immune trigger in the cold. We developed a novel feeding protocol to load the gut of locusts (Locusta migratoria) with fluorescent bacteria before exposing them to -2°C for up to 48 h. No bacteria were recovered from the hemolymph of cold-exposed locusts, regardless of exposure duration. To examine this further, we used an ex vivo gut sac preparation to re-test cold-induced fluorescent FITC-dextran leak across the gut and found no increased rate of leak. These results question not only the validity of FITC-dextran as a marker of paracellular barrier permeability in the gut, but also to what extent the insect gut becomes leaky in the cold.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Aaron Hinz
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Laura Phillips
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Alex Wong
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Lucie Gerber
- Zoophysiology, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus 8000, Denmark
| | - Johannes Overgaard
- Zoophysiology, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus 8000, Denmark
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Arayamethakorn S, Uengwetwanit T, Karoonuthaisiri N, Methacanon P, Rungrassamee W. Comparative effects of different bacterial lipopolysaccharides on modulation of immune levels to improve survival of the black tiger shrimp. J Invertebr Pathol 2023; 197:107872. [PMID: 36566013 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2022.107872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
To prevent loss from disease, immunostimulants have been used as dietary supplements to improve immunity and survival of shrimps. Among the various types of immunostimulants, there is increasing evidence that a diet enriched with bacterial lipopolysaccharide can reduce the mortality rate of shrimp under exposure to pathogens. Here, the immunostimulatory effects of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from various bacterial sources were explored. Bacterial LPS was extracted from a shrimp pathogen, Vibrio harveyi and its effects were compared with the commercially available LPS from the non-shrimp pathogen, Escherichia coli. Our results revealed that the LPS from V. harveyi was different in molecular size but contained similar functional groups to that from E. coli. To understand their molecular mechanisms, bacterial LPS from the two sources were applied as a supplementary diet and fed to juvenile shrimp for 4-week feeding period before tissue samples were collected for transcriptomic analysis by next generation sequencing. Gene expression profiling revealed that major immune-related genes such as pattern recognition proteins (PRPs), proteinases and proteinase inhibitors, prophenoloxidase systems (proPO system), antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), signaling transduction pathways, heat shock proteins (HSPs), oxidative stress responses, and other immune-related molecules such as mucins and peritrophins were modulated in the groups of shrimp fed with bacterial LPS from both sources, but at different levels. The results suggest that bacterial LPS could modulate shrimp immune system, and different LPS sources led to different activation of immune pathways. Additionally, metabolic-related genes were affected by LPS, suggesting that energy was required for immune stimulation. In the V. harveyi pathogen challenge trial, all shrimp groups fed with diets containing LPS from both bacterial sources showed better survival than the control group without LPS. When comparing groups fed with LPS supplemented diets, the higher concentration of LPS (8 μg/body weight) from E. coli resulted in a better survival rate than a lower concentration (4 μg/body weight). Conversely, shrimp fed with a diet containing LPS from V. harveyi showed a lower survival rate when a higher dose of LPS (8 μg/body weight) was administered than the group fed with a lower concentration of LPS (4 μg/body weight). This could be due to overstimulation of shrimp immune responses, especially by LPS derived from shrimp pathogens, resulting in a reverse effect. These results confirm that immunity in shrimp upon administration of bacterial LPS depends on the origin and dose of the LPS administered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sopacha Arayamethakorn
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Khlong Neung, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
| | - Tanaporn Uengwetwanit
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Khlong Neung, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
| | - Nitsara Karoonuthaisiri
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Khlong Neung, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand; International Joint Research Center on Food Security, 113 Thailand Science Park, Khlong Neung, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand; Institute for Global Food Security, Queen's University Belfast, Biological Sciences Building, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, United Kingdom
| | - Pawadee Methacanon
- National Metal and Materials Technology Center (MTEC), 114 Thailand Science Park, Khlong Nueng, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
| | - Wanilada Rungrassamee
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Khlong Neung, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand.
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Li X, Zhang B, Zou J, Li Q, Liu J, Cai S, Akutse KS, You M, Lin S. Immune Responses and Transcriptomic Analysis of Nilaparvata lugens against Metarhizium anisopliae YTTR Mediated by Rice Ragged Stunt Virus. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:345. [PMID: 36679058 PMCID: PMC9865581 DOI: 10.3390/plants12020345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2022] [Revised: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Plant viruses and entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) can both elicit immune responses in insects. This study was designed to clarify whether plant viruses could affect the efficacy of EPF and explore the immune responses of brown planthopper (BPH), Nilaparvata lugens, in response to different pathogen infections. In this study, a strain of Metarhizium anisopliae YTTR with high pathogenicity against BPH was selected and explored whether rice ragged stunt virus (RRSV) could affect its lethality against BPH. RNA-seq was used to detect the inner responses of BPH in response to RRSV and M. anisopliae YTTR infection. Results showed that M. anisopliae YTTR has strong lethality against BPH (RRSV-carrying and RRSV-free). RRSV invasion did not affect the susceptibility of BPH against M. anisopliae YTTR at all concentrations. At 1 × 108 spores/mL, M. anisopliae YTTR caused a cumulative mortality of 80% to BPH at 7 days post-treatment. The largest numbers of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) was obtained in BPH treated with the two pathogens than in other single pathogen treatment. In addition, KEGG enrichment analysis showed that the DEGs were mostly enriched in immune and physiological mechanisms-related pathways. Both RRSV and M. anisopliae YTTR could induce the expression changes of immune-related genes. However, most of the immune genes had varying expression patterns in different treatment. Our findings demonstrated that RRSV invasion did not have any significant effect on the pathogenicity of M. anisopliae YTTR, while the co-infection of M. anisopliae YTTR and RRSV induced more immune and physiological mechanisms -related genes' responses. In addition, the presence of RRSV could render the interplay between BPH and M. anisopliae YTTR more intricate. These findings laid a basis for further elucidating the immune response mechanisms of RRSV-mediated BPH to M. anisopliae infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuewen Li
- State Key Laboratory for Ecological Pest Control of Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Institute of Applied Ecology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Ministerial and Provincial Joint Innovation Centre for Safety Production of Cross-Strait Crops, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Key Laboratory of Green Control of Insect Pests (Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University), Fujian Province University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Bang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Ecological Pest Control of Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Institute of Applied Ecology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Ministerial and Provincial Joint Innovation Centre for Safety Production of Cross-Strait Crops, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Key Laboratory of Green Control of Insect Pests (Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University), Fujian Province University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Jiaxing Zou
- State Key Laboratory for Ecological Pest Control of Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Institute of Applied Ecology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Ministerial and Provincial Joint Innovation Centre for Safety Production of Cross-Strait Crops, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Key Laboratory of Green Control of Insect Pests (Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University), Fujian Province University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Qianqian Li
- State Key Laboratory for Ecological Pest Control of Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Institute of Applied Ecology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Ministerial and Provincial Joint Innovation Centre for Safety Production of Cross-Strait Crops, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Key Laboratory of Green Control of Insect Pests (Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University), Fujian Province University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Jianli Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Ecological Pest Control of Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Institute of Applied Ecology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Ministerial and Provincial Joint Innovation Centre for Safety Production of Cross-Strait Crops, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Key Laboratory of Green Control of Insect Pests (Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University), Fujian Province University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Shouping Cai
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Forest Cultivation and Forest Products Processing and Utilization, Fujian Academy of Forestry, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Komivi Senyo Akutse
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, Nairobi P.O. Box 30772-00100, Kenya
| | - Minsheng You
- State Key Laboratory for Ecological Pest Control of Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Institute of Applied Ecology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Ministerial and Provincial Joint Innovation Centre for Safety Production of Cross-Strait Crops, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Key Laboratory of Green Control of Insect Pests (Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University), Fujian Province University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Sheng Lin
- State Key Laboratory for Ecological Pest Control of Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Institute of Applied Ecology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Ministerial and Provincial Joint Innovation Centre for Safety Production of Cross-Strait Crops, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Key Laboratory of Green Control of Insect Pests (Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University), Fujian Province University, Fuzhou 350002, China
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8
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Jemec Kokalj A, Dolar A, Drobne D, Škrlep L, Škapin AS, Marolt G, Nagode A, van Gestel CAM. Effects of microplastics from disposable medical masks on terrestrial invertebrates. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 438:129440. [PMID: 35803191 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated impacts of microplastics from disposable polypropylene medical masks on woodlice Porcellio scaber, mealworm larvae Tenebrio molitor and enchytraeids Enchytraeus crypticus. Effects of microplastics on survival, reproduction, immune parameters and energy-related traits were assessed after 21 days exposure in soil. Microplastics obtained from each medical mask layer separately differed in size and shape (inner frontal layer: 45.1 ± 21.5 µm, fibers; middle filtering layer: 55.6 ± 28.5 µm, fragments; outer layer: 42.0 ± 17.8 µm, fibers) and composition of additives. Overall, the concentrations of metals and organic chemicals were too low to cause effects on soil invertebrates. The microplastics from disposable medical masks at 0.06%, 0.5%, 1.5%, w/w did not induce severe adverse effects on survival or reproduction (for enchytraeids). A transient immune response of woodlice and a change in energy-related traits in mealworms were observed, which was most clearly seen for the microplastics from the outer layer. This was reflected in increased electron transfer system activity of mealworms and different immune response dynamics of woodlice. In conclusion, the tested soil invertebrates respond to microplastics from disposable medical masks, but it remains unclear what these changes mean for their fitness on the long term.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Jemec Kokalj
- University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Biology, Jamnikarjeva 101, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Andraž Dolar
- University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Biology, Jamnikarjeva 101, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Damjana Drobne
- University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Biology, Jamnikarjeva 101, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Luka Škrlep
- Slovenian National Building and Civil Engineering Institute, Dimičeva ulica 12, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Andrijana Sever Škapin
- Slovenian National Building and Civil Engineering Institute, Dimičeva ulica 12, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Faculty of Polymer Technology - FTPO, Ozare 19, 2380, Slovenj Gradec, Slovenia
| | - Gregor Marolt
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Večna pot 113, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Ana Nagode
- University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Biology, Jamnikarjeva 101, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Faculty of Science, Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment (A-LIFE), De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Cornelis A M van Gestel
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Faculty of Science, Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment (A-LIFE), De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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9
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von Bredow YM, Müller A, Popp PF, Iliasov D, von Bredow CR. Characterization and mode of action analysis of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larva-derived hemocytes. INSECT SCIENCE 2022; 29:1071-1095. [PMID: 34687131 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.12977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2021] [Revised: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
With the growing importance of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) for both sustainable food production and waste management as well as for science, a great demand of understanding its immune system arises. Here, we present the first description of the circulating larval hemocytes with special emphasis on uptake of microorganisms and distinguishing hemocyte types. With histological, zymographic, and cytometric methods and with a set of hemocyte binding lectins and antibodies, the hemocytes of H. illucens are identified as plasmatocytes, crystal cells, and putative prohemocytes. Total hemocyte counts (THC) are determined, and methods for THC determination are compared. Approximately 1100 hemocytes per microliter hemolymph are present in naive animals, while hemocyte density decreases dramatically shortly after wounding, indicating a role of hemocytes in response to wounding (and immune response in general). The determination of the relative abundance of each hemocyte type (differential hemocyte count, DHC) revealed that plasmatocytes are highly abundant, whereas prohemocytes and crystal cells make up only a small percentage of the circulating cells. Plasmatocytes are not only the most abundant but also the professional phagocytes in H. illucens. They rapidly engulf and take up bacteria both in vivo and in vitro, indicating a very potent cellular defense against invading pathogens. Larger bioparticles such as yeasts are also removed from circulation by phagocytosis, but slower than bacteria. This is the first analysis of the potent cellular immune response in the black soldier fly, and a first toolbox that helps to identify hemocyte (types) is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvette M von Bredow
- Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen, Institut für Allgemeine Zoologie und Entwicklungsbiologie, Zelluläre Erkennungs- und Abwehrprozesse, Gießen, Germany
| | - Ariane Müller
- Technische Universität Dresden, Fakultät Biologie, Institut für Zoologie, Dresden, Germany
| | - Philipp F Popp
- Technische Universität Dresden, Fakultät Biologie, Institut für Mikrobiologie, Dresden, Germany
- Present address: Philipp F. Popp, Institute for Biology-Bacterial Physiology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Denis Iliasov
- Technische Universität Dresden, Fakultät Biologie, Institut für Mikrobiologie, Dresden, Germany
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Bidoli C, Miccoli A, Buonocore F, Fausto AM, Gerdol M, Picchietti S, Scapigliati G. Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Early Hemocyte Responses upon In Vivo Stimulation with LPS in the Stick Insect Bacillus rossius (Rossi, 1788). INSECTS 2022; 13:insects13070645. [PMID: 35886821 PMCID: PMC9316843 DOI: 10.3390/insects13070645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Simple Summary Non-model insect species such as B. rossius suffer from a profound gap of knowledge regarding the temporal progression of physiological responses following the challenge with bacterial pathogens or cell wall components thereof. The reason for this mostly lies in the lack of genomic/transcriptomic resources, which would provide an unparalleled in-depth capacity in the analysis of molecular, biochemical, and metabolic mechanisms. We present a high-quality transcriptome obtained from high-coverage sequencing of hemocytes harvested from adult stick insect specimens both pre- and post-LPS stimulation. Such a resource served as the basis for a stringent differential gene expression and functional enrichment analyses, the results of which were characterized and discussed in depth. Selected transcripts encoding for C-type lectins and ML-domain containing proteins were further investigated from a phylogenetic perspective. Overall, these findings shed light on the physiological responses driven by a short-term LPS stimulation in the European stick insect. Abstract Despite a growing number of non-model insect species is being investigated in recent years, a greater understanding of their physiology is prevented by the lack of genomic resources. This is the case of the common European stick insect Bacillus rossius (Rossi, 1788): in this species, some knowledge is available on hemocyte-related defenses, but little is known about the physiological changes occurring in response to natural or experimental challenges. Here, the transcriptional signatures of adult B. rossius hemocytes were investigated after a short-term (2 h) LPS stimulation in vivo: a total of 2191 differentially expressed genes, mostly involved in proteolysis and carbohydrate and lipid metabolic processes, were identified in the de novo assembled transcriptome and in-depth discussed. Overall, the significant modulation of immune signals—such as C-type lectins, ML domain-containing proteins, serpins, as well as Toll signaling-related molecules—provide novel information on the early progression of LPS-induced responses in B. rossius.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlotta Bidoli
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy; (C.B.); (M.G.)
| | - Andrea Miccoli
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems, University of Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy; (F.B.); (A.M.F.); (S.P.); (G.S.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Francesco Buonocore
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems, University of Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy; (F.B.); (A.M.F.); (S.P.); (G.S.)
| | - Anna Maria Fausto
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems, University of Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy; (F.B.); (A.M.F.); (S.P.); (G.S.)
| | - Marco Gerdol
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy; (C.B.); (M.G.)
| | - Simona Picchietti
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems, University of Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy; (F.B.); (A.M.F.); (S.P.); (G.S.)
| | - Giuseppe Scapigliati
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems, University of Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy; (F.B.); (A.M.F.); (S.P.); (G.S.)
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11
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Dolar A, Jemec Kokalj A, Drobne D. Time-Course of the Innate Immune Response of the Terrestrial Crustacean Porcellio scaber After Injection of a Single Dose of Lipopolysaccharide. Front Immunol 2022; 13:867077. [PMID: 35592321 PMCID: PMC9110979 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.867077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Invertebrates, including crustaceans, rely on cellular and humoral immune responses to protect against extrinsic and intrinsic factors that threaten their integrity. Recently, different immune parameters have been increasingly used as biomarkers of effects of pollutants and environmental change. Here, we describe the dynamics of the innate immune response of the terrestrial crustacean Porcellio scaber to injection of a single dose of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), an important molecular surface component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. The aim was to provide a basis for interpretation of change in immune parameters as a result of different challenges, including microplastics and nanoplastics exposure. Changes in total and differential numbers of hemocytes, hemocyte viability, and humoral immune parameters (i.e., phenoloxidase-like activity, nitric oxide levels) were assessed at different times (3, 6, 12, 24, 48 h). An injection of 0.5 μg/μL LPS into the body of P. scaber resulted in a rapid decrease (3 h after LPS injection) in the total number of hemocytes and reduced viability of the hemocytes. This was accompanied by changed proportions of the different hemocyte types, as a decrease in the numbers of semigranulocytes and granulocytes, and a marked increase in the numbers of hyalinocytes. In addition, phenoloxidase-like activity and nitric oxide levels in the hemolymph were increased at 3 h and 6 h, respectively, after the LPS challenge. Forty-eight hours after LPS injection, the immune parameters in the hemolymph of P. scaber had returned to those before the LPS challenge. This suggests that the innate immune system successfully protected P. scaber from the deleterious effects of the LPS challenge. These data indicate the need to consider the dynamics of innate immune responses of P. scaber when effects of infections, pollutants, or environmental changes are studied. We also propose an approach to test the immunocompetence of organisms after different challenges in ecotoxicity studies, based on the dynamics of their immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andraž Dolar
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Anita Jemec Kokalj
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Damjana Drobne
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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12
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Kaczmarek A, Wrońska AK, Kazek M, Boguś MI. Octanoic Acid-An Insecticidal Metabolite of Conidiobolus coronatus (Entomopthorales) That Affects Two Majors Antifungal Protection Systems in Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera): Cuticular Lipids and Hemocytes. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23095204. [PMID: 35563592 PMCID: PMC9101785 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23095204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The food flavour additive octanoic acid (C8:0) is also a metabolite of the entomopathogenic fungus Conidiobolus coronatus, which efficiently infects and rapidly kills Galleria mellonella. GC-MS analysis confirmed the presence of C8:0 in insecticidal fraction FR3 extracted from C. coronatus filtrate. Topical administration of C8:0 had a dose-dependent effect on survival rates of larvae but not on pupation or adult eclosion times of the survivors. Topically applied C8:0 was more toxic to adults than larvae (LD100 for adults 18.33 ± 2.49 vs. 33.56 ± 2.57 µg/mg of body mass for larvae). The administration of C8:0 on the cuticle of larvae and adults, in amounts corresponding to their LD50 and LD100 doses, had a considerable impact on the two main defense systems engaged in protecting against pathogens, causing serious changes in the developmental-stage-specific profiles of free fatty acids (FFAs) covering the cuticle of larvae and adults and damaging larval hemocytes. In vitro cultures of G. mellonella hemocytes, either directly treated with C8:0 or taken from C8:0 treated larvae, revealed deformation of hemocytes, disordered networking, late apoptosis, and necrosis, as well as caspase 1-9 activation and elevation of 8-OHdG level. C8:0 was also confirmed to have a cytotoxic effect on the SF-9 insect cell line, as determined by WST-1 and LDH tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agata Kaczmarek
- Witold Stefański Institute of Parasitology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 00-875 Warsaw, Poland; (A.K.W.); (M.K.); (M.I.B.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Anna Katarzyna Wrońska
- Witold Stefański Institute of Parasitology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 00-875 Warsaw, Poland; (A.K.W.); (M.K.); (M.I.B.)
| | - Michalina Kazek
- Witold Stefański Institute of Parasitology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 00-875 Warsaw, Poland; (A.K.W.); (M.K.); (M.I.B.)
| | - Mieczysława Irena Boguś
- Witold Stefański Institute of Parasitology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 00-875 Warsaw, Poland; (A.K.W.); (M.K.); (M.I.B.)
- Biomibo, 04-872 Warsaw, Poland
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13
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Letendre C, Duffield KR, Sadd BM, Sakaluk SK, House CM, Hunt J. Genetic covariance in immune measures and pathogen resistance in decorated crickets is sex and pathogen specific. J Anim Ecol 2022; 91:1471-1488. [PMID: 35470433 PMCID: PMC9545791 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Insects are important models for studying immunity in an ecological and evolutionary context. Yet, most empirical work on the insect immune system has come from phenotypic studies meaning we have a limited understanding of the genetic architecture of immune function in the sexes. We use nine highly inbred lines to thoroughly examine the genetic relationships between a suite of commonly used immune assays (haemocyte count, implant encapsulation, total phenoloxidase activity, antibacterial zone of inhibition and pathogen clearance) and resistance to infection by three generalist insect pathogens (the gram‐negative bacterium Serratia marcescens, the gram‐positive bacterium Bacillus cereus and the fungus Metarhizium robertsii) in male and female Gryllodes sigillatus. There were consistent positive genetic correlations between haemocyte count, antibacterial and phenoloxidase activity and resistance to S. marcescens in both sexes, but these relationships were less consistent for resistance to B. cereus and M. robertsii. In addition, the clearance of S. marcescens was genetically correlated with the resistance to all three pathogens in both sexes. Genetic correlations between resistances to the different pathogen species were inconsistent, indicating that resistance to one pathogen does not necessarily mean resistance to another. Finally, while there is ample genetic (co)variance in immune assays and pathogen resistance, these genetic estimates differed across the sexes and many of these measures were not genetically correlated across the sexes, suggesting that these measures could evolve independently in the sexes. Our finding that the genetic architecture of immune function is sex and pathogen specific suggests that the evolution of immune function in male and female G. sigillatus is likely to be complex. Similar quantitative genetic studies that measure a large number of assays and resistance to multiple pathogens in both sexes are needed to ascertain if this complexity extends to other species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinne Letendre
- School of Science, Western Sydney University, Hawkesbury Campus, Locked Bag 1797, Richmond, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Kristin R Duffield
- School of Biological Sciences, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois, United States of America.,Crop Bioprotection Research Unit, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Peoria, IL, United States of America
| | - Ben M Sadd
- School of Biological Sciences, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Scott K Sakaluk
- School of Biological Sciences, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Clarissa M House
- School of Science, Western Sydney University, Hawkesbury Campus, Locked Bag 1797, Richmond, New South Wales, Australia
| | - John Hunt
- School of Science, Western Sydney University, Hawkesbury Campus, Locked Bag 1797, Richmond, New South Wales, Australia.,Centre for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Tremough Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, United Kingdom
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14
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Alciatore G, Ugelvig LV, Frank E, Bidaux J, Gal A, Schmitt T, Kronauer DJC, Ulrich Y. Immune challenges increase network centrality in a queenless ant. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20211456. [PMID: 34493081 PMCID: PMC8424377 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.1456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Social animals display a wide range of behavioural defences against infectious diseases, some of which increase social contacts with infectious individuals (e.g. mutual grooming), while others decrease them (e.g. social exclusion). These defences often rely on the detection of infectious individuals, but this can be achieved in several ways that are difficult to differentiate. Here, we combine non-pathogenic immune challenges with automated tracking in colonies of the clonal raider ant to ask whether ants can detect the immune status of their social partners and to quantify their behavioural responses to this perceived infection risk. We first show that a key behavioural response elicited by live pathogens (allogrooming) can be qualitatively recapitulated by immune challenges alone. Automated scoring of interactions between all colony members reveals that this behavioural response increases the network centrality of immune-challenged individuals through a general increase in physical contacts. These results show that ants can detect the immune status of their nest-mates and respond with a general 'caring' strategy, rather than avoidance, towards social partners that are perceived to be infectious. Finally, we find no evidence that changes in cuticular hydrocarbon profiles drive these behavioural effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giacomo Alciatore
- Institute of Integrative Biology, ETHZ Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Line V. Ugelvig
- Laboratory of Social Evolution and Behavior, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
- Centre for Social Evolution, University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - Erik Frank
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology, University of Würzburg, Biocentre, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Jérémie Bidaux
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Asaf Gal
- Laboratory of Social Evolution and Behavior, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Thomas Schmitt
- Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology, University of Würzburg, Biocentre, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Daniel J. C. Kronauer
- Laboratory of Social Evolution and Behavior, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Yuko Ulrich
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745 Jena, Germany
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15
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Chipchase KM, Enders AM, Jacobs EG, Hughes MR, Killian KA. Effect of a single cold stress exposure on the reproductive behavior of male crickets. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 133:104287. [PMID: 34302838 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2021.104287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Cold stress is an important abiotic factor that can impact insect physiology, behavior, and overall fitness. Upon exposure to cold temperature, many insects enter a reversible state of immobility called chill coma. If the cold stress is brief and mild enough, insects can recover and regain full mobility upon return to warmer temperatures. However, the long-term impact of sublethal cold stress on insect behavior has been understudied. Here, sexually naïve adult male Acheta domesticus crickets were exposed to a single 0 °C cold stress for 6 h. One week later, the ability of these males to mate with a female was examined. For mating trials, a cold stressed male cricket was paired with a non-cold stressed, control female. Control pairs were comprised of a non-cold stressed control male and control female. Cold exposed males were less successful at mating than control males because most did not carry a spermatophore at the time of their mating trials. However, when these cold stressed males were allowed 1 h of chemosensory contact with a female, most produced a spermatophore. Males that produced spermatophores were given the opportunity to mate once with a female, and stressed males that successfully mated sired as many offspring as did control males. However, our results support that a single cold stress exposure can negatively impact the reproductive fitness of male crickets since it reduced their capacity to carry spermatophores and, as a consequence, to attract females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn M Chipchase
- Department of Biology, 258 Pearson Hall, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA
| | - Alexa M Enders
- Department of Biology, 258 Pearson Hall, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA
| | - Elizabeth G Jacobs
- Department of Biology, 258 Pearson Hall, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA
| | - Michael R Hughes
- Department of Biology, 258 Pearson Hall, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA
| | - Kathleen A Killian
- Department of Biology, 258 Pearson Hall, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA.
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16
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Reginald K, Wong YR, Shah SMR, Teh KF, Freddy Jalin EJ, Khan NA. Investigating immune responses of the house cricket, Acheta domesticus to pathogenic Eschericia coli K1. Microbes Infect 2021; 23:104876. [PMID: 34332091 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2021.104876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Revised: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Insects models are excellent models of the innate immune system, as they are free from the influences of the vertebrate adaptive immunity. Crickets are hemimetabolous insects belonging to the order Orthopteran order that have not been as extensively characterized as other holometabolous insects, and may provide new insights to the insect immune responses. In this study, we aim to characterize the innate immune responses of the common house cricket, Acheta domesticus in response to a human pathogenic bacterium E. coli K1. METHODS Crickets were injected with sterile buffer, live E. coli K1 or heat-killed E. coli K1. Physiological effects such as mortality and weight change of the crickets were determined 24-, 48 and 72-hours post injection while immunological effects such as hemocyte counts, bacteremia, phenoloxidase and lysozyme activity of the crickets were measured at 2- and 24-hours post-injection. RESULTS The injection of E. coli K1 in crickets resulted in >85% mortality 3-days post injection, accompanied by significant weight loss. E. coli K1 injection caused a significant increase in both phenoloxidase and lysozyme activities in cricket hemolymphs 24-hours post injection. Live E. coli K1 injected crickets resulted in a significant reduction in circulating hemocytes 24-hours post injection which was not observed in other treatment groups. This was consistent with the resolution of bacteremia observed 24-hours post infection in live E. coli K1 injected crickets. CONCLUSION Our study provides new insights on the innate immune response to pathogenic E. coli K1 in a cricket model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kavita Reginald
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Yi Ru Wong
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Smyrna Moti Rawanan Shah
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Keng Foo Teh
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Eunice Jalin Freddy Jalin
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Naveed Ahmed Khan
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia; Clinical Sciences Department, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
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17
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Dolar A, Selonen S, van Gestel CAM, Perc V, Drobne D, Jemec Kokalj A. Microplastics, chlorpyrifos and their mixtures modulate immune processes in the terrestrial crustacean Porcellio scaber. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 772:144900. [PMID: 33581511 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics and agrochemicals are common pollutants in terrestrial ecosystems. Their interaction during coexistence in soils may influence their fate and adverse effects on terrestrial organisms. The aim of this study was to investigate how the exposure to two types of microplastics; polyester fibres, and crumb rubber; induce changes in immune parameters of Porcellio scaber and if the co-exposure of microplastics affects the response induced by the organophosphate pesticide chlorpyrifos. A number of immune parameters, such as total haemocyte count, differential haemocyte count, and phenoloxidase-like activity were assessed. In addition, the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in the haemolymph was evaluated as a measure of the bioavailability of chlorpyrifos. After three weeks of exposure, the most noticeable changes in the measured immune parameters and also a significantly reduced AChE activity were seen in chlorpyrifos-exposed animals. Both types of microplastic at environmentally relevant concentrations caused only slight changes in immune parameters which were not dependent on the type of microplastic, although the two types differed significantly in terms of the chemical complexity of the additives. Mixtures of chlorpyrifos and microplastics induced changes that differed from individual exposures. For example, alterations in some measured parameters suggested a reduced bioavailability of chlorpyrifos (AChE activity, haemocyte viability) caused by both types of microplastics exposure, but the increase of haemocyte count was promoted by the presence of fibres implying their joint action. In conclusion, this study suggests that immune processes in P. scaber are slightly changed upon exposure to both types of microplastics and microplastics can significantly modulate the effects of other co-exposed chemicals. Further research is needed on the short-term and long-term joint effects of microplastics and agrochemicals on the immunity of soil invertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andraž Dolar
- University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Biology, Večna pot 111, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Salla Selonen
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Faculty of Science, Department of Ecological Science, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), Mustialankatu 3, 00790 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Cornelis A M van Gestel
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Faculty of Science, Department of Ecological Science, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Valentina Perc
- University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Biology, Večna pot 111, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Damjana Drobne
- University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Biology, Večna pot 111, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Anita Jemec Kokalj
- University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Biology, Večna pot 111, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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18
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Stressor-Dependant Changes in Immune Parameters in the Terrestrial Isopod Crustacean, Porcellio scaber: A Focus on Nanomaterials. NANOMATERIALS 2021; 11:nano11040934. [PMID: 33917492 PMCID: PMC8067488 DOI: 10.3390/nano11040934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
We compared the changes of selected immune parameters of Porcellio scaber to different stressors. The animals were either fed for two weeks with Au nanoparticles (NPs), CeO2 NPs, or Au ions or body-injected with Au NPs, CeO2 NPs, or lipopolysaccharide endotoxin. Contrary to expectations, the feeding experiment showed that both NPs caused a significant increase in the total haemocyte count (THC). In contrast, the ion-positive control resulted in a significantly decreased THC. Additionally, changes in phenoloxidase (PO)-like activity, haemocyte viability, and nitric oxide (NO) levels seemed to depend on the stressor. Injection experiments also showed stressor-dependant changes in measured parameters, such as CeO2 NPs and lipopolysaccharide endotoxin (LPS), caused more significant responses than Au NPs. These results show that feeding and injection of NPs caused an immune response and that the response differed significantly, depending on the exposure route. We did not expect the response to ingested NPs, due to the low exposure concentrations (100 μg/g dry weight food) and a firm gut epithelia, along with a lack of phagocytosis in the digestive system, which would theoretically prevent NPs from crossing the biological barrier. It remains a challenge for future research to reveal what the physiological and ecological significance is for the organism to sense and respond, via the immune system, to ingested foreign material.
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Beani L, Mariotti Lippi M, Mulinacci N, Manfredini F, Cecchi L, Giuliani C, Tani C, Meriggi N, Cavalieri D, Cappa F. Altered feeding behavior and immune competence in paper wasps: A case of parasite manipulation? PLoS One 2020; 15:e0242486. [PMID: 33326432 PMCID: PMC7743958 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Paper wasps (Polistes dominula), parasitized by the strepsipteran Xenos vesparum, are castrated and desert the colony to gather on plants where the parasite mates and releases primary larvae, thus completing its lifecycle. One of these plants is the trumpet creeper Campsis radicans: in a previous study the majority of all wasps collected from this plant were parasitized and focused their foraging activity on C. radicans buds. The unexpected prevalence and unusual feeding strategy prompted us to investigate the influence of this plant on wasp behavior and physiology through a multidisciplinary approach. First, in a series of laboratory bioassays, we observed that parasitized wasps spent more time than non-parasitized ones on fresh C. radicans buds, rich of extra-floral nectaries (EFNs), while the same wasps ignored treated buds that lacked nectar drops. Then, we described the structure and ultra-structure of EFNs secreting cells, compatible with the synthesis of phenolic compounds. Subsequently, we analysed extracts from different bud tissues by HPLC-DAD-MS and found that verbascoside was the most abundant bioactive molecule in those tissues rich in EFNs. Finally, we tested the immune-stimulant properties of verbascoside, as the biochemical nature of this compound indicates it might function as an antibacterial and antioxidant. We measured bacterial clearance in wasps, as a proxy for overall immune competence, and observed that it was enhanced after administration of verbascoside-even more so if the wasp was parasitized. We hypothesize that the parasite manipulates wasp behavior to preferentially feed on C. radicans EFNs, since the bioactive properties of verbascoside likely increase host survival and thus the parasite own fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Beani
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Firenze, Firenze, Italia
- * E-mail: (LB); (DC)
| | | | - Nadia Mulinacci
- Dipartimento di NEUROFARBA, Università di Firenze, Firenze, Italia
| | - Fabio Manfredini
- School of Biological Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, United Kingdom
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Lorenzo Cecchi
- Dipartimento di NEUROFARBA, Università di Firenze, Firenze, Italia
| | - Claudia Giuliani
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italia
| | - Corrado Tani
- Dipartimento di NEUROFARBA, Università di Firenze, Firenze, Italia
| | - Niccolò Meriggi
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Firenze, Firenze, Italia
| | - Duccio Cavalieri
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Firenze, Firenze, Italia
- * E-mail: (LB); (DC)
| | - Federico Cappa
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Firenze, Firenze, Italia
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20
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Dolar A, Kostanjšek R, Mayall C, Drobne D, Kokalj AJ. Modulations of immune parameters caused by bacterial and viral infections in the terrestrial crustacean Porcellio scaber: Implications for potential markers in environmental research. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 113:103789. [PMID: 32735963 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2020.103789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The terrestrial crustacean Porcellio scaber (Crustacea: Isopoda) is an established invertebrate model in environmental research. Preceding research using isopods did not widely use immune markers. In order to advance their use in research, knowledge of the reference values in control animals as well as variations during infections is of importance. This study presents, for the first time, the morphology, and ultrastructure of the three main haemocyte types of Porcellio scaber as semigranulocytes (SGCs), granulocytes (GCs), and hyalinocytes (HCs), with the latter having two subtypes, using various light and electron microscopy approaches. The modulation of selected immune cellular and humoral parameters of P. scaber in symptomatic phases of Rhabdochlamydia porcellionis and Iridovirus IIV-31 infections is presented. A clear difference in the immune responses of bacterial and viral infections was shown. Remarkable changes in total haemocyte count (THC) values and the proportions of three different haemocyte types were found in animals with a viral infection, which were not as significant in bacterially infected animals. Modified NO levels and SOD activity were more pronounced in cases of bacterial infection. Knowledge of the morphological and ultrastructural features of distinct haemocyte types, understanding the baseline values of immune parameters in control animals without evident symptoms of infection, and the influence that infections can have on these parameters can serve as a basis for the further use of P. scaber immune markers in environmental research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andraž Dolar
- University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Rok Kostanjšek
- University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Craig Mayall
- University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Damjana Drobne
- University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Anita Jemec Kokalj
- University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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21
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Cappa F, Torrini G, Mazza G, Inghilesi AF, Benvenuti C, Viliani L, Roversi PF, Cervo R. Assessing immunocompetence in red palm weevil adult and immature stages in response to bacterial challenge and entomopathogenic nematode infection. INSECT SCIENCE 2020; 27:1031-1042. [PMID: 31633276 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.12732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2019] [Revised: 09/08/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Parasites and pathogens can follow different patterns of infection depending on the host developmental stage or sex. In fact, immune function is energetically costly for hosts and trade-offs exist between immune defenses and life history traits as growth, development and reproduction and organisms should thus optimize immune defense through their life cycle according to their developmental stage. Identifying the most susceptible target and the most virulent pathogen is particularly important in the case of insect pests, in order to develop effective control strategies targeting the most vulnerable individuals with the most effective control agent. Here, we carried out laboratory tests to identify the most susceptible target of infection by infecting different stages of the red palm weevil Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (larvae, pupae, male, and female adults) with both a generic pathogen, antibiotic-resistant Gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli XL1-Blue, and two specific strains of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs), Steinernema carpocapsae ItS-CAO1 and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora ItH-LU1. By evaluating bacterial clearance, host mortality and parasite progeny release, we demonstrate that larvae are more resistant than adults to bacterial challenge and they release less EPNs progeny after infection despite a higher mortality compared to adults. Considering the two EPN strains, S. carpocapsae was more virulent than H. bacteriophora both in terms of host mortality and more abundant progeny released by hosts after death. The outcomes attained with unspecific and specific pathogens provide useful information for a more efficient and sustainable management of this invasive pest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Cappa
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Giulia Torrini
- CREA Research Centre for Plant Protection and Certification, Florence, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Mazza
- CREA Research Centre for Plant Protection and Certification, Florence, Italy
| | | | - Claudia Benvenuti
- CREA Research Centre for Plant Protection and Certification, Florence, Italy
| | | | | | - Rita Cervo
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
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22
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Sorrell MR, Killian KA. Innate immune system function following systemic RNA-interference of the Fragile X Mental Retardation 1 gene in the cricket Acheta domesticus. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 126:104097. [PMID: 32791072 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2020.104097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Revised: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Fragile X syndrome (FXS), caused by a mutation in the Fragile X Mental Retardation 1 (FMR1) gene, is a common form of inherited mental retardation. Mutation of the gene leads to a loss of the gene product Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein (FMRP). While a loss of FMRP has been primarily associated with neural and cognitive deficits, it has also been reported to lead to immune system dysfunction in both humans and flies. We used the Acheta domesticus transcriptome to identify a highly conserved cricket ortholog of FMR1 (adfmr1). We cloned a partial cDNA of adfmr1, used systemic RNA interference (RNAi) to knockdown adfmr1 expression, and examined the impact of this knockdown (KD) on the cellular and humoral responses of the insect innate immune system. Following RNAi, both male and female crickets exhibited an increase in the number of circulating hemocytes, a decrease in total hemolymph phenoloxidase (PO) activity, and an increase in fat body lysozyme expression. Despite similar changes in these immune parameters in both sexes, male and female crickets responded differently to an immune challenge. Most KD males failed to survive an intra-abdominal injection of bacterial lipopolysaccharide, while KD females were just as likely as control females to survive this challenge. Our results support that decreased fmr1 expression can alter the cellular and humoral defenses of the insect innate immune system, and may lead to a decrease in male, but not female, immunocompetence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mollie R Sorrell
- Department of Biology, Miami University, 258 Pearson Hall, Oxford, OH 45056, USA; Department of Biology, Defiance College, Defiance, OH 43512, USA
| | - Kathleen A Killian
- Department of Biology, Miami University, 258 Pearson Hall, Oxford, OH 45056, USA.
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23
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Cini A, Bordoni A, Cappa F, Petrocelli I, Pitzalis M, Iovinella I, Dani FR, Turillazzi S, Cervo R. Increased immunocompetence and network centrality of allogroomer workers suggest a link between individual and social immunity in honeybees. Sci Rep 2020; 10:8928. [PMID: 32488140 PMCID: PMC7265547 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-65780-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The significant risk of disease transmission has selected for effective immune-defense strategies in insect societies. Division of labour, with individuals specialized in immunity-related tasks, strongly contributes to prevent the spread of diseases. A trade-off, however, may exist between phenotypic specialization to increase task efficiency and maintenance of plasticity to cope with variable colony demands. We investigated the extent of phenotypic specialization associated with a specific task by using allogrooming in the honeybee, Apis mellifera, where worker behaviour might lower ectoparasites load. We adopted an integrated approach to characterize the behavioural and physiological phenotype of allogroomers, by analyzing their behavior (both at individual and social network level), their immunocompetence (bacterial clearance tests) and their chemosensory specialization (proteomics of olfactory organs). We found that allogroomers have higher immune capacity compared to control bees, while they do not differ in chemosensory proteomic profiles. Behaviourally, they do not show differences in the tasks performed (other than allogrooming), while they clearly differ in connectivity within the colonial social network, having a higher centrality than control bees. This demonstrates the presence of an immune-specific physiological and social behavioural specialization in individuals involved in a social immunity related task, thus linking individual to social immunity, and it shows how phenotypes may be specialized in the task performed while maintaining an overall plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Cini
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Firenze, Via Madonna del Piano 6, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, Italy.
- Centre for Biodiversity and Environment Research, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK.
| | - Adele Bordoni
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Firenze, Via Madonna del Piano 6, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, Italy
| | - Federico Cappa
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Firenze, Via Madonna del Piano 6, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, Italy
| | - Iacopo Petrocelli
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Firenze, Via Madonna del Piano 6, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, Italy
| | - Martina Pitzalis
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Firenze, Via Madonna del Piano 6, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, Italy
| | - Immacolata Iovinella
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Firenze, Via Madonna del Piano 6, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, Italy
| | - Francesca Romana Dani
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Firenze, Via Madonna del Piano 6, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, Italy
- CISM, Mass Spectrometry Centre, Università di Firenze, Via U. Schiff 6, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, Italy
| | - Stefano Turillazzi
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Firenze, Via Madonna del Piano 6, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, Italy
| | - Rita Cervo
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Firenze, Via Madonna del Piano 6, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, Italy
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24
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Kelly CD, Mc Cabe Leroux J. No evidence of sickness behavior in immune-challenged field crickets. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:6049-6058. [PMID: 32607212 PMCID: PMC7319135 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 04/07/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Sickness behavior is a taxonomically widespread coordinated set of behavioral changes that increases shelter-seeking while reducing levels of general activity, as well as food (anorexia) and water (adipsia) consumption, when fighting infection by pathogens and disease. The leading hypothesis explaining such sickness-related shifts in behavior is the energy conservation hypothesis. This hypothesis argues that sick (i.e., immune-challenged) animals reduce energetic expenditure in order have more energy to fuel an immune response, which in some vertebrates, also includes producing an energetically expensive physiological fever. We experimentally tested the hypothesis that an immune challenge with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) will cause Gryllus firmus field crickets to reduce their activity, increase shelter use and avoid foods that interfere with an immune response (i.e., fat) while preferring a diet that fuels an immune response (i.e., protein). We found little evidence of sickness behavior in Gryllus firmus as immune-challenged individuals did not reduce their activity or increase their shelter-seeking. Neither did we observe changes in feeding or drinking behavior nor a preference for protein or avoidance of lipids. Males tended to use shelters less than females but no other behaviors differed between the sexes. The lack of sickness behavior in our study might reflect the fact that invertebrates do not possess energetically expensive physiological fever as part of their immune response. Therefore, there is little reason to conserve energy via reduced activity or increased shelter use when immune-challenged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clint D. Kelly
- Département des Sciences biologiquesUniversité du Québec à MontréalMontrealQCCanada
| | - Jules Mc Cabe Leroux
- Département des Sciences biologiquesUniversité du Québec à MontréalMontrealQCCanada
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25
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Stahlschmidt ZR, Glass JR. Life History and Immune Challenge Influence Metabolic Plasticity to Food Availability and Acclimation Temperature. Physiol Biochem Zool 2020; 93:271-281. [PMID: 32469272 DOI: 10.1086/709587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Animals vary in their rates of energy expenditure for self-maintenance (standard metabolic rate [SMR]). Yet we still lack a thorough understanding of the determinants of SMR, potentially because of complex interactions among environmental, life-history, and physiological factors. Thus, we used a factorial design in female sand field crickets (Gryllus firmus) to investigate the independent and interactive effects of food availability (unlimited or limited access), acclimation temperature (control or simulated heat wave), life-history strategy (flight-capable or flight-incapable wing morphology), and immune status (control or chronic immune activation) on SMR (CO2 production rate) measured at 28°C. Both environmental factors independently affected SMR where heat wave and food limitation reduced SMR. Furthermore, wing morphology and immune status mediated the plasticity of SMR to food and temperature. For example, the hypermetabolic effect of food availability was greater in flight-capable crickets and reduced in immune-challenged crickets. Therefore, although SMR was directly affected by food availability and acclimation temperature, interactive effects on SMR were more common, meaning several factors (e.g., life history and immune status) influenced metabolic plasticity to food and temperature. We encourage continued use of factorial experiments to reveal interaction dynamics, which are critical to understanding emergent physiological processes.
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26
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Cappa F, Petrocelli I, Cini A, Pepiciello I, Giovannini M, Lazzeri A, Perito B, Turillazzi S, Cervo R. Immunity of honeybee guards reflects their transition from house bees to foragers. ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2019.1695228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Federico Cappa
- Biology Department, University of Florence, Via Madonna del Piano 6, Sesto Fiorentino (Florence), 50019, Italy
| | - Iacopo Petrocelli
- Biology Department, University of Florence, Via Madonna del Piano 6, Sesto Fiorentino (Florence), 50019, Italy
| | - Alessandro Cini
- Biology Department, University of Florence, Via Madonna del Piano 6, Sesto Fiorentino (Florence), 50019, Italy
- Centre for Biodiversity and Environment Research, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Irene Pepiciello
- Biology Department, University of Florence, Via Madonna del Piano 6, Sesto Fiorentino (Florence), 50019, Italy
| | - Michele Giovannini
- Biology Department, University of Florence, Via Madonna del Piano 6, Sesto Fiorentino (Florence), 50019, Italy
| | - AnnaMarta Lazzeri
- Biology Department, University of Florence, Via Madonna del Piano 6, Sesto Fiorentino (Florence), 50019, Italy
| | - Brunella Perito
- Biology Department, University of Florence, Via Madonna del Piano 6, Sesto Fiorentino (Florence), 50019, Italy
| | - Stefano Turillazzi
- Biology Department, University of Florence, Via Madonna del Piano 6, Sesto Fiorentino (Florence), 50019, Italy
| | - Rita Cervo
- Biology Department, University of Florence, Via Madonna del Piano 6, Sesto Fiorentino (Florence), 50019, Italy
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Abstract
Oxya chinensis is one of the most widespread grasshopper species found in China and one of the most common pests against rice. In view of the importance of haemocytes in insect immunity in general, and the lack of information on the haemocytes of O. chinensis, we examined the haemocytes of this species in detail. We challenged the cellular response of this grasshopper with the bacteria Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus subtilis Haemocyte morphology was observed using light, scanning electron and transmission electron microscopy, which revealed distinct morphological varieties of haemocytes. Granulocytes and plasmatocytes responded to the bacterial challenge by phagocytosis. Histochemical staining indicated the presence of acid phosphatase in plasmatocytes and granulocytes. We also observed non-phagocytic prohemocytes and vermicytes, but their functions in the circulation are unclear. Insect haemocytes play a crucial role in cellular immunity, and further research is needed for a comprehensive understanding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomin Zhang
- College of Life Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | - Keshi Zhang
- College of Life Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
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28
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Meriggi N, Di Paola M, Vitali F, Rivero D, Cappa F, Turillazzi F, Gori A, Dapporto L, Beani L, Turillazzi S, Cavalieri D. Saccharomyces cerevisiae Induces Immune Enhancing and Shapes Gut Microbiota in Social Wasps. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:2320. [PMID: 31681197 PMCID: PMC6803456 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2019] [Accepted: 09/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Trained immunity is the enhanced response of the innate immune system to a secondary infection after an initial encounter with a microorganism. This non-specific response to reinfection is a primitive form of adaptation that has been shown to be conserved from plants to mammals. Insects lack an acquired immune component and rely solely on an innate one, and they have expanded it upon traits of plasticity and adaptation against pathogens in the form of immune priming. The recent discoveries of the role of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in the insect’s ecology and the ability of this yeast to induce trained immunity in different organisms suggest that insects could have developed mechanisms of adaptation and immune enhancing. Here, we report that two yeast strains of S. cerevisiae, previously shown to induce trained immunity in mammals, enhance resistance to Escherichia coli infection in the paper wasp Polistes dominula. The reduction of injected E. coli load by S. cerevisiae strains was statistically significant in future foundresses but not in workers, and this occurs before and after hibernation. We thus investigated if the effect on E. coli was mirrored by variation in the gut microbiota composition. Foundresses, showing immune enhancing, had statistically significant changes in composition and diversity of gut bacterial communities but not in the fungal communities. Our results demonstrate that S. cerevisiae can prime insect responses against bacterial infections, providing an advantage to future foundress wasps to carry these microorganisms. Understanding the mechanisms involved in the generation of specific and long-lasting immune response against pathogenic infections in insects and the influence of the induction of trained immunity on the commensal gut microbiota could have a major impact on modern immunology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niccolò Meriggi
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Firenze, Italy
| | - Monica Di Paola
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Firenze, Italy
| | - Francesco Vitali
- Istituto di Biologia e Biotecnologia Agraria, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Pisa, Italy
| | - Damariz Rivero
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Firenze, Italy
| | - Federico Cappa
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Firenze, Italy
| | | | - Agnese Gori
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Firenze, Italy
| | - Leonardo Dapporto
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Firenze, Italy
| | - Laura Beani
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Firenze, Italy
| | - Stefano Turillazzi
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Firenze, Italy
| | - Duccio Cavalieri
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Firenze, Italy
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29
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Miyashita A, Lee TYM, McMillan LE, Easy R, Adamo SA. Immunity for nothing and the eggs for free: Apparent lack of both physiological trade-offs and terminal reproductive investment in female crickets (Gryllus texensis). PLoS One 2019; 14:e0209957. [PMID: 31091239 PMCID: PMC6519836 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0209957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Should females alter their reproductive strategy when attacked by pathogens? Two hypotheses provide opposite predictions. Terminal reproductive investment theory predicts that reproduction should increase when the risk of death increases. However, physiological trade-offs between reproduction and immune function might be expected to produce a decrease in reproduction during a robust immune response. There is evidence for both hypotheses. We examine whether age determines the effect of an immune challenge on reproductive strategy in long-winged females of the Texas field cricket, Gryllus texensis, when fed an ecologically valid (i.e. limited) diet. The limited diet reduced reproductive output. However, even under resource-limited conditions, immune challenge had no effect on the reproductive output of young or middle-aged females. Both reproductive output and immune function (lysozyme-like activity and phenoloxidase (PO) activity) increased with age, which is contrary to both hypotheses. We hypothesize that PO activity is pleiotropic and represents an investment in both reproduction and immune function. Three proPO genes (identified in a published RNA-seq dataset (transcriptome)) were expressed either in the fat body or the ovaries (supporting the hypothesis that PO is bifunctional). The possible bifunctionality of PO suggests that it may not be an appropriate immune measure for studies on immune/reproductive trade-offs. This study also suggests that the threshold for terminal reproductive investment may not decrease prior to senescence in some species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Miyashita
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
- * E-mail:
| | - Ting Yat Marco Lee
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Laura E. McMillan
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Russell Easy
- Department of Biology, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Shelley A. Adamo
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
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30
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Walkowiak-Nowicka K, Nowicki G, Kuczer M, Rosiński G. New activity of yamamarin, an insect pentapeptide, on immune system of mealworm, Tenebrio molitor. BULLETIN OF ENTOMOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2018; 108:351-359. [PMID: 28893327 DOI: 10.1017/s0007485317000839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
In insects, two types of the immune responses, cellular and humoral, constitute a defensive barrier against various parasites and pathogens. In response to pathogens, insects produce a wide range of immune agents that act on pathogens directly, such as cecropins or lysozyme, or indirectly by the stimulation of hemocyte migration or by increasing phenoloxidase (PO) activity. Recently, many new immunologically active substances from insects, such as peptides and polypeptides, have been identified. Nevertheless, in the most cases, their physiological functions are not fully known. One such substance is yamamarin - a pentapeptide isolated from the silk moth Antheraea yamamai. This yamamarin possesses strong antiproliferative properties and is probably involved in diapause regulation. Here, we examined the immunotropic activity of yamamarin by testing its impact on selected functions of the immune system in heterologous bioassays with the beetle Tenebrio molitor, commonly known as a stored grains pest. Our results indicate that the pentapeptide affects the activity of immune processes in the beetle. We show that yamamarin induces changes in both humoral and cellular responses. The yamamarin increases the activity of PO, as well as causes changes in the hemocyte cytoskeleton and stimulates phagocytic activity. We detected an increased number of apoptotic hemocytes, however after the yamamarin injection, no significant variations in the antibacterial activity in the hemolymph were observed. The obtained data suggest that yamamarin could be an important controller of the immune system in T. molitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Walkowiak-Nowicka
- Department of Animal Physiology and Development,Faculty of Biology,Adam Mickiewicz University,Umultowska 89,61-614 Poznań,Poland
| | - G Nowicki
- Department of Molecular Virology,Faculty of Biology,Adam Mickiewicz University,Umultowska 89,61-614 Poznań,Poland
| | - M Kuczer
- Faculty of Chemistry,University of Wroclaw,Joliot-Curie 14,50-383 Wrocław,Poland
| | - G Rosiński
- Department of Animal Physiology and Development,Faculty of Biology,Adam Mickiewicz University,Umultowska 89,61-614 Poznań,Poland
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31
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Rasmussen SA, Kongstad KT, Khorsand-Jamal P, Kannangara RM, Nafisi M, Van Dam A, Bennedsen M, Madsen B, Okkels F, Gotfredsen CH, Staerk D, Thrane U, Mortensen UH, Larsen TO, Frandsen RJN. On the biosynthetic origin of carminic acid. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 96:51-61. [PMID: 29551461 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2018.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2017] [Revised: 03/09/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The chemical composition of the scale insect Dactylopius coccus was analyzed with the aim to discover new possible intermediates in the biosynthesis of carminic acid. UPLC-DAD/HRMS analyses of fresh and dried insects resulted in the identification of three novel carminic acid analogues and the verification of several previously described intermediates. Structural elucidation revealed that the three novel compounds were desoxyerythrolaccin-O-glucosyl (DE-O-Glcp), 5,6-didehydroxyerythrolaccin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (DDE-3-O-Glcp), and flavokermesic acid anthrone (FKA). The finding of FKA in D. coccus provides solid evidence of a polyketide, rather than a shikimate, origin of coccid pigments. Based on the newly identified compounds, we present a detailed biosynthetic scheme that accounts for the formation of carminic acid (CA) in D. coccus and all described coccid pigments which share a flavokermesic acid (FK) core. Detection of coccid pigment intermediates in members of the Planococcus (mealybugs) and Pseudaulacaspis genera shows that the ability to form these pigments is taxonomically more widely spread than previously documented. The shared core-FK-biosynthetic pathway and wider taxonomic distribution suggests a common evolutionary origin for the trait in all coccid dye producing insect species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silas A Rasmussen
- Department of Bioengineering and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads, Building 221 and 223, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Kenneth T Kongstad
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Paiman Khorsand-Jamal
- Department of Bioengineering and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads, Building 221 and 223, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark; Chr. Hansen A/S, Boege Alle 10-12, 2970 Hoersholm, Denmark
| | - Rubini Maya Kannangara
- Chr. Hansen A/S, Boege Alle 10-12, 2970 Hoersholm, Denmark; Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Majse Nafisi
- Chr. Hansen A/S, Boege Alle 10-12, 2970 Hoersholm, Denmark; Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Alex Van Dam
- Department of Bioengineering and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads, Building 221 and 223, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Mads Bennedsen
- Chr. Hansen A/S, Boege Alle 10-12, 2970 Hoersholm, Denmark
| | - Bjørn Madsen
- Chr. Hansen A/S, Boege Alle 10-12, 2970 Hoersholm, Denmark
| | - Finn Okkels
- Chr. Hansen A/S, Boege Alle 10-12, 2970 Hoersholm, Denmark
| | - Charlotte H Gotfredsen
- Department of Chemistry, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, Building 207, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Dan Staerk
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ulf Thrane
- Department of Bioengineering and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads, Building 221 and 223, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Uffe H Mortensen
- Department of Bioengineering and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads, Building 221 and 223, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Thomas O Larsen
- Department of Bioengineering and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads, Building 221 and 223, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Rasmus J N Frandsen
- Department of Bioengineering and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads, Building 221 and 223, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
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32
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Molecular characterization and expression analysis of CSαβ defensin genes from the scorpion Mesobuthus martensii. Biosci Rep 2017; 37:BSR20171282. [PMID: 29162666 PMCID: PMC6435467 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20171282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Revised: 11/11/2017] [Accepted: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Defensins are important components of innate host defence system against bacteria, fungi, parasites and viruses. Here, we predicted six potential defensin genes from the genome of the scorpion Mesobuthus martensii and then validated four genes from them via the combination of PCR and genomic sequence analysis. These four scorpion defensin genes share the same gene organization and structure of two exons and one phase-I intron with the GT-AG rule. Conserved motif and phylogenetic analysis showed that they belonged to the members of the invertebrate cysteine-stabilized α-helix/β-sheet motif defensin (CSαβ) defensin family. All these four CSαβ defensin genes have the expression feature of constitutive transcription (CON) by the whole scorpion infection model, promoter sequence analysis and dual luciferase assays. Further evolution and comparison analysis found that the invertebrate CSαβ defensin genes from most of arachnids and mollusks appear to share the expression pattern of CON, but those from insects and lower invertebrates (nematodes, annelids, cnidarians and sponges) seem to have identical inducible transcription (IND) after being challenged by microorganisms. Together, we identified four scorpion CSαβ defensin genes with the expression feature of CON, and characterized the diversified expression patterns of the invertebrate CSαβ defensin genes, which will shed insights into the evolution of the invertebrate CSαβ defensin genes and their expression patterns.
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33
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Monceau K, Dechaume-Moncharmont FX, Moreau J, Lucas C, Capoduro R, Motreuil S, Moret Y. Personality, immune response and reproductive success: an appraisal of the pace-of-life syndrome hypothesis. J Anim Ecol 2017; 86:932-942. [PMID: 28425582 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2016] [Accepted: 04/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The pace-of-life syndrome (POLS) hypothesis is an extended concept of the life-history theory that includes behavioural traits. The studies challenging the POLS hypothesis often focus on the relationships between a single personality trait and a physiological and/or life-history trait. While pathogens represent a major selective pressure, few studies have been interested in testing relationships between behavioural syndrome, and several fitness components including immunity. The aim of this study was to address this question in the mealworm beetle, Tenebrio molitor, a model species in immunity studies. The personality score was estimated from a multidimensional syndrome based of four repeatable behavioural traits. In a first experiment, we investigated its relationship with two measures of fitness (reproduction and survival) and three components of the innate immunity (haemocyte concentration, and levels of activity of the phenoloxidase including the total proenzyme and the naturally activated one) to challenge the POLS hypothesis in T. molitor. Overall, we found a relationship between behavioural syndrome and reproductive success in this species, thus supporting the POLS hypothesis. We also showed a sex-specific relationship between behavioural syndrome and basal immune parameters. In a second experiment, we tested whether this observed relationship with innate immunity could be confirmed in term of differential survival after challenging by entomopathogenic bacteria, Bacillus thuringiensis. In this case, no significant relationship was evidenced. We recommend that future researchers on the POLS should control for differences in evolutionary trajectory between sexes and to pay attention to the choice of the proxy used, especially when looking at immune traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karine Monceau
- UMR CNRS 6282 Biogéosciences, Equipe Ecologie Evolutive, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 6 bd Gabriel, 21000, Dijon, France
| | | | - Jérôme Moreau
- UMR CNRS 6282 Biogéosciences, Equipe Ecologie Evolutive, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 6 bd Gabriel, 21000, Dijon, France
| | - Camille Lucas
- UMR CNRS 6282 Biogéosciences, Equipe Ecologie Evolutive, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 6 bd Gabriel, 21000, Dijon, France
| | - Rémi Capoduro
- UMR CNRS 6282 Biogéosciences, Equipe Ecologie Evolutive, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 6 bd Gabriel, 21000, Dijon, France
| | - Sébastien Motreuil
- UMR CNRS 6282 Biogéosciences, Equipe Ecologie Evolutive, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 6 bd Gabriel, 21000, Dijon, France
| | - Yannick Moret
- UMR CNRS 6282 Biogéosciences, Equipe Ecologie Evolutive, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 6 bd Gabriel, 21000, Dijon, France
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